Contrastive Ling ER Interlang

8/13/2019 Contrastive Ling ER Interlang

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Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION.. 1

2. CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS AND CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS 3

2.1 Hsto!". 3

2.2 Defntons an# Te!$nolo%". &

2.3 D'son of Cont!ast'e St(#es. &

2.& )o!$(latn% Cont!ast'e Anal"ss H"*ot+ess. ,

2., -o#e!atn% Cont!ast'e Anal"ss H"*ot+ess.

3. INTERLANGUAGE THEORY.. 11

3.1 T+e /!t+ of Inte!lan%(a%e. 11

3.2 Seln0e!s Ve of Inte!lan%(a%e. 12

3.3 Ot+e! Ves of Inte!lan%(a%e an# ts P!o*e!tes. 13

3.& T!ansfe! Inte!fe!en4e an# C!oss5ln%(st4 Infl(en4e. 1&

3., Post'e an# Ne%at'e T!ansfe!. 1,

3.6 /o!!on%. 16

3.7 Co#e St4+n%. 17

3. )ossl8aton. 1

&. ERROR ANALYSIS. 29

&.1 Defntons an# Goals. 29

&.2 De'elo*$ent of E!!o! Anal"ss. 21

&.3 T+e I$*o!tan4e of Lea!ne!s E!!o!s. 22

&.& T+e C!t4s$ of E!!o! Anal"ss. 23

&., Ln%(st4 I%no!an4e an# De'an4e. 2&

&.6 Defnn% -sta0e an# E!!o!. 26

&.7 P!o4e#(!es of E!!o! Anal"ss. 2:

&. So(!4es of E!!o!. 31

,. ERROR TA;ONO-IES. 36

,.1 E!!o!s /ase# on Ln%(st4 Cate%o!". 37

,.2 S(!fa4e St!ate%" Ta


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,.3 Co$*a!at'e Ta


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+"*ot+ess t+!o(%+ t+e t+!ee 'e!sons (ntl t as #s*la4e# b" ot+e!

t+eo!es.

2.1 Hsto!"

Cont!ast'e Anal"ss +as been t+e f!st $aFo! t+eo!" #ealn% t+ t+e!elatons+* beteen t+e

lan%(a%es a lea!ne! a4(!es o! $aste!s. Ln%(sts +a'e ala"s been

nte!este# n 4o$*a!n% an#

4ont!astn% #ffe!ent lan%(a%e s"ste$s an# f!st *onee!n% o!0s

a**ea!e# at t+e en# of t+e

nneteent+ 4ent(!" =>a$es 1:1@. T+e te!$ Cont!ast'e St(#" as 4one#

b" +o!f n 1:&1 befo!e

t+at t+s #s4*lne +a# been 4alle# Co$*a!at'e Ln%(st4s o!

Co$*a!at'e St(#es =)sa0

1:1@.

Afte! t+e Se4on# o!l# a! t+e nte!est n tea4+n% fo!e%n lan%(a%es

n4!ease# n t+e USA an# $an"

ln%(sts e!e 4on4e!ne# t+ *e#a%o%4all" o!ente# 4ont!ast'e st(#es

es*e4all" n t!"n% to

*!e#4t lea!nn% #ff4(ltes on t+e bass of 4o$*a!n% t+e nat'e

lan%(a%e t+ t+e fo!e%n

lan%(a%e ben% lea!nt an# also t+ t+e st(#" of bln%(als$ an#

lan%(a%e 4onta4t *+eno$ena. It

as bele'e# t+at *ontn% to t+e s$la!tes of t+e to lan%(a%es

4o$*a!e# ll $a0e t+e *!o4ess

of fo!e%n lan%(a%e lea!nn% ease! fo! t+e lea!ne!. Robe!t La#os

fo!$(laton of t+e Cont!ast'e

Anal"ss H"*ot+ess n +s Ln%(st4s a4!oss C(lt(!es =1:,7@ s

4ons#e!e# t+e %!eatest

4ont!b(ton n t+e fel# of 4ont!ast'e st(#es =)sa0 1:1 >a$es 1:1

an# !8es8os0 1::9@.

2.2 Defntons an# Te!$nolo%"

)sa0 #efnes 4ont!ast'e ln%(st4s as a s(b#s4*lne of ln%(st4s

4on4e!ne# t+ t+e

4o$*a!son of to o! $o!e lan%(a%es o! s(bs"ste$s of lan%(a%es n o!#e!

to #ete!$ne bot+ t+e

#ffe!en4es an# s$la!tes beteen t+e$B =)sa0 et al. 1:7 4te# n

)sa0 1:1? 1@.

As !8es8o's0 e


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a4!oss lan%(a%esB =!8es8os0 1::9? 11@.

2.3 D'son of Cont!ast'e St(#es

)sa0 =1:1? 253@ #'#es 4ont!ast'e st(#es nto t+eo!et4al an#

a**le#? T+eo!et4al4ont!ast'e st(#es %'e an e


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lan%(a%esB =/!on 1:9? 1&@. T+e te!$ nte!fe!en4e +e!e !efe!s to an"

nfl(en4e f!o$ t+e L1

+4+ o(l# +a'e an effe4t on t+e a4(ston of L2B =Poell 1::? 2@. I

ll f(!t+e! #s4(ss t+e

te!$ nte!fe!en4e n 4+a*te! 3.&.

T+e ass($*tons abo(t L1 nte!fe!en4e e!e s(**o!te# b" t+e e'#en4e f!o$s*ea0e!s *e!fo!$an4e n

t+e! se4on# lan%(a%e. As /!on states t s (te 4o$$on fo! e


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Alt+o(%+ t+e *!a4t4al *!o4ess of 4ont!astn% lan%(a%es s not t+e a$ of

t+s *a*e! I a$ %on% to

%'e a b!ef o(tlne of t+e *!o4e#(!e (se# as Ells =1::&? 397@ $entons

t. T+e *!o4e#(!e

n'ol'e# fo(! sta%es?

1. #es4!*ton =.e. t+e to lan%(a%es e!e fo!$all" #es4!be#@

2. sele4ton =.e. 4e!tan te$s o! a!eas e!e sele4te# fo!

4o$*a!son@

3. 4o$*a!son =.e. fn#n% s$la! an# #ffe!ent te$s@

&. *!e#4ton =.e. n +4+ a!eas t+e e!!o!s ll $ost *!obabl"

o44(!@

a!#+a(%+ bele'e# t+at t+e st!on% 'e!son as (n!ealst4 an#

$*!a4t4ableB sn4e at t+e 'e!"

least t+s 'e!son #e$an#s of ln%(sts t+at t+e" +a'e a'alable a set

of ln%(st4 (n'e!sals

fo!$(late# t+n a 4o$*!e+ens'e ln%(st4 t+eo!" +4+ #eals

a#e(atel" t+ s"nta


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/!on =1:9? 1,:@ 4on4l(#es t+at nte!fe!en4e s $o!e l0el" to o44(!

+en t+e!e s s$la!t"

beteen t+e te$s to be lea!ne# an# al!ea#" 0non te$s t+an n t+e 4ase

of lea!nn% te$s +4+

a!e ent!el" ne to t+e lea!ne!. He also *onts to t+e fa4t t+at $ost of

t+e e!!o!s 4o$$tte# b" L2

lea!ne!s a!e nt!aln%(al e!!o!s .e. e!!o!s +4+ !es(lt f!o$ L2tself an# not f!o$ L1.

+t$an an# >a40son 4a!!e# o(t a st(#" n +4+ *!e#4tons $a#e n fo(!

se*a!ate 4ont!ast'e

anal"ses b" #ffe!ent ln%(sts e!e (se# to #es%n a test of En%ls+

%!a$$a! +4+ as %'en to

2,99 >a*anese lea!ne!s of En%ls+ as L2. Afte! 4o$*a!n% t+e !es(lts of

t+e test to t+e

*!e#4tons base# on t+e fo(! 4ont!ast'e anal"ses +t$an an# >a40son

fo(n# o(t t+at t+e"

#ffe!e# a lot. T+e" 4a$e to t+e 4on4l(son t+at 4ont!ast'e anal"ss

as !e*!esente# b" t+e fo(!

anal"ses teste# n t+s *!oFe4t s na#e(ate t+eo!et4all" an#

*!a4t4all" to *!e#4t t+e

nte!fe!en4e *!oble$s of a lan%(a%e lea!ne!B =+t$an an# >a40son 1:72

4te# n /!on 1:9? 1,@.

/es#es t+e *!oble$ of na**!o*!ate *!e#4tons Toel an# Ha0ns

=1::&? 151:@ state to ot+e!

*!oble$s. One of t+e$ s t+at not all a!eas of s$la!t" beteen an L1

an# an L2 lea# to

$$e#ate *ost'e t!ansfe!B =1::&? 1:@. Toel an# Ha0ns s(**o!t t+s

a!%($ent b" t+e fn#n%s of

O#lns st(#" n +4+ L1 S*ans+ lea!ne!s of L2 En%ls+ o$tte# t+e

4o*(la be at t+e ea!l"

sta%es of lea!nn% !e%a!#less t+e fa4t t+at S*ans+ also +as a 4o*(la

'e!b a#e(ate to En%ls+ be

an# t+(s t+e *ost'e t!ansfe! as *ossble. Hoe'e! t ##nt +a**en.

T+e ot+e! *!oble$ t+e"

a!%(e s t+at onl" a s$all n($be! of e!!o!s 4o$$tte# b" L2 lea!ne!s

4o(l# be (na$b%(o(sl"

att!b(te# to t!ansfe! f!o$ L1.

T+(s t+e st!on% 'e!son of t+e CAH +as been *!o'e# na#e(ate e


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a**l4able n *!a4t4e onl" as a *a!t of E!!o! Anal"ss +4+ ll be

#s4(sse# late!.

3. INTERLANGUAGE THEORY

T+s 4+a*te! s #e#4ate# to Inte!lan%(a%e t+eo!" o!+"*ot+ess +4+ a!ose as a

!ea4ton to t+e CAH. I ll ea$es =1::? 3@

s(%%ests a s"ste$ +4+ +ol#s a +alf5a" *oston beteen 0non% an#

not 0non% t+e TL.

3.2 Seln0e!s Ve of Inte!lan%(a%e

In Seln0e!s 'e nte!lan%(a%e s a se*a!ate ln%(st4 s"ste$

!es(ltn% f!o$ lea!ne!s

atte$*te# *!o#(4ton of t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e no!$B =-4La(%+ln 1:7? 695

61@. -4La(%+ln =1:7? 61@

also %'es Seln0e!s belef t+at nte!lan%(a%e as t+e *!o#(4t of f'e4ent!al 4o%nt'e


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*!o4esses n'ol'e# n se4on#5lan%(a%e lea!nn%B? =1@ lan%(a%e t!ansfe!

.e. t!ansfe! f!o$ t+e L1

=2@ t!ansfe! of t!ann% .e. so$e feat(!es t!ansfe!!e# f!o$ t+e

t!ann% *!o4ess =3@ st!ate%es

of se4on#5lan%(a%e lea!nn% .e. an a**!oa4+ to t+e $ate!al ta(%+t =&@

st!ate%es of

se4on#5lan%(a%e 4o$$(n4aton .e. t+ose a"s lea!ne!s (se to4o$$(n4ate t+ L2 s*ea0e!s an#

=,@ o'e!%ene!al8aton of t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e ln%(st4 $ate!al.

Seln0e! also bele'e# t+at t+e #e'elo*$ent of nte!lan%(a%e as

#ffe!ent f!o$ t+e f!st5lan%(a%e

#e'elo*$ent be4a(se of t+e l0e+oo# of fossl8aton n t+e se4on#

lan%(a%eB =-4La(%ln 1:7? 61@.

)ossl8aton 4an be bas4all" #efne# as t+e state +en a lea!ne!s

nte!lan%(a%e #oes not #e'elo*

an"$o!e no $atte! +o lon% t+e lea!ne! s e


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s"ste$ to t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e =/!on 1:9? 163@.

Co!#e! #efnes nte!lan%(a%e as a s"ste$ t+at +as a st!(4t(!all"

nte!$e#ate stat(s beteen t+e

nat'e an# ta!%et lan%(a%eB. In +s o*non e'e!" L2 lea!ne! 4!eates an

nte!lan%(a%e +4+ s

(n(e to t+s n#'#(al an# +e 4alle# t+s *+eno$enon #os"n4!at4#ale4t =/!on 1:9? 163@.

He st!esse# t+e $*o!tan4e of e!!o!s as a so(!4e of nfo!$aton an#

a!%(e# t+at t+e a**ea!an4e of

e!!o! n a lea!ne!s *!o#(4ton as e'#en4e t+at t+e lea!ne! as

o!%an8n% t+e 0nole#%e

a'alable to t+e$ at a *a!t4(la! *ont n t$eB =Poell 1::? &@.

All t+ese nte!*!etatons st!ess #ffe!ent as*e4ts of nte!lan%(a%e.

Hoe'e! all of t+e$ s+a!e t+e

bas4 #ea t+at nte!lan%(a%e s an n#e*en#ent lan%(a%e s"ste$ l"n%

so$e+e!e beteen -T an# TL.

As >a$es *(t t t o44(*es a +alfa" *oston J beteen 0non% an#

not 0non% t+e TL =1::?

3@.

3.& T!ansfe! Inte!fe!en4e an# C!oss5ln%(st4 Infl(en4e

I +a'e al!ea#" $entone# t+e te!$s t!ansfe! an# nte!fe!en4e n

4+a*te! 2.& sn4e t+e" +a'e

t+e! !oots n t+e be+a'o(!st t+eo!es of L2 lea!nn% an# a!e 4losel"

!elate# to CAH. No e 0no

t+at be+a'o(!s$ #oes not %'e a satsfa4to!" e


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t!ansfe!? T!ansfe! s t+e nfl(en4e !es(ltn% f!o$ t+e s$la!tes an#

#ffe!en4es beteen t+e

ta!%et lan%(a%e an# an" ot+e! lan%(a%e t+at +as been *!e'o(sl" =an#

*e!+a*s $*e!fe4tl"@ a4(!e#B

=O#ln 1::? 27 n Ells 1::&? 391@.

A44o!#n% to D(la" /(!t an# !as+en nte!fe!en4e 4an be (n#e!stoo# f!o$to #ffe!ent

*e!s*e4t'es. )!o$ t+e *s"4+olo%4al o! be+a'o(!st *e!s*e4t'e t s

t+e nfl(en4e f!o$ ol#

+abts on t+e nel" lea!ne# ones. )!o$ t+e so4oln%(st4 *ont of 'e

t+e" see t!ansfe! as t+e

lan%(a%e nte!a4tons J t+at o44(! +en to lan%(a%e 4o$$(ntes a!e n

4onta4tB =D(la" et al.

1:2? :5::@. In t+s *ont of 'e e a!e tal0n% abo(t t+e ss(es of

bo!!on% 4o#e st4+n%

an# fosslsaton.

3., Post'e an# Ne%at'e T!ansfe!

+en tal0n% abo(t lan%(a%e t!ansfe! n t+e be+a'o(!st nte!*!etaton

of t+e te!$ e (s(all"

#ffe!entate beteen to t"*es of t!ansfe!? *ost'e t!ansfe! an#

ne%at'e t!ansfe!.

Post'e t!ansfe! o44(!s +e!e a lan%(a%e te$ n L1 s also *!esent n

L2 so a4(ston of t+s

te$ $a0es lttle o! no #ff4(lt" fo! t+e lea!ne!. An e


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-ost 4o$$onl" bo!!oe# te$s a!e D(la" et al. =1:2? 113@

e


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e!e %on% to %o to t+e football %a$e an# t+en ...

Co$e!on t(!0e" *a C+!st$as

D# "o( eat t(!0e" fo! C+!st$as

=b@ He s #on% t+e best +e 4an *a no (e#a!se at!s *e!o lo 'an

a f!e%a!.

He s #on% t+e best +e 4an n o!#e! not to be 0e*t ba40 b(t

t+e"!e %on% to $ess +$

(*.

3. )ossl8aton

)ossl8aton s #efne# n /!on =1:9? 11@ as !elat'el"

*e!$anent n4o!*o!aton of

n4o!!e4t ln%(st4 fo!$s nto a *e!sonQs se4on# lan%(a%e 4o$*eten4eB.

T+at $eans t+at t+e L2

lea!ne! 4ontn(es 4o$$ttn% 4e!tan e!!o!s no $atte! +o $(4+ n*(t +e

o! s+e !e4e'es an# +s

o! +e! nte!lan%(a%e #oesnt #e'elo* an"$o!e 5 t +as fossl8e#.

Seln0e! n +s *a*e! ttle# Inte!lan%(a%e =*(bls+e# n

R4+a!#s 1:7&? 36@ a!%(es t+at

fossl8aton s a !at+e! a *s"4+olo%4al *+eno$enon sn4e

$an" of t+ese fossl8e#M *+eno$ena !ea**ea! n IL *e!fo!$an4e +en t+e

lea!ne!Qs attenton s

fo4(se# (*on ne an# #ff4(lt ntelle4t(al s(bFe4t $atte! o! +en +e s

n a state of an


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fo4(s ll be on 'a!o(s ln%(sts nte!*!etatons of t+e e!!o!5$sta0e

#ffe!en4e *!o4e#(!es of

t+e EA tself an# fnall" t+e *ossble so(!4es of e!!o!s.

&.1 Defntons an# Goals

E!!o! Anal"ss s a t+eo!" !e*la4n% t+e Cont!ast'e

Anal"ss +4+ as aban#one# b"

ln%(sts an# tea4+e!s #(e to ts neffe4t't" an# (n!elablt". EA

also belon%s to a**le#

ln%(st4s b(t t +as no nte!est n ea$es #efnes

E!!o! Anal"ss as t+e *!o4ess of #ete!$nn% t+e n4#en4e nat(!e

4a(ses an# 4onse(en4es of

(ns(44essf(l lan%(a%eB =>a$es 1::? 1@. Late! +e %oes on e


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&.2 De'elo*$ent of E!!o! Anal"ss

Ea!l" o!0s n EA #ealn% t+ L2 #ata e!e ta


16/30

>a$es =1::? 12@ %'es Co!#e!Qs f'e 4!(4al *onts

o!%nall" *(bls+e# n Co!#e!s

se$na! *a*e! ttle# T+e s%nf4an4e of lea!ne!s e!!o!s?

1. L1 a4(ston an# L2 lea!nn% a!e *a!allel *!o4esses t+e" a!e

!(le# b" t+e sa$e $e4+ans$s

*!o4e#(!es an# st!ate%es. Lea!nn% a L2 s *!obabl" fa4ltate# b" t+e0nole#%e of t+e L1.

2. E!!o!s !efle4t t+e lea!ne!s nb(lt s"llab(s o! +at t+e" +a'e

ta0en n b(t not +at t+e

tea4+e!s +a'e *(t nto t+e$. So t+e!e s a #ffe!en4e beteen n*(t an#

nta0e.

3. E!!o!s s+o t+at bot+ lea!ne!s of L1 an# L2 #e'elo* an n#e*en#ent

lan%(a%e s"ste$ 5 a

t!anstonal 4o$*eten4e.

&. T+e te!$s e!!o! an# $sta0e s+o(l#nQt be (se# nte!4+an%eabl".

,. E!!o!s a!e $*o!tant be4a(se t+e" =a@ tell t+e tea4+e! +at +e o!

s+e s+o(l# tea4+ =b@ a!e a

so(!4e of nfo!$aton fo! t+e !esea!4+e! abo(t +o t+e lea!nn% *!o4ee#s

an# =4@ allo t+e

lea!ne!s to test t+e! L2 +"*ot+eses.

&.& T+e C!t4s$ of E!!o! Anal"ss

>a$es *a!a*+!ases Co!#e!Qs a!%($ent t+at t s not #ee$e#

le%t$ate ... to 4o$*a!e

t+e 4+l#s o! t+e )L lea!ne!Qs ID #os"n4!at4 #ale4tM to t+e #ale4t

of a#(lts o! of nat'e

s*ea0e!s !es*e4t'el"B =>a$es 1::? 16@. T+e !eason s t+at t+e 4+l#

o! t+e )L lea!ne! a!e

net+e! #elbe!atel" no! *at+olo%4all" #e'ant n t+e! lan%(a%e so t

o(l# be !on% to !efe! to

t+e! !e*e!to!es as e!!oneo(sB >a$es =1::? 16@.

/ell also 4!t48es EA b" 4alln% t a !e4ent

*se(#o*!o4e#(!e n a**le# ln%(st4sB

=/ell 1:7&? 3, 4te# n >a$es 1::? 17@. In +s o*non t+e EA #ata a!e

of onl" *oo! statst4al

nfe!en4e e!!o!s a!e (s(all" nte!*!ete# s(bFe4t'el" an# t la40s

*!e#4at'e *oe! =>a$es 1::?

17@.

S4+a4+te! 4!t48es t+at EA #oes not ta0e nto 4ons#e!aton

t+e st!ate%" of

a'o#an4e .e. t+at lea!ne!s ten# to a'o# 4e!tan lan%(a%e te$s +4+

t+e" a!e not s(!e abo(t

an# so t+e" #ont $a0e e!!o!s n t+e a!eas +e!e t+e" o(l# be ea$es 1::?

1@.

-o!e 4!t4s$ 4o$es f!o$ D(la" et al. =1:2? 1&151&3@ +o

*ont to t+e fa4t t+at EA

4onf(ses e


17/30

Hoe'e! #es*te all t+e 4!t4s$ EA !e$ans t+e $ost #e5

s*!ea# *!a4t4e be4a(se t

+as *!o'en to be t+e $ost effe4t'e a**!oa4+ to L2 lea!ne!s e!!o!s.

&., Ln%(st4 I%no!an4e an# De'an4e

I +a'e al!ea#" nt!o#(4e# >a$ess 'e of EA as a st(#" of

ln%(st4 %no!an4e. In +s

o*non t+e!e a!e to a"s n +4+ t+e %no!an4e s (s(all" $anfeste#?

slen4e an# s(bstt(t'e

lan%(a%e. Slen4e $eans t+at t+e lea!ne! $a0es no !es*onse an# e 4an

#stn%(s+ beteen 4(lt(!al

slen4e !efe!!n% to t+e fa4t t+at so$e 4(lt(!es a!e f!o$ t+e nat(!e

$o!e slent t+an ot+e!s an#

slen4e as a 4onse(en4e of %no!an4e +4+ s labele# a'o#an4e.

Hoe'e! t+e fo4(s of EA s t+e

ot+e! 4ate%o!" 5 s(bstt(t'e lan%(a%e +4+ s n fa4t a lea!ne!s

nte!lan%(a%e =>a$es 1::?

62563@.

Anot+e! ss(e !elate# to EA s In4o$*leteness +4+ >a$es

#efnes as t+e fal(!e to

attan f(ll NS5l0e 0nole#%e of t+e TLB o! s$la!l" an o'e!all

ns(ff4en4" =4o$*a!e# t+ NS

4o$*eten4e@ a4!oss all a!eas of t+e TLB =1::? 63@. It s #ffe!ent f!o$

%no!an4e n t+at sense

t+at a lea!ne! 4an be %no!ant of a *a!t4(la! st!(4t(!e !!es*e4t'e of

+s o! +e! *!of4en4" n

t+e TL.

T+e!e a!e fo(! 4ate%o!es of lea!ne!sQ %no!an4e of TL? =1@

%!a$$at4alt" =2@

a44e*tablt" =3@ 4o!!e4tness an# =&@ st!an%eness an# nfel4t" =>a$es

1::? 6&56,@.

=1@ +en an (tte!an4e s %!a$$at4al t $eans t+at t s

ell5fo!$e# n te!$s of a

*a!t4(la! %!a$$a!. So a *e4e of lan%(a%e s (n%!a$$at4al f t+e!e a!e

no 4!4($stan4es (n#e!

+4+ t 4o(l# be (se# n t+s a". e F(#%e %!a$$at4alt" of a senten4e

o(t of 4ontea$es

1::? 6@ #'#e# e!!o!s nto 4o'e!t an# o'e!t e!!o!s. A 4o'e!tl"

e!!oneo(s (tte!an4e s

s(*e!f4all" ell5fo!$e# an# 4an be !e'eale# onl" +en !efe!!n% to t+e

4onte


18/30

%!a$$at4al b(t (na44e*table. On t+e ot+e! +an# an o'e!tl" e!!oneo(s

(tte!an4e s (n%!a$$at4al

so t 4annot be (se# n an" 4ontea$es

1::? 76@. A(stn

#ffe!entates beteen fo(! 0n#s of nfel4t"? =a@ a %a* a**ea!s f t+e

L2 s*ea0e! la40s t+e

ln%(st4 $eans fo! *e!fo!$n% t+e #es!e# s*ee4+ a4tB =>a$es 1::? 76@

=b@ e +a'e a

$sa**l4aton +en a s*ee4+ a4t s *e!fo!$e# 4o!!e4tl" b(t t+e s*ea0e!

t+e a##!essee o! t+e

4!4($stan4es a!e na**!o*!ate fo! t+s s*ee4+ a4t =4@ a fla a**ea!s

+en t+e ln%(st4

e


19/30

Co!#e! =1:67 1:71 n >a$es 1::? 7@ asso4ates t+e e!!o! 's. $sta0e

#stn4ton to t+e ss(e of

4o$*eten4e 's. *e!fo!$an4e. In t+s a" e!!o!s a!e seen as fal(!es of

4o$*eten4e an# $sta0es as

fal(!es of *e!fo!$an4e. Co!#e! a!%(es t+at $sta0es a!e of no

s%nf4an4e to t+e *!o4ess oflan%(a%e lea!nn% sn4e t+e" #o not !efle4t a #efe4t n o(! 0nole#%eB

an# t+e" 4an o44(! n L1 as

ell as L2B =Co!#e! 1:67? 1665167 4te# n >a$es 1::? 757:@. On t+e

ot+e! +an# e!!o!s a!e of

s%nf4an4e t+e" #o !efle4t 0nole#%e t+e" a!e not self54o!!e4table

an# onl" lea!ne!s of an L2

$a0e t+e$B =>a$es 1::? 7:@.

E#%e =1:: n >a$es 1::? 951@ (ses t+e te!$ $sta0e as a

4o'e! te!$ fo! all t+e

!on% nstan4es +4+ fo!e%n lan%(a%e lea!ne!s *!o#(4e an# +e #'#es

$sta0es nto t+!ee

4ate%o!es?

Sl*s o44(! a44o!#n% to E#%e as a 4onse(en4e of *!o4essn%

*!oble$s o! 4a!elessness. T+e

lea!ne! s (s(all" able to self54o!!e4t f +e o! s+e +as a 4+an4e to #o

so.

E!!o!s !efe! n E#%eQs o*non to !on% fo!$s t+at t+e *(*l

4o(l# not 4o!!e4t e'en f

t+e! !on%ness e!e to be *onte# o(tB b(t t s stll e'#ent +at t+e

lea!ne! ante# to sa"

=>a$es 1::? 9@.

Atte$*ts E#%es last 4ate%o!" a!e al$ost n4o$*!e+ensble an#

t+e lea!ne! ob'o(sl" +as no

#ea +o to (se t+e !%+t fo!$B =>a$es 1::? 1@. In t+s st(aton

lea!ne!s (s(all" e$*lo" t+e!

4o$*ensato!" 4o$$(n4aton st!ate%es.

T+e ne


20/30

Ha$$e!l"s se4on# 4ate%o!" fa(lts a**ea! +en t+e lea!ne!s

atte$*t to ea$es 1::? 2@.

T+e $ost !e4ent 4lassf4aton of #e'an4es s t+at of >a$es

=1::? 35&@?

Sl*s !efe! to la*ses of t+e ton%(e o! *en an# t+e a(t+o! s able to

s*ot an# 4o!!e4t t+e$.

T+e #s4*lne +4+ s en%a%e# n st(#"n% t+e$ s 4alle# la*solo%".

-sta0es 4an be 4o!!e4te# b" t+e! a(t+o! onl" f t+e! #e'an4e s

*onte# o(t to +$ o!

+e!B =>a$es 1::? 3@. >a$es f(!t+e! #'#es t+e$ nto f!st5o!#e!

$sta0es +en s$*le n#4aton

of t+e #e'an4e s eno(%+ to enable self54o!!e4ton an# se4on#5o!#e!

$sta0es +en $o!e

nfo!$aton abo(t t+e nat(!e of t+e #e'an4e s nee#e# to enable self5

4o!!e4ton.

E!!o!s o44(! +en t+e lea!ne! s (nable to self54o!!e4t (ntl

f(!t+e! !ele'ant n*(t s

*!o'#e# .e. so$e $o!e lea!nn% +as to ta0e *la4e.

Sole4s$s a!e #efne# b" >a$es as b!ea4+es of t+e !(les of

4o!!e4tness as la# #on b"

*(!sts an# (s(all" ta(%+t n s4+oolsB =1::? 3@. A %oo# e


21/30

nstan4e to s*ot so$eone elseQs e!!o! t+an oneQs on o! to fn# t+e

e!!o! n !tten lan%(a%e

t+an n s*o0en =>a$es 1::? :15199@.

T+e follon% sta%e s 4alle# e!!o! lo4aton an# t s +en

t+e nfo!$ant lo4ates t+e

e!!o!. >a$es a!%(es t+at so$e e!!o!s a!e #ff4(lt to lo4ate be4a(se t+e"4an be #ff(se#

t+!o(%+o(t t+e senten4e o! t+e +ole tea$es 1::?

:3@.

T+e t+!# sta%e s e!!o! #es4!*ton. It s ob'o(s t+at a

lea!ne!s lan%(a%e +as to be

#es4!be# n te!$s of so$e lan%(a%e s"ste$. T+e Inte!lan%(a%e +"*ot+ess

o(l# s(%%est t+at t+e

lea!ne! lan%(a%e s a lan%(a%e n ts on !%+t an# s+o(l# t+e!efo!e be

#es4!be# s( %ene!s

!at+e! t+en n te!$s of t+e ta!%etB =>a$es 1::? :&@. If e ta0e Co!#e!s

#ea of #os"n4!at4

#ale4t +4+ s t+e lea!ne!Qs 'e!son of t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e e 4an

4o$*a!e t to t+e nat'e

s*ea0e!Qs 4o#e sn4e bot+ t+e 4o#es a!e 4ons#e!e# #ale4ts of t+e sa$e

lan%(a%e an# t+e!efo!e

s+o(l# be #es4!bable n te!$s of t+e sa$e %!a$$a!B =>a$es 1::? :&@.

Anot+e! !eason +" a

lea!ne!Qs lan%(a%e s+o(l# be #es4!be# n te!$s of t+e TL s be4a(se EA

s b" ts nat(!e

TL5o!ente# =>a$es 1::? :,@.

>a$es =1::? :,5:6@ also a!%(es t+at t+e %!a$$a! (se# fo! t+e

#es4!*ton $(st be

4o$*!e+ens'e s$*le self5ea$es 1::?

:7@. e 4an 4ate%o!8e e!!o!s nto #4tona!es o! ta


22/30

G!a$$at4al E!!o!s +4+ n4l(#es not onl" %!a$$at4al e!!o!s b(t

lea$es =1::? 17517:@ s$la!l" 4lassfes e!!o!s a44o!#n%

to t+e! so(!4e nto fo(!

#a%noss5base# 4ate%o!es t+ t+e #ffe!en4e t+at +e te!$s 4ate%o!" =3@

n#(4e# e!!o!s.

=1@ Inte!ln%(al t!ansfe! .e. $ot+e!5ton%(e nfl(en4e

4a(ses nte!ln%(al e!!o!s.

T+e" a!e 'e!" f!e(ent at t+e ntal sta%es of L2 lea!nn% sn4e t+e L1

s t+e onl" lan%(a%e

s"ste$ t+e lea!ne! 0nos an# 4an #!a on an# t+e!efo!e ne%at'e t!ansfe!

ta0es *la4e =/!on 1:9?

173@. /!on also a!%(es t+at +en one s lea!nn% L3 L& et4. t!ansfe!

ta0es *la4e f!o$ all t+e

*!e'o(sl" lea!nt lan%(a%es b(t t+e #e%!ee of t!ansfe! s 'a!able =1:9?

173@.

=2@ Int!aln%(al ne%at'e t!ansfe! o! nte!fe!en4e s t+e

so(!4e of nt!aln%(al e!!o!s

=/!on 1:9? 173517&@. /!on %'es onl" o'e!%ene!al8aton as a

!e*!esentaton of ne%at'e

nte!ln%(al t!ansfe! b(t >a$es =1:9? 1,517@ %oes nto $o!e #etals.

He !efe!s to nt!aln%(al

e!!o!s as lea!nn%5st!ate%" base# e!!o!s an# lsts 7 t"*es of t+e$?

)alse analo%" a!ses +en t+e lea!ne! n4o!!e4tl"

t+n0s t+at a ne te$

be+a'es l0e anot+e! te$ al!ea#" 0non to +$ o! +e!. )o! e


23/30

#o%s s *l(!al f!o$ #o% so +e o! s+e t+n0s t+at Ws+ee*s s *l(!al f!o$

s+ee*.

-sanal"ss $eans t+at t+e lea!ne! +as fo!$e# an

(nfo(n#e# +"*ot+ess n t+e

L2 an# s *(ttn% t n *!a4t4e. >a$es =1:9? 1,@ %'es as an ea$es a!%(es =1::? 16@

!es(lts f!o$ t+e lea!ne!s

o'e!5$onto!n% t+e! L2 o(t*(tB.

O'e!%ene!al8aton $eans t+at t+e lea!ne! (ses one

$e$be! of a set of fo!$s

also n st(atons +en t+e ot+e! $e$be!s $(st be (se#. T+s (s(all"

lea#s to o'e!(se of one fo!$

an# (n#e!(se of t+e ot+e!s. ell 0non 4an##ates fo! o'e!%ene!al8aton

a!e *a!s as

ot+e!anot+e! $(4+$an" so$ean" et4. =>a$es 1::? 17@ 5 t+e lea!ne!

(ses one of t+e$ nstea# of

#stn%(s+n% beteen t+e$ an# (sn% ea4+ n t+e a**!o*!ate st(aton.

O'e!%ene!al8aton of

lan%(a%e !(les s also 4o$$on e.%. WDoes s+e 4an #an4e !efle4ts t+at

t+e lea!ne! o'e!%ene!al8es

t+e (se of a(


24/30

*!o*e!l" 4ontea$es =1::? 1:15299@ #'#es n#(4e# e!!o!s

nto t+e follon%

s(b4ate%o!es?

$ate!als5n#(4e# e!!o!s

tea4+e!5tal0 n#(4e# e!!o!s

e


25/30

Lan%(a%e st4+ s a**le# b" t+e lea!ne! +en all

t+e ot+e! st!ate%es +a'e

fale# to +el* +$ o! +e!. So t+e lea!ne! (ses +s o! +e! nat'e lan%(a%e

to %et t+e $essa%e

a4!oss !e%a!#less of t+e fa4t t+at t+e +ea!e! $a" not 0no t+e nat'e

lan%(a%e =/!on 1:9? 11@

,. ERROR TA;ONO-IES

Alt+o(%+ e!!o! ta


26/30

D(la" et al. =1:2? 1&751,&@ %'e as e


27/30

=D(la" et al. 1:2? 1,@. T+e!e a!e t+!ee t"*es as ell? =a@ In

!e%(la!8atons an !!e%(la! $a!0e!

s !e*la4e# b" a !e%(la! one as n Ws+ee*s fo! s+ee*. =b@ A!4+5fo!$s

!efe! to t+e (se of one

$e$be! of a 4lass of fo!$s nstea# of (sn% all t+e $e$be!s e.%. (sn%

t+s n t+e st(atons +en

et+e! t+s o! t+ese s+o(l# be (se#. =4@ Alte!natn% fo!$s a!e!e*!esente# b" f!ee alte!naton of

'a!o(s $e$be!s of a 4lass t+ ea4+ ot+e!B as n Wt+ose #o% an# t+s

4at (se# b" t+e sa$e lea!ne!

=D(la" et al. =1:2? 1,7@.

T+e follon% e


28/30

to a se$ant4all" e('alent *+!ase o! senten4e n t+e lea!ne!s nat'e

lan%(a%eB e.%. Wt+e $an

s0nn" sa# b" a S*ans+ s*ea0e! of En%ls+ !efle4ts t+e o!# o!#e! of

t+e S*ans+ e('alent

*+!ase el +o$b!e fla4o.

In $" on !esea!4+ I +a'e 4o$e a4!oss t+ese #e'ant senten4es 4ontann%nte!ln%(al e!!o!s?

WA$b(lan4e s t+e *la4e +e!e "o( %o +en "o( a!e s40. =C@ false

f!en#s t+ a$b(lan4e

I $(st Wtell +$ fo! t+at. =C@ !efle4ts X4 o nZ4o nten#e# as0 fo!

I W+a'e b!t+#a". =C@ nstea# of It s $" b!t+#a" !efle4ts $$

na!o8enn"

Yeste!#a" e #s4(sse# Wabo(t t+ese t+n%s. =L(40a C@ !efle4ts

#s0(to'at o

Yo( s+o(l# b(" a t40et be4a(se t+e" W4ont!ol t+e$ 'e!" often. =C@ false

f!en#s t+ 0ont!olo'at

I W%a'e t+s e


29/30

$ssn% !on% o! $s*la4e# senten4e 4onne4to!s

$ssn% 4(es to s%nal obl%ato!" e


30/30

555 =1::@ E!!o!s n Lan%(a%e Lea!nn% an# Use. Lon#on? Lon%$an.

!8es8os0 To$as8 P. =1::9@ Cont!astn% Lan%(a%es? t+e S4o*e of

Cont!ast'e Ln%(st4s. /e!ln?

-o(ton #e G!("te!.

-4La(%+ln /a!!" =1:7@ T+eo!es of Se4on# Lan%(a%e Lea!nn%. Lon#on?

E#a!# A!nol# P(bls+e!s

Lt#.

Poell Ge!ant =1::@ +at s t+e Role of T!ansfe! n Inte!lan%(a%e.

De*a!t$ent of Ln%(st4s

an# -o#e!n En%ls+ Lan%(a%e Lan4aste! Un'e!st". 26 De4. 2997.

+tt*?.ln%.lan4s.a4.(0%!o(*s4!leo!0n%*a*e!s.+t$g

R4+a!#s >a40 =1:7&@ E!!o! Anal"ss. Ha!lo? Lon%$an.

Se#l+ofe! /a!ba!a =299,@ En%ls+ as a Ln%(a )!an4a. In? ELT >o(!nal

,:& =on5lne@. 6 >(n.

299. +tt*?eltF.o

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