DATA COLLECTION

DATA COLLECTION

1. WHAT IS DATA COLLECTION ?

Data collectionis the process of gathering andmeasuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research question hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study including physicalphysical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same. The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates to rich data analysis and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that have been posed.Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce thelikelihoodoferrorsoccurring.A formal data collection process is necessary as it ensures that data gathered are both defined and accurate and that subsequent decisions based on arguments embodied in the findings are valid.

The process provides both a baseline from which to measure and in certain cases a target on what to improve.Generally there are three types of data collection and they are1. Surveys: Standardized paper-and-pencil or phone questionnaires that ask predetermined questions.2. Interviews: Structured or unstructured one-on-one directed conversations with key individuals or leaders in a community.3. Focus groups: Structured interviews with small groups of like individuals using standardized questions, follow-up questions, and exploration of other topics that arise to better understand participantsConsequences from improperly collected data include: Inability to answer research questions accurately. Inability to repeat andvalidatethe study.Distorted findings result in wasted resources and can mislead other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation. This compromises decisions forpublic policy, and causes harm to human participants and animal subjects.While the degree of impact from faulty data collection may vary by discipline and the nature of investigation, there is the potential to cause disproportionate harm when these research results are used to support public policy recommendations.

2.SCIENTIFIC DATA ARCHIVINGScientific data archivingis thelong-term storageofscientific dataand methods. The various scientific journals have differing policies regarding how much of their data andmethods scientists are required to store in a public archive, and what is actually archived varies widely between different disciplines. Similarly, the major grant-giving institutions have varying attitudes towards public archival of data. In general, the tradition of science has been for publications to contain sufficient information to allow fellow researchers to replicate and therefore test the research. In recent years this approach has become increasingly strained as research in some areas depends on large datasets which cannot easily be replicated independently.Data archivingis more important in some fields than others. In a few fields, all of the data necessary to replicate the work is already available in the journal article. In drug development, a great deal of data is generated and must be archived so researchers can verify that the reports the drug companies publish accurately reflect the data.The requirement of data archiving is a recent development in thehistory of science. It was made possible by advances ininformation technologyallowing large amounts of data to be stored and accessed from central locations. For example, theAmerican Geophysical Union(AGU) adopted their first policy on data archiving in 1993, about three years after the beginning of theWWW.[1]This policy mandates that datasets cited in AGU papers must be archived by a recognised data center; it permits the creation of "data papers"; and it establishes AGU's role in maintaining data archives. But it makes no requirements on paper authors to archive their data.Prior to organized data archiving, researchers wanting to evaluate or replicate a paper would have to request data and methods information from the author. The science community expects authors toshare supplemental data. This process was recognized as wasteful of time and energy and obtained mixed results. Information could become lost or corrupted over the years. In some cases, authors simply refuse to provide the information.The need for data archiving and due diligence is greatly increased when the research deals with health issues or public policy formation.

3.PRIMARY DATA COLLECTIONPrimary researchconsists of a collection of original primary data collected by the researcher. It is often undertaken after the researcher has gained some insight into the issue by reviewing secondary research or by analyzing previously collected primary data.It can be accomplished through various methods, includingquestionnairesand telephone interviews inmarket research, orexperimentsand directobservationsin thephysical sciences, amongst others.

DETAILS.The term primary research is widely used inacademic research,market researchandcompetitive intelligence.There are advantages and disadvantages to primary research.Advantages: Researcher can focus on both qualitative and quantitative issues. Addresses specific research issues as the researcher controls the search design to fit their needs Great control; not only does primary research enable the marketer to focus on specific subjects, it also enables the researcher to have a higher control over how the information is collected. Taking this into account, the researcher can decide on such requirements as size of project, time frame and goal.Disadvantages: Compared tosecondary research, primary data may be very expensive in preparing and carrying out the research. Costs can be incurred in producing the paper for questionnaires or the equipment for an experiment of some sort. In order to be done properly, primary data collection requires the development and execution of a research plan. It takes longer to undertake primary research than to acquire secondary data. Some research projects, while potentially offering information that could prove quite valuable, may not be within the reach of a researcher. By the time the research is complete it may be out of date. Low response rate has to be expected.An example of primary research in opinion research: the government wants to know if people are pleased with how the government is being run, so they hand out questionnaires to the public asking if they are happy and, if not, how to improve.An example of primary research in thephysical sciences: Can the transition temperature ofhigh-temperature superconductorsbe increased by varying the composition of the superconducting material. The scientist will modify the composition of the high-Tcmaterial in various ways and measure the transition temperature of the new material as a function of its composition.All research, whether primary or secondary, depends eventually on the collection of primary research data.

What Are Primary Sources?DefinitionPrimary sources are the first hand evidence left behind by participants or observers at the time of events.

"Primary sources originate in the time period that historians are studying. They vary a great deal. They may include personal memoirs, government documents, transcripts of legal proceedings, oral histories and traditions, archaeological and biological evidence, and visual sources like paintings and photographs. " ( Storey, William Kelleher.Writing History: A guide for Students. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1999, p.18).Primary sources provide first-hand testimony or direct evidence concerning a topic under investigation. They are created by witnesses or recorders who experienced the events or conditions being documented. Often these sources are created at the time when the events or conditions are occurring, but primary sources can also include autobiographies, memoirs, and oral histories recorded later. Primary sources are characterized by their content, regardless of whether they are available in original format, in microfilm/microfiche, in digital format, or in published format.

Primary sourcesare originalmaterialsthat have not been altered or distorted in any way.[1]In the study of history as an academic discipline, a primary source (also calledoriginal sourceorevidence) is an artifact, a document, a recording, or other source of information that was created at the time under study. It serves as an original source of information about the topic. Similar definitions are used inlibrary science, and other areas of scholarship, although different fields have somewhat different definitions.[2]Injournalism, a primary source can be a person with direct knowledge of a situation, or a document written by such a person.Primary sources are distinguished fromsecondary sources, which cite, comment on, or build upon primary sources. Generally, accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight are secondary.[3]A secondary source may also be a primary source depending on how it is used.[4]For example, a memoir would be considered a primary source in research concerning its author or about his or her friends characterized within it, but the same memoir would be a secondary source if it were used to examine the culture in which its author lived.[5]"Primary" and "secondary" should be understood as relative terms, with sources categorized according to specific historical contexts and what is being studied.

Strengths and weaknesses of primary sources[edit]In many fields and contexts, such as historical writing, it is almost always advisable to use primary sources if possible, and that "if none are available, it is only with great caution that [the author] may proceed to make use of secondary sources."[8]In addition, primary sources avoid the problem inherent in secondary sources, where each new author may distort and put their own spin on the findings of prior cited authors.[15]"A history, whose author draws conclusions from other than primary sources or secondary sources actually based on primary sources, is by definitionfictionand not history at all."Kameron SearleHowever, a primary source is not necessarily more of an authority or better than a secondary source. There can bebiasand tacit unconscious views which twist historical information."Original material may be ... prejudiced, or at least not exactly what it claims to be."David Iredale[16]These errors may be corrected in secondary sources, which are often subjected topeer review, can be well documented, and are often written by historians working in institutions where methodological accuracy is important to the future of the author's career and reputation. Historians consider the accuracy andobjectivenessof the primary sources they are using and historians subject both primary and secondary sources to a high level of scrutiny. A primary source such as ajournalentry (or the online version, a blog), at best, may only reflect one individual'sopinionon events, which may or may not be truthful, accurate, or complete.Participants andeyewitnessesmay misunderstand events or distort their reports (deliberately or unconsciously) to enhance their own image or importance. Such effects can increase over time, as people create a narrative that may not be accurate.[17]For any source, primary or secondary, it is important for the researcher to evaluate the amount and direction of bias.[18]As an example, a government report may be an accurate and unbiased description of events, but it can becensoredor altered for propaganda orcover-uppurposes. The facts can bedistortedto present the opposing sides in a negative light.Barristersare taught that evidence in a court case may be truthful, but it may be distorted to support (or oppose) the position of one of the parties.

What is Primary Market Research?The process of collecting original data about the market, by the marketer on its own is called primary market research. The research is carried out after getting some knowledge from thesecondary sources(eg. govt surveys or surveys by other companies). One can decide to go for primary market research if he feels that the data available from secondary sources is not fulfilling his requirements.Primary market research can be quantitative or qualitative in nature.

This process of research can either be done by the marketer or can be outsourced to the person or organisation which specializes in these type of surveys.Although this type of exercise may be lengthy and costly the information which we gather from ishighly relevantfor designing marketing strategy for the client. Primary research is not carried out frequently and organizations generally depend of secondary sources for information. In order to go for this process, the researcher has to take care of everything, starting from designing questionnaires, collecting replies from respondents and then interpreting it depending on requirements.

Now lets discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Primary Market Research to the marketer.

Advantages of Primary Market Research

1)Targeted Issues are addressed.The organization asking for the research has the complete control on the process and the research is streamlines as far as its objectives and scope is concerned. Researching company can be asked to concentrate their efforts to find data regarding specific market rather than concentration on mass market.

2)Data interpretation is better.The collected data can be examined and interpreted by the marketers depending on their needs rather than relying on the interpretation made by collectors of secondary data.

3)Recency of Data.Usually secondary data is not so recent and it may not be specific to the place or situation marketer is targeting. The researcher can use the irrelevant seeming information for knowing trends or may be able to find some relation with the current scenario. Thus primary data becomes a more accurate tool since we can use data which is useful for us.

4)Proprietary Issues. Collector of primary data is the owner of that information and he need not share it with other companies and competitors. This gives an edge over competitors replying on secondary data.

Disadvantages of Primary Market Research

1)High Cost.Collecting data using primary research is a costly proposition as marketer has to be involved throughout and has to design everything.

2)Time Consuming.Because of exhaustive nature of the exercise, the time required to do research accurately is very long as compared to secondary data, which can be collected in much lesser time duration.

3)InaccurateFeed-backs.In case the research involves taking feedbacks from the targeted audience, there are high chances that feedback given is not correct. Feedbacks by their basic nature are usually biased or given just for the sake of it.

4)More number of resources are required. Leaving aside cost and time, other resources like human resources and materials too are needed in larger quantity to do surveys and data collection.

SECONDARY DATASecondarydata, is data collected by someone other than the user. Common sources of secondary data forsocial scienceincludecensuses, organisational records and data collected through qualitative methodologies orqualitative research.Primary data, by contrast, are collected by the investigator conducting the research.Secondary data analysis saves time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and, particularly in the case ofquantitative data, provides larger and higher-qualitydatabasesthat would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on their own. In addition, analysts of social and economic change consider secondary data essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change and/or developments.

SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATAAs is the case inprimary research, secondary data can be obtained from different research strands:prior documentation such as Census, housing, social security as well as electoral statistics and other related databases. internet searches, libraries; progress reports; etc. It does not include interviews as this collect primary data for analysis to generate information.A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed has already been carried out, for example:literature reviews,case studiesmight have been carried out, published texts andstatisticscould have been already used elsewhere, media promotion and personal contacts have also been utilized.This wealth of background work means that secondary data generally have a pre-established degree ofvalidityandreliabilitywhich need not be re-examined by the researcher who is re-using such data.Furthermore, secondary data can also be helpful in theresearch designof subsequent primary research and can provide a baseline with which the collected primary data results can be compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to begin any research activity with a review of the secondary data.

secondary analysis or re use of qualitative data,

Qualitative data re-use provides a unique opportunity to study the raw materials of the recent or more distant past to gain insights for both methodological and theoretical purposes....In the secondary analysis of qualitative data, gooddocumentationcan not be underestimated as it provides necessary background and much needed context both of which make re-use a more worthwhile and systematic endeavour.[1]Actually one could go as far as claim that qualitative secondary data analysis can be understood, not so much as the analysis of pre-existing data; rather as involving a process of re-contextualising, and re-constructing, data

Secondary data is the data that have been already collected by and readily available from other sources. Such data are cheaper and more quickly obtainable than the primary data and also may be available when primary data can not be obtained at all.

Advantages of Secondary data1. It is economical. It saves efforts and expenses.2. It is time saving.3. It helps to make primary data collection more specific since with the help of secondary data, we are able to make out what are the gaps and deficiencies and what additional information needs to be collected.4. It helps to improve the understanding of the problem.5. It provides a basis for comparison for the data that is collected by the researcher.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data1. Secondary data is something that seldom fits in the framework of the marketing research factors. Reasons for its non-fitting are:-a. Unit of secondary data collection-Suppose you want information on disposable income, but the data is available on gross income. The information may not be same as we require.b. Class Boundaries may be different when units are same.Before 5 YearsAfter 5 Years

2500-50005000-6000

5001-75006001-7000

7500-100007001-10000

c. Thus the data collected earlier is of no use to you.2. Accuracy of secondary data is not known.3. Data may be outdated.Evaluation of Secondary DataBecause of the above mentioned disadvantages of secondary data, we will lead to evaluation of secondary data. Evaluation means the following four requirements must be satisfied:-1. Availability-It has to be seen that the kind of data you want is available or not. If it is not available then you have to go for primary data.2. Relevance-It should be meeting the requirements of the problem. For this we have two criterion:-a. Units of measurement should be the same.b. Concepts used must be same and currency of data should not be outdated.3. Accuracy-In order to find how accurate the data is, the following points must be considered: -a. Specification and methodology used;b. Margin of error should be examined;c. The dependability of the source must be seen.4. Sufficiency-Adequate data should be available.Robert W Joselyn has classified the above discussion into eight steps. These eight steps are sub classified into three categories. He has given a detailed procedure for evaluating secondary data.1. Applicability of research objective.2. Cost of acquisition.3. Accuracy of data.

[19]