Criminologyอาชญาวทยา ทณฑวทยา

Class 1-2

เรองท ๑ วาดวยอาชญาขนสงชนเรยนท ๑

• บรรยายนำา• อธบาย วธวจยเพอแสวงหาความรใหมเกยวกบ

อาชญากรรมCriminal Science Research Methodology

วาดวยอาชญาศาสตร ชนเรยนท ๒

• การตรวจสอบองคความร ของศาสตร (Review the state of knowledge)– ประวต และววฒนาการ ครสตศตวรรษ ๑๘ เปนตนมา

Global Economic Crime Survey2014

https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/economic-crime-survey/

Price Waterhouse & Cooper

ตวอยางการวจยเรองอาชญากรรม

ความคาดหวงของประชาชนทมตอการยตธรรมทางอาญา

ตวอยางของการวจยGlobal Economic Crime Survey

2007 Thailand Report

PricewaterhouseCoopers

ชนเรยนท ๓• ชนเรยนท ๓ ทฤษฎอาญา Criminal theories

ชนเรยนท ๔• ชนเรยนท ๔ ทฤษฎโทษ Punishment theories

ชนเรยนท ๕• การเรมตนกระบวนการบงคบใชกฎหมายอาญา

ชนเรยนท ๖• วทยาศาสตรสมยใหม และ อาชญาวทยา

ชนเรยนท ๗• ปญหาปจจบน ๑ (selected topics #1)

ชนเรยนท ๘• ปญหาปจจบน ๒ (selected topics #2)

Intro 1 ทบทวน ตนกำเนด และวตถประสงคของทฤษฎอญ

อาชญาวทยา ทณฑวทยา • ทฤษฎอญ = ทฤษฎทวดวยอำนจในกร

ลงอญ• อาชญาวทยา = การแสวงหาความรทเกยวกบตวบคคล

และพฤตกรรมของบคคลทเปนอาชญากรรม– Criminology, the scientific study of criminals and criminal behavior. Criminologists

attempt to build theories that explain why crimes occur and test those theories by observing behavior.

• ทณฑวทยา = ทฤษฏทงหลายทสงคมคนคดขนเพอตอบโตการกระทำาความผดอาญาอนรวมถงการปองกนไมใหความผดเกด และการกำาหนดผลตอบแทนการกระทำานน ๆ

– Criminological theories that shape society's response to crime both in terms of preventing criminal behavior and responding to it after it occurs. กฎหมายนาจะถอไดวาอยในสวนน

Intro 2

อาชญา + ศาสตร หรอศาสตรทวาดวยการกระทำาทสงคมตองการหาม

• วชาทบรณาการ ความร และศาสตรตอไปน เขาดวยกน– ปรชญาของกฎหมายอาญา และวธพจารณา– ความรในทางอาชญาวทยาและ ทนฑวทยาแบบดงเดม– ความรในทางวทยาศาสตร และ เทคโนโลยทนำามา

ประยกตใชกบกระบวนการยตธรรมทางอาญา

Intro 3 ตนกำาเนดของอาชญาศาสตร คอความรทางอาชญาวทยายคใหม ตอมาจดเปนทฤษฏ

ของตนเอง • อาชญาวทยายคใหม• การนำาความรทางชววทยา และพฤตกรรมศาสตร

มาใชอธบายอาชญากรรม– Biological and behavioral sciences – At the beginning of the 19th century, scholars began to apply the concepts and technologies of the rapidly developing biological and behavior

al sciences to the study of crime.

• ผลทไดรบคอววฒนาการของการจดประเภทของการกระทำา และ ผกระทำา ตลอดจนการจดประเภทของสภาวะตาง ๆ ทนำาไปสการกระทำาผด

– Typologies of crime and criminals and attempted to identify patterns – For the first time criminologists developed typologies of crime and criminals and attempted to identify patterns between these typologies and

various biological, psychological, and social characteristics of offenders.

Intro 4 ความเปนอสระของศาสตรIndependent of Criminology

• อาชญาศาสตร นนเรมกอตวขนในยค กลางของ ครสตศตวรรษท ๒๐ ( late 1960s and early 1970s )โดยอาศยฐานความรของวชาสงคมศาสตร มนษยศาสตร และ วทยาศาสตร และพฒนาตอยอดขนมาจนเปนศาสตรตางหาก และสถาบนของชมชนในระดบตาง ๆสนใจทจะสนบสนนการศ฿กษาเพราะเปนสงทอยคมากบมนษยมาเปนระยะเวลานานมาก

– The number of instructional programs in criminology and criminal justice by themselves increased significantly. Existing professional associations, such as the American Society of Criminology (ASC), grew substantially, new professional organizations such as the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (ACJS) were formed, and the number of criminology journals increased. Much of this development was due to the availability of government funding for criminological research and statistical analysis.

Intro 5 ศาสตรแหงบรณาการ multidisciplinary

• ทฤษฎทเกดขนใหม เปนการพฒนาแบบบรณาการ ทผสมผสานทงวทยาศาสตร และสงคมศาสตรเขาดวยกน ดงนนทฤษฎสมยใหมเปนทรวมของความรในปจจยแหงการกระทำาความผดในทก ๆ เรอง เชนชววทยา จตวทยา และ สงคมวทยา ความรใหมเหลานเกดจากการคนควาวจย อยางเปนระบบ จากขอเทจจรงทเชอถอได ไมใชเกดจากนกคดทวาดจนตนาการจากความรสกของตนเอง

– The evolution toward an independent criminology freed the discipline from the dominance of sociology. Theories of criminal behavior became more multidisciplinary and included a greater variety of causal factors, including biological, psychological, and sociological factors. New technologies helped increase the emphasis on empirical testing of theories, which had begun in the era of modern criminology. Large-scale surveys of victims and self-report surveys of criminals provided data on crime and criminals independent of police and correctional records. In keeping with the new multidisciplinary nature of criminology, public and private funding encouraged the formation of multidisciplinary groups of researchers to engage in data collections.

Intro Theories เปาหมายหลกของศาสตรคอการสรางและยนยนทฤษฏ ทยอมรบกนวายนยนไดในระดบหนง

• Contemporary scholars believe that criminal motivation is the product of one or more of a complex set of factors. These factors are so numerous and so varied that no system of classification can describe the current theories of crime causation with complete accuracy. However, broadly speaking these theories may be considered in one of the following three categories: (1) theories attributing criminal behavior to biological or congenital (inherited) defects of the offender, (2) theories relating crime to psychological factors or mental disorders, and (3) theories relating crime to environmental or social factors. Many criminologists have suggested theories of multiple causation involving factors from more than one of these categories.

• (1) ทฤษฏความบกพรองทางชวภาพ theories attributing criminal behavior to biological or congenital (inherited) defects of the offender,

• (2) ทฤษฏความบกพรองทางจต theories relating crime to psychological factors or mental disorders, and

• (3) ทฤษฏปจจยสภาพแวดลอม และปจจยสงคม theories relating crime to environmental or social factors.

• (4) ทฤษฎทวาดวยโอกาสอาชญากรรม THEORIES OF CRIMINAL OPPORTUNITY

•

Theory I(1)

ทฤษฏความบกพรองทางชวภาพ BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF

CRIME • การถายทอดลกษณะเฉพาะทาง

พนธกรรม หรอความผดปกตทางสมองCurrent theories rely on specific features of genes or the brain, rather than appearance, as physical indicators of a propensity toward crime.

– They are less deterministic than earlier biological theories, meaning that they recognize the substantial influence of social factors in addition to or in interaction with biologically caused predispositions to crime.

รปแบบของสภาวะชวภาพทางสงคมbiosocial theories

• genetic factors and irregularities in neurological development: two different types of biological or, more accurately, biosocial theories exist. – การถายทอดลกษณะเฉพาะทางพนธกรรมของยนส

• One set of theories emphasizes genetic factors—that is, the traits transmitted from parents to offspring.

– ความบกพรองของพฒนาการทางประสาทวทยา • studies emphasize irregularities in neurological development that might undermine certain self-controls that inhibit criminality. These irregularities may occur in the

structure of the brain or in the chemical composition of the brain.

Theory I(1.1) Genetic Factors การถายทอดลกษณะเฉพาะทาง

พนธกรรม – The evidence for an association between genetic makeup and criminality comes from empirical studies of identical twins (who have the same genetic makeup) and adopted children (who are genetically dissimilar from other family members). These studies attempt to show that biological inheritance affects the tendency toward criminality independently of or in conjunction with the social environment.

– Studies of the interrelationship between the criminal tendencies of parents and children have found that children whose parents are involved in crime are more likely to engage in criminal behavior than children whose parents were law abiding. This finding is unsurprising due to a number of sociological factors that influence the children. Studies of twins provide somewhat more persuasive evidence.

– Researchers have compared identical twins to fraternal twins (who share no more genes than siblings who are not twins). In most studies of twins, the degree of consistency between the criminality of identical twins is approximately twice that of fraternal twins. While this evidence is more persuasive than family studies, it is still possible that identical twins may be treated more similarly in social environments than fraternal twins. Studies of identical and fraternal twins reared apart would provide more accurate indications of the relative contributions of biology and socialization. However, such situations are very rare and only scattered case studies of this type have been done.

– Finally, comparisons have been made between the criminal involvement of parents and their adoptive children and that of the children's biological parents. In most cases criminality of the biological parent is a better predictor of the child's criminal involvement than the criminality of the adoptive parents .

• The evidence for a link between genetic makeup and a predisposition to criminality remains inconclusive. New technologies to map DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) may identify specific gene patterns that are associated with predispositions toward criminal behavior.

.

                     Human Male KaryotypeThis karyotype of a human male shows the 23 pairs of chromosomes that are typically present in human cells . The chromosome pairs labeled 1 through 22 are called autosomes, and have a similar appearance in males and females . The 23rd pair, shown on the bottom right, represents the sex chromosomes . Females have two identical-looking sex chromosomes that are both labeled X, whereas males have a single X chromosome and a smaller chromosome labeled Y.

Theory I(1.2)ความบกพรองของพฒนาการทางประสาทวทยา Neurological Abnormalities

• Abnormalities in brain functioning that reduce inhibitions toward aggression. – The second major type of biological theory of criminality emphasizes the role of neurological factors. Studies in this area focus on

abnormalities in brain functioning that reduce inhibitions toward aggression.

• Researchers have discovered a positive relationship between aggressive behavior—including violent crime—and an impairment of the frontal lobe of the brain’s cerebrum.

– Abnormalities affecting aggression may occur in the structure of the brain. Researchers have discovered a positive relationship between aggressive behavior—including violent crime—and an impairment of the frontal lobe of the brain’s cerebrum. This means that when researchers look for one factor, either abnormality or aggression, they often find the other factor as well.

• Researchers have found a relationship between levels of specific neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, and certain antisocial behaviors, including violence.

– Another type of dysfunction that may be related to aggression is chemical imbalances in the brain. Human thoughts, behavior, and emotions depend upon the transmission of electrical impulses within the central nervous system. The gaps between cells in the nervous system are called synapses and the chemicals that enable the flow of electrical impulses across the synapses are called neurotransmitters. Scientists believe that abnormally low levels of neurotransmitters interrupt the flow of electronic impulses, thereby short-circuiting emotions such as sympathy or empathy that can inhibit aggressive behavior.

• The evidence concerning the relationship between neurological functioning and criminal behavior is mixed.

– For example, although there is some indication of a link between low serotonin levels and aggressive behavior, it is largely restricted to specific populations, such as alcoholics. Frontal-lobe disorders may be the cause of aggressive behavior or, conversely, they may result from injuries incurred as a result of aggressive behavior. Moreover, the most common measures of brain dysfunction are indirect measures, such as neuropsychological tests. These tests rely on the subject’s responses rather than biological tests of the brain’s structure or level of chemicals. Such tests may not indicate an existing abnormality, and they are unable to attribute any abnormality that is discovered to a particular location within the brain. Improved technologies such as brain imaging may be much more effective in identifying and locating impairments.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     

Cranial NervesWhereas most major nerves emerge from the spinal cord, the 12 pairs of cranial nerves project directly from the brain . All but 1 pair relay motor or sensory information (or both); the tenth, or vagus nerve, affects visceral functions such as heart rate, vasoconstriction, and contraction of the smooth muscle found in the walls of the trachea, stomach, and intestine.

Theory II

ทฤษฏความบกพรองทางจต PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME • psychological theories that attempt to explain human intellectual and emotional development can be divided into three categories:

• (1) moral development theories, • (2) social learning theories, and • (3) personality theories.

• ทฤษฏพฒนาการทางจรยะ Moral development theories describe a sequence of developmental stages that people pass through when acquiring the capacity to make moral judgments.

• According to these theorists, this development process may or may not be completed, and people who remain unable to recognize right from wrong will be more likely to engage in inappropriate, deviant, or even criminal behavior.

• ทฤษฏการเรยนรจากสงคม Social learning theories emphasize the process of learning and internalizing moral codes. Learning theorists note different patterns of rewards and sanctions that affect this process.

• ทฤษฏ พฒนาการทางบคลคภาพ Personality theories assume a set of enduring perceptions and predispositions (tendencies) that each individual develops through early socialization.

• These theorists propose that certain predispositions or personality traits, such as impulsiveness or extroversion, increase the chances of criminal behavior.

Theory II(2.1)ทฤษฏพฒนาการทางจรยะ Moral Development Theories

• Criminologists who apply moral development theories build on the pioneering work done by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. According to Piaget, children evolve through four stages of cognitive development. From birth to age two, children experience the world only through their senses and motor abilities and have a very immediate, experience-based knowledge of the world. Between two and seven years of age children learn to think about and understand objects using thoughts that are independent of immediate experience. During this stage children are egocentric—that is, they believe that others experience the same reality that they do. From age seven to adolescence the child learns to think logically and to organize and classify objects. Beginning in adolescence, the child develops the ability to think logically about the future and to understand theoretical concepts. Theorists relate these stages of cognitive development to stages of moral development. At first, rules are given by powerful others. Later, children perceive that they can invent and modify rules. Finally, humans perceive the ultimate importance of abstract rules.

• Influenced by Piaget’s theory that development occurs in stages, in the mid-1960s American psychologist Lawrence Kolhberg proposed a multistage theory of moral evolution. In the early level of development, children strive to maximize pleasure and avoid punishment. Children at this level consider the needs of others only to the extent that meeting those needs will help the child fulfill his or her own needs. During the next period, which is characterized by conformity to social rules, the child demonstrates respect for and duty to authority. The child also seeks to avoid disapproval from that authority. As the child matures, his or her moral judgment is motivated by respect for legally determined rules and an understanding that these rules exist to benefit all. Eventually, universal principles are internalized. These principles, such as liberty and justice, may even transcend aspects of the existing legal system.

• Other studies confirm that moral development is sequential, moving from external to internal control. In other words, while young children behave in order to avoid punishment or receive approval from others, adults develop internal codes and regulate their own behavior even in the absence of external enforcement. However, criminologists have not found truly strong indications of the effect of moral development on criminal activity. Sociologists who compared the patterns of moral development between delinquents and nondelinquents found some differences between the groups, but these differences were not conclusive.

Theory II(2.2)ทฤษฏการเรยนรจากสงคม Social Learning Theories

• Social learning theories propose that people internalize moral codes more through the process of socialization—learning behaviors through interaction with others—rather than through a stage-by-stage development process. Specifically, social learning theorists maintain a young person learns how to behave based on how elders (primarily parent figures) respond to the person’s violations of and compliance with rules. Rewards for acceptable behavior and sanctions (penalties) for transgressions indicate what is appropriate behavior.

• Repeated instances of reward and sanction also lead to the internalization of these standards. Over time the transgression becomes associated with the sanction, and it produces anxiety even when no one is present to administer sanctions. Through this process children begin to control themselves in a manner consistent with moral and legal codes.

• Social learning theories of criminal motivation and behavior have substantial empirical support. A number of studies indicate that deliquents were treated differently by their parents than youths with no record of delinquency. The socialization of delinquents is marked by lax and erratic discipline or by unduly harsh discipline, such as physical punishment. These studies do not describe in detail what effective socialization should be, but they do suggest that social learning is related to criminal involvement. Such studies also indicate that social learning theory is a promising approach to understanding criminal motivation and behavior.

Theory II(2.3)ทฤษฏ พฒนาการทางบคลกภาพ Personality Theories

• Personality theories attempt to explain how people acquire predispositions toward certain behavior. These predispositions are sometimes discussed in terms of personality traits, such as impulsiveness and stubbornness, or personality types, such as introvert and extrovert. All other things being equal, people will consistently display behaviors that they are predisposed toward. Accordingly, some social scientists believe that certain predispositions or personality types may be associated with criminal tendencies or activities.

• In his work in the late 1800s and early 1900s Austrian physician Sigmund Freud described emotional development as the process of achieving a balance between conflicting desires. According to Freud, humans must resolve the tension between their purely self-interested tendencies, which he called the id, and the control of these forces by the combination of conscience and moral attitudes, which Freud called the superego. This process begins in infancy, at which time the id reigns without conflict.

• As the child develops, conflicts occur between the id and superego, which are ultimately resolved by the ego—the sense of self. This process results in a person who strikes a balance between individualism and society, between hedonism (pleasure seeking) and repression of his or her desires. According to Freud, when this development process goes wrong any number of personality disorders can result, including a tendency toward criminal behavior.

• Personality theorists have attempted to gauge the effects of personality development on criminal behavior by administering personality tests to groups of criminals and noncriminals. The evidence from these studies is mixed. In some instances, researchers found differences between the two groups on certain dimensions of personality, such as impulsiveness. However, in other instances no differences were found. Studies of mental disorders comparing prisoners and other populations suggest that only a few relatively rare crimes, such as sexual crimes of violence involving extremely deviant acts, can be attributed to mental illness.

Theory III

ทฤษฏปจจยสภาพแวดลอม และปจจยสงคม ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL THEORIES OF CRIME

อทธพลของสภาพแวดลอม อทธพลของสงคมและ ปจจยทางเศรษฐศาสตรทมตออาชญากรรม

social influences on crime and economic factors

• The most common criminological theories attribute criminal motivation to environmental or social factors rather than biological or psychological traits.

• These theories may focus on social influences on crime or on economic factors.

Theory III(3.1) สาเหตทางสงคม Social Causes

• หรอเรยกกนวาทฤษฎสงคมวทยาอาชญา แบงออกเปนสองคาย คอ : สำานกวาดวยโครงสรางสงคม the social-structural school สำานกวาดวยวฒนธรรมซอนเรน the subcultural school

• One of the first theories describing the influence of social factors on crime came from French sociologist Gabriel Tarde. In the late 1880s Tarde criticized the physical typology theories of Lombroso and his followers. Although Tarde did not deny the relevance of biological factors in enhancing criminal tendencies, he asserted that the causes of crime are chiefly social. His basic theory on the causes of crime was founded on laws of imitation.

• Tarde believed that persons predisposed to crime are attracted to criminal activity by the example of other criminals. He also felt that the particular crimes committed and the methods of committing those crimes are the products of imitation. The predisposition to crime, while in part reflecting many factors, is explained principally by the offender's social environment, particularly the environment of his younger years. Tarde was also one of the first to study the professional criminal. He noted that certain offenders pursue careers of crime. These career criminals may engage in periods of apprenticeship that are similar to those that characterize training for entry into other professions.

• Another French social theorist of major importance to modern criminology was Émile Durkheim, who believed that the causes of crime are present in the very nature of society. According to Durkheim, whose major works were written in the 1890s, crime is related to the loss of social stability. Durkheim used the term anomie to describe the feelings of alienation and confusion associated with the breakdown of social bonds. According to Durkheim, individuals in the modern era tend to feel less connected to a community than did their ancestors, and thus their conduct is less influenced by group norms.

• Since the early work of Tarde and Durkheim that proposed a link between social interactions and criminal motivation, sociological theories of crime have become much more detailed. They have identified the particular social groups that affect criminal motivation and the process by which criminal socialization occurs. This elaboration of sociological theories of crime can be divided into two major schools of thought: the social-structural school and the subcultural school.

Theory III(3.1.1)สำานกวาดวยโครงสรางสงคม Social-Structural Theories • The social-structural approach emphasizes the effects of an individual's position in society and the constraints that the person’s status puts on his or her perceptions

and behavior. According to this model, all members of society subscribe to the same moral code but some people—because of their position in society—are more able than others to follow that code. Social-structural theorists assert that crime is an adaptation to the limitations that social position places on individual behavior.

• Social-structural theorists focus their attention on socioeconomic status or social class and the strain that lower class status brings. The principal goal of these theories is to explain why poorer people engage in crime more frequently than wealthy individuals. According to the structural strain theory developed by American sociologist Robert Merton in the late 1930s, crime is not simply a function of deprivation but the result of a disjuncture (lack of connection) between ends (goals) and the means to attain those ends.

• People who aspire to the cultural norm of economic achievement but are denied the education, capital, or other means to realize those ends will experience strain. According to Merton, there are three possible responses to this strain. First, the person may try what Merton calls innovation. Although the individual continues to accept the cultural value of success, he or she will employ illegitimate means, such as theft or robbery, to obtain money because legitimate means to achieve this end are not available. Another possible response is what Merton termed retreatism. The person gives up the pursuit of economic success and engages in self-destructive behavior, such as drug abuse. Finally, Merton identified the response of rebellion, wherein the person abandons the culturally dictated goal of economic achievement and engages in revolutionary activities or in attempts to reform the system.

• One of the major criticisms of strain theories is that, although crime rates for poorer people exceed those for higher-income groups, only a small proportion of people in the lower economic class engages in criminal acts. American sociologists Edwin Sutherland, Richard Cloward, and Lloyd Ohlin have attempted to explain this phenomenon by emphasizing the role of learning. To become a criminal, a person must not only be inclined toward illegal activity, he or she must also learn how to commit criminal acts. Sutherland’s differential association theory contends that people whose environment provides the opportunity to associate with criminals will learn these skills and will become criminals in response to strain. If the necessary learning structures are absent, they will not.

• Another type of structural theory of crime is the ecological theory, which focuses on the criminal’s relationship to the social environment. These theories emphasize migration and urbanization as sources of criminal adaptation and attempt to explain the geographic distribution of crime and criminals. Ecological theories often give special emphasis to urban areas.

• In the 1940s American researchers Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay found that delinquent offenders clustered in certain neighborhoods in Chicago, Illinois. This clustering persisted over time—even when the ethnic composition of the neighborhood changed dramatically. Shaw and McKay theorized that as people migrated from rural locations or from other nations into urban centers, their poverty forced them into districts that were on the fringe of industrial zones. These fringe areas, or areas of first settlement, were characterized by high levels of social disorganization—that is, the residents of these areas rarely interacted or communicated with each other.

• Shaw and McKay also found the lack of communication in such areas was in part the result of the diversity of language and culture among immigrant groups, as well as the fact that people moved on after a short time. Thus it was difficult to form enduring relationships and to negotiate an agreed-upon code of behavior. Furthermore, because informal social control was weak and people did not share common norms, crime rates and arrests were high. When people left these areas, their risk of engaging in or being the victim of criminal activity dropped. Others moving into these disorganized areas experienced increased involvement in criminal activity.

• Ecological theories were quite influential immediately after World War II (1939-1945). They served as a basis for crime prevention efforts such as the Chicago Area Project (CAP), which attempted to inject some form of social controls into disorganized areas. CAP personnel attempted to ease the adjustment of newcomers and to get residents to organize themselves into groups that could negotiate a consensual social order in the community and advocate for outside resources. In the 1960s the importance of community as a source of criminal motivation in sociological theory declined. New theories emphasized race and social class. Research conducted in the early 1980s, however, demonstrated that crime and criminals were still clustered in regions that were very much like the disorganized areas described in the earlier studies.

Theory III(3.1.2)สำานกวาดวยวฒนธรรมซอนเรน Subcultural

Theories • While social-structural or strain theories assume that people share similar values and differ only with respect to access to

resources, subcultural theories assume that certain groups have values quite distinct from those of the rest of society. Moreover, these differences are enduring. Members of these groups will be disproportionately involved in crime because they acquire and follow the values of their group. According to the subcultural model, crime does not occur because people have been imperfectly socialized; it occurs because they have been socialized in a deviant group and acquired its values.

• Some subcultural theorists maintain there is a so-called lower-class culture that emphasizes toughness, excitement, fate, and autonomy. According to these theorists, attempting to behave in a manner consistent with these values disproportionally involves lower-class people in crime. For example, individuals from a subculture that puts extreme emphasis on toughness and individual respect may respond with violence to an insult that most people would consider trivial.

• Social-control theory, developed by American criminologist Travis Hirschi in the late 1960s, is a variant of subcultural theories because it emphasizes the acquisition of values. However, social-control theory stands the principal question of criminology on its head. While most theories attempt to explain why certain people or classes of people become criminals, social-control theory asks why most people do not commit crimes.

• Social-control theory assumes that everyone has a predisposition toward criminal behavior. Whether or not a person acts on those predispositions depends on whether he or she has ties to groups that impart values opposing crime, such as the family, school, the community, and volunteer organizations. People with such attachments initially hold certain values because they fear sanction from these groups. Gradually, however, the values are internalized and followed because of a belief that to do otherwise would be morally wrong. People without these attachments are not deterred by threat of group sanction nor do they ultimately internalize legitimate norms, and thus they are more likely to engage in criminal activity.

• Substantial empirical evidence supports social-control theory. Numerous studies have shown that known delinquents and nondelinquents differ with respect to their attachments to legitimate groups as well as their commitment to legitimate values.

Theory III(3.2)ปจจยทางเศรษฐศาสตรEconomic Causes

• Studies concerning the influence of economic factors on criminal behavior have attempted to link economic deprivation to increased motivation to commit crimes (especially property crimes). Such studies assume that when economic conditions worsen more people experience deprivation and turn to crime to reduce that deprivation. These same theories have been used to explain why people of lower socioeconomic status are disproportionately represented among known criminals.

• Other studies attempt to relate the disproportionate involvement of poor people in crime to the distribution of power in society. The assumption in these studies is that criminal law is a tool used by the social group with higher economic status to advance its class interests. These theories assert that criminal law is fashioned according to the needs of this elite, and to the detriment of classes with lower status.

• Studies of the relationship between unemployment and crime have yielded conflicting results. Some studies indicate a negative relationship between unemployment and crime—that is, when unemployment decreases, crime increases, or vice versa. Other studies indicate a positive relationship (when one increases, so does the other), and others find no relationship.

• In certain macrosocial theories (theories that focus on whole social systems rather than individual people), criminologists link crime rates to the development of surplus labor (greater numbers of available workers than jobs) in the capitalist economic system. Those who follow the teachings of German political philosopher Karl Marx (known as Marxists) believe that capitalist societies generate surplus labor as a means of limiting the demands of workers for higher wages and other benefits. During periods of economic expansion, fewer people are punished for criminal activity. This reduces the amount of people in jail and increases the size of surplus labor in the economy. On the other hand, during periods of economic decline, more people are put in jail, which prevents too much surplus labor from posing a threat to the social and economic order

Theory IV(4.1)สภาวะอนตรายทเออตอโอกาส opportunity theory

• According to opportunity theory, the dangerousness of a particular environment relates to four factors:

• (1) the accessibility of the victim or target, • (2) the perceived attractiveness of the target, • (3) the proximity to numerous potential offenders,

and • (4) the absence of capable guardians.

– The chance of a crime occurring is greatest in environments where accessibility, attractiveness, and proximity are high and where guardianship is low. The major purpose of most of the work in opportunity theory has been the elaboration of this basic framework and the classification of specific environments according to accessibility, guardianship, proximity, and attractiveness.

Theory IV(4.2)การทดลองเชงประจกษวาทของ  opportunity theory

• Empirical tests of opportunity theory have employed large-scale surveys of victims as well as experiments and in-depth studies of criminals. The victim surveys indicate the risk of victimization varies substantially across social and physical environments (social environment refers to the people in the area; physical environment to the actual place). This variation is generally consistent with opportunity theory. For example, people who report going out at night are more frequently victims than those who report staying home after dark. Also, residences in heavily trafficked locations are more often burglarized than those in less accessible places.

• Experiments that vary attributes of the physical and social environments and monitor the effect on crime provide some support for opportunity theory. For example, when Germany enacted a law requiring motorcycle riders to wear helmets, the theft rate for motorcycles decreased without a corresponding increase in thefts of other types of motor vehicles. Thieves were less likely to steal motorcycles unless they came equipped with a helmet because driving without a helmet increased the risk of being caught.

• Opportunity theory is more easily and directly translated into crime prevention policy than theories of criminal motivation. Typical public policies designed to deter criminal activities usually require significant government efforts and resources. In contrast, reducing the opportunity for criminals to commit crime is left in large measure up to the individual citizen who has an interest in self-protection.

Theory IV(4.3)ขอวจารณ

• ทฤษฎนอาจอธบายไดแตเพยงวาอาชญากรรมเกดขน ณ ทใด ในโอกาสใด ไมสามารถใชความรในการแกปญหาได (displace the crime, not prevent ; cannot be used to systematically distinguish dangerous social and physical environments from safe ones)

• The major criticism of using opportunity theory to guide policy is that varying the factors that increase criminal opportunity will displace the crime, not prevent it. Reducing accessibility or increasing guardianship in one place will cause the motivated offender to look for another target. Critics argue for example, that reducing the availability of one crime tool, such as firearms, will simply encourage the use of alternative tools. However, evidence indicates reducing opportunity leads to reductions in illegal activities and not simply to displacement.

• While opportunity theory has become very popular and enjoys some empirical support, it cannot be used to systematically distinguish dangerous social and physical environments from safe ones. Opportunity theorists have not been able to define the concepts of accessibility, guardianship, proximity, and attractiveness with sufficient specificity.

Penal Science

Penology as subset of Criminology

การศกษาอาชญาวทยาในยคแรก• ในยคแรกเรยกกนตามแบบของประเทศภาคพน

ยโรปวา ทณฑวทยา• Penology • Latin =

ทนฑวทยา Penal Science

• the division of criminology that concerns itself with the philosophy and practice of society in its efforts to repress criminal activities.

• As the term signifies (from Latin poena, “pain,” or “suffering”), penology has stood in the past and, for the most part, still stands for the policy of inflicting punishment on the offender as a consequence of his wrongdoing;

Accepted present sense of the term

• but it may reasonably be extended to cover other policies, not punitive in character, such as

• probation, • medical treatment, and • education, • All aimed at the cure or rehabilitation of the

offender;

penology represents

• a grouping of studies dealing with the aims and the moral or social justifications of punishment, date from a remote past,

• Other groups examined the wider social implications of the justice system itself.

principal aims

• The principal aims of penal science are: • to bring to light the ethical bases of punishment,

along with the motives and purposes of society in inflicting it;

• to make a comparative study of penal laws and procedures through history and between nations; and,

• finally, to evaluate the social consequences of the policies in force at a given time.

การแบงสำานกความคดทางทณฑวทยา ภายหลง ศ ๑๘

• the classical school• neoclassical school of the revolutionary period• positive school

the classical school

Modern penology :the classical school• Modern penology dates from the publication of Cesare Beccaria's

pamphlet on Crimes and Punishments in 1764. • This represented a school of doctrine, born of the new humanitarian

impulse of the 18th century, with which Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, and Montesquieu in France and Jeremy Bentham in England were associated.

• This, which came afterwards to be known as the classical school, assumed every criminal act to be a deliberate choice determined by a calculation of the prospective pleasures and pains of the act contemplated. All that was needed to overcome the criminal purpose was to provide for each and every crime a penalty adequate to overbalance its assumed advantages. Excessive penalties, such as death, were unnecessary and therefore unjust.

neoclassical school of the revolutionary period

neoclassical school of the revolutionary period

• The classical school was followed, a generation later, by the neoclassical school of the revolutionary period in France, which modified Beccaria's rigorous doctrine by insisting on the recognition of varying degrees of moral, and therefore of legal, responsibility, as in the case of children and the insane, as well as of mitigating circumstances in general.

• The doctrine of the “individualization of punishment”—that is to say, of the punishment of the individual rather than of the crime committed by him, which is of commanding importance in present-day penology—is only a development of this fundamental principle of the neoclassical school.

positive school

positive school• This normal historical development of penology was

interrupted during the last quarter of the 19th century by the widespread acceptance of the theory of crime and its treatment promulgated by Cesare Lombroso and his disciples. This, at first known as the Italian, or continental, school of criminology, was later named the positive school, so-called because it pursued the positive methods of modern science.

• Its fundamental doctrine was that the criminal was doomed by his inherited traits to a criminal career and was therefore a wholly irresponsible actor. Society must, of course, protect itself against him, but to punish him as if he were a free moral agent was as irrational as it was unethical.

individualization of punishment took on the form of

individualization of treatment.• Although the enthusiasm for the doctrines of the positive school waned

and the alleged facts on which they were based were largely discredited, it nevertheless left a valuable legacy of influence.

• To it must be given much of the credit for the present active tendency to make the mental study of the criminal an essential part of his diagnosis, a fact that has given the psychologist and, particularly, the psychiatrist a leading place in the development of modern penological theory.

• From studies such as these, criminologists discovered that there was no single formula that accounted for all violators of the penal code, while the policy of the individualization of punishment took on the form of individualization of treatment.

research

• Indeed, the emphasis turned to research—research into the factors, whether individual or social, that determine criminal activities and research into the resources of the community for making such disposition of the offender as will effectually protect the former without destroying the latter

2. ประวตและววฒนาการของการลงอาชญา และเหตผลรองรบ

Ducking Stool This 17th-century English woodcut shows towns people about to immerse a woman whom they have strapped on a ducking stool.

According to an account of creation in the biblical book of Genesis, Adam was created from the dust of the earth and placed in the Garden of Eden. Eve, the first woman, was created from one of Adam’s ribs. Tempted by Eve, Adam ate the forbidden fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, and the two were expelled from Paradise for their disobedience. The engraving Adam and Eve (1504) by German artist Albrecht Dürer depicts Eve sharing the forbidden fruit with her mate.

Adam and Eve

Execution is an ancient practice and one of the earliest forms of criminal punishment. Methods of execution have varied over time. In the United States, several of the states that permit capital punishment electrocute prisoners in the “electric chair

Electric Chair

Educational Program in Prison Inmates at the West Tennessee Detention Facility in Mason, Tennessee, work on computers as part of an educational program. Prison rehabilitative programs attempt to help inmates integrate into society and avoid future criminal activity.

3. ประวตกรศกษวชอชญวทยและทณฑวทย

• การศกษาวชาอาชญาวทยา และทณฑวทยาในประเทศไทย

• ระยะเรมแรกของอาชญา และทณฑวทยา • วทยาศาสตรในการลงโทษ

4. ววฒนกรของทฤษฎอญในประเทศตะวนตก

• ประวตแหงทฤษฎอาชญา และสำานกอาชญาวทยา • ทฤษฎในชวงครสตศตวรรษทสบแปด สำานกคลาสสก • ปรชญาเมธตนฉบบ • พฒนาการทางวทยาศาสตร ในสมยครสตศตวรรษท

สบเกา • ความกาวหนาในตนศตวรรษทยสบ • การศกษาอาชญาศาสตรในประเทศไทยปจจบน

ทฤษฎในชวงครสตศตวรรษทสบแปด สำานกคลาสสก ปรชญาเมธตนฉบบ

• กฎแหงความรนแรงโหดรายอยางทสด (Maximum Severity) เปนวธการทดกวา

• ในทวปยโรปนนปรชญาเมธทสำาคญไดแก วอลแตรและมองเตสกเออร Voltaire & Montesquieu ทถอไดวาเปนผนำาในการเรยกรองใหมการเปลยนแปลงทฤษฎพนฐานทางอำานาจตลาการ และยนยนความตองการใหสงคมเปนอสระจากอำานาจของรฐ

• ในประเทศองกฤษม เจเรม เบนธมJeremy Banthamปรชญาเมธทางนตศาสตรไดเสนอการปฏรประบบการลงโทษเสยใหม เบนธมไดเสนอรางกฎหมายอาญาทสามารถจะใชเปนแบบอยางไดทวโลก และยงไดออกแบบเรอนจำาทเขาเหนวาดทสดอกดวย

• ผนำาของสมยครสศตวรรษทสบแปดอกผหนงคอ ซซาร เบคคาเรย Cesar Beccariaทานผนไดแตหนงสอวาดวยระบบกระบวนการยตธรรมทางอาญาไวมากมายอาทเชน Dei Dellitti et delle Pene ทนบไดวาเปนผลงานชนสำาคญของครสศตวรรษท 18 ซงอทศใหแกกระบวนการยตธรรมทางอาญาถอวาเปนวรรณกรรมทมอทธพลยงในสมยนน

ความแตกตางของแนวความคด• ปรชญาเมธของสำานกคลาสสกไดเรมชใหเหนวา ผกระทำาผดนนมใชเปน

เพยงผทนำาความชวรายมาสสงคมเทานนแตเขายงเปน• “1. ผทละเมดศลธรรมและขนบธรรมเนยมของชมชน• 2. และเปนประชาชนผสมควรทไดรบสทธขนตำา Minimal right อน

ประชาชนจะพงม”• สำานกอาชญาวทยาแนวใหม Modern school เหนวาผกระทำาผดเปน• “1. ผกระทำาผด• 2. และเปนวตถทสามารถนำาออกมาศกษาตามแบบวทยาศาสตรได”• สำานกคลาสสกนนยดหลกจรยธรรมของนกมนษยเสรนยม liberal-

humanistโดยทสำานกอาชญาวทยาแนวใหมถอวาวธการนเปนเพยงการคนหาเหตผลอนควร หรอการทำาใหถกตองตามหลกนตศาสตร ซงเปนเพยงการศกษาขนปรชญาไมสามารถพสจน ทดลองไดตามแบบวทยาศาสตร

พฒนาการทางวทยาศาสตร ในสมยครสตศตวรรษทสบเกา

สำานกอาชญาศาสตรทพอจะเรยกไดวาเปนสำานกวทยาศาสตรนนเรมมขนเมอครสตศตวรรษท สบเกาตอนตน ในประเทศฝรงเศสและประเทศเบลเยยม ในสมยแรกเรมสำานกนไดเรมนำาเอาวชาสถตและวชาภมศาสตร ซงถอเปนขอมลแบบวทยาศาสตรมาใชในการศกษาเกยวกบอาชญากรรมเปนครงแรก โดย นกสถตสองทานคอ

เควตเลตและเกอรร Quetelet, A.J. and Guerry. A.M.

การวเคราะหอาชญากรรม• เปนครงแรกทอชญกรรมไดรบกรวเคระหว• เปนพฤตกรรมอยงหนงของสงคมมนษย และถอวเปน

ขอมลทงสงคมอยงหนงอนเปนขอเทจจรงทสมรถจะนำเสนอไดในรปของสถต และยงสมรถทจะนำมวเคระหไดอยงเปนกจจะลกษณะ

• เควตเลตและเกอรร ไดคนควเพมเตมถงควมเปนไปไดตงๆ ซงใชในกรทำนยพฤตกรรมอชญลวงหน

• ในเวลตอมกรศกษทงสถตเชนนถอเปนแบบฉบบของกรศกษเกยวกบอชญกรรมในสมยครสตศตวรรษทสบเก ตอนปลย และศตวรรษทยสบตอนตนอกทงกรเปรยบเทยบโดยใชภมประเทศเปนหลกนน มควมเกยวพนกบกรศกษสภวะแวดลอมของสำนกอชญวทยชคโกในเวลตอม

สำานกสงคมวทยา • Fregier, H.A. and Mayhew, H • Emile Durkheim

วฒนธรรมเบองลางทางอาชญา Criminal Subcultures และความยนยงถาวรของกระสวน

พฤตกรรมอาชญา persistent pattern of criminal behavior

• เฟรเจยรและเมยฮว Fregier, H.A. and Mayhew, H ไดเขยนหนงสอเกยวกบสภาวะของพฤตกรรมอาชญาโดยกลาวถงคณสมบตความยนยงและกระสวนของพฤตกรรมอาชญา

• ศกษาถงสภาพของกรงลอนดอนและปารส และกลาวถงสภาพความยากจนคนแคนของประชาชนชนตำา และกลาวถงการตอบโตของคนกลมนดวยการประกอบอาชญากรรม

• การศกษาเชนนเปนการแนะนำาถงความคดเหนเกยวกบวฒนธรรมเบองลางทางอาชญา และความยนยงถาวรของกระสวนพฤตกรรมอาชญา ซงมใชเปนการพการของสงคม แตเปนสงทมอยเสมอในสภาพของสงคมมนษย

Emile Durkheim อาชญากรรมนนเปนปรากฎการณ

ธรรมดาของสงคม • เดอรไกมเหนวาการใชสงคมวทยาอธบายพฤตกรรมอาชญากรนน เปนท

นาเชอถอเชนเดยวกบการใชวทยาศาสตรแขนงอนๆ • เดอรไกมพสจนวาการฆาตวตายและศาสนาซงมองดอยางผวเผนแลวนา

จะเปนผลมาจากมลเหตจงใจของตวบคคลผนบถอศาสนาหรอตองการฆาตวตายนน เปนผลจากความผลกดนของสงคม มใชเปนผลมาจากการตดสนใจของตวบคคลเทานน นนคอบคคลจะฆาตวตายเนองจากความผลกดนของสงคม มากกวาการทบคคลนนจะตดสนใจดวยตนเอง

• เดอรไกมเหนวาอาชญากรรมเปนเชนเดยวกบโรคพยาธชนดหนงทเกดขนในสงคมทกสงคม และไมแตเพยงเปนปรากฎการณธรรมดาของสงคมเทานน สงคมทสมบรณจะตองมอาชญากรรมเปนสวนประกอบทสำาคญอกดวย

• บางทานแบงแยกสำานกอาชญาวทยาและทณฑวทยาออกเปนสองฝายคอฝายหนงเหนวามนษยสามารถตดสนใจดวยตนเอง (Determinist) กบอกฝายหนงเหนวาสงอนๆ ตางหากทตดสนใจใหมนษย (Indeterminist)

ศตวรรษท ยสบ กบแนวทางใหม

Positive School :Clinical • ในระยะเวลใกลเคยงกน กรศกษไดเบนแนวทงมสรปแบบ

ทเรยกกนว คลนก • ทเรยกวคลนค เพระกรศกษนนไดเกดขนในหองทดลอง

ปฏบตกร เชนเกยวกบกรศกษทงวทยศสตรอนๆ ขอมลทใชกเปนขอมลทงวทยศสตร เชนขอมลเกยวกบโรคจตหรอขอมลเกยวกบสรระวทย จนไดรบกรยอมรบกนเปนสำนกขน

• สำนกนไดรบขนนนมว สำนกปฏฐนนยมยคใหม เพระเหตว สำนกนศกษถงมนษยเปนรยบคคลและถอวบคคลนนมไดประกอบอชญกรรมเพระสภพทงสงคมเทนน แตเปนเพระผดปกตทงจตและโซมทฝงลกอยในสภพทงกยของบคคลผนน

• กรศกษแบบนยงเรยกกนวเปน กรศกษทงชววทยและจตวทยวดวยอชญ เมอสำนกนไดเรมมอทธพลยงผลใหกรววฒนกรของสำนกอนดหมดควมหมยไปเลยทเดยว

แนวคดแบบวทยาศาสตร• การศกษาอาชญาวทยาคลนกนน กลาวกนวาไดมมากอน

การศกษาแบบจตแพทย และการศกษาทางวทยาศาสตรอนๆ กจดไดวาเปนสำานกอาชญาคลนค ซงรวมถงทฤษฎววฒนาการของดารวน Darwin ดวย

• ทฤษฎของดารวน วาดวยววฒนาการของมนษยทเผยแพรในหนงสอ “Origin of Species” ในป 1859 ไดเปลยนโฉมหนาของการศกษาอาชญาศาสตรใหเนนหนกไปทางวทยาศาสตรมากยงขน

• มการศกษาถงวชาจตแพทยโดย เอสควโรลEsquirol มตถวทยา Phrenology เปนวชาทศกษาถงกระโหลกศรษะของมนษย โดยแกลและสเปอรไฮม Gall & Spurzheim

ศตวรรษทยสบในประเทศสหรฐอเมรกา• เมอตนศตวรรษทยสบ ไดมการคนพบความผดปกตทางสงคมอนสบเนอง

มาจากการขยายเขตเมองหลวงอยางรวดเรวในสหรฐอเมรกา • มหาวทยาลยชคาโก ไดรวบรวมนกวชาการโดยเฉพาะนกสงคมวทยาเพอ

ศกษาถงปญหาชมชนดงกลาว นกสงคมวทยาเหลานไดแก โทมส, ปารก, เบอรเกส, เอนเดอรสน, เวอรท Thomas, W : Park, R: Burgess, E: Anderson, N: Worth. L และคนอนๆ

• ศกษาถงสภาพแวดลอมของมนษยในเขตนครชคาโก รวมถงการศกษาสาเหตแหงอาชญากรรม และทษกรรมเยาววย อนเนองมาจากความผดปกตของสงคม

• โดยเฉพาะอยางยงทราเซอร และชอว Thrashze, F. & Shaw.C ไดศกษาถง ปรมณฑลทษกรรม Delinquency Area ซงศกษาถงบรเวณทมอาชญากรรมชกชม โดยการวเคราะหเหตการณตางๆ เรยกกนวาเปนการรวมเอาการศกษาประชากรศาสตรและมลเหตชกจงใจของบคคลเอาไวดวยกน

• ยคนเปนยคของนกอาชญาวทยาในประเทศสหรฐอเมรกาโดยแทเพราะในสมยศตวรรษทยสบ อทธพลของสำานกชคาโกนนมอทธพลตอกระบวนการยตธรรมบทอาญาในสมยปจจบนเปนอนมาก

แนวคดปจจบน

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