EU- Russia and Ukraine

Subject Russian military intervention in post-Euromaidan Ukraine. (Euromaidan a wave of demonstrations and civil unrest in Ukraine, which began in the night of 21 November 2013 with public protest in Kiev, demanding closer European integration. ) Actions take before Russia invaded Crimea Ukraine has been seen as a part of the sphere of privileged interests by Russia. After the collapse of the Soviet Union both nations retained very close ties, however, conflict began almost immediately. Several sticking points most important -Ukraine`s nuclear arsenal which Ukraine agreed to abandon on the condition that Russia would issue an assurance against threats against the territorial integrity or political independence of Ukraine. This proved worthless in 2014. A second point was the division of the black sea fleet. Ukraine agrees to lease the Sevastopol port so that the Russian Black Sea fleet could continue to occupy it together with Ukraine. Later Ukraine and Russia engage in several gas disputes. The 2014 Ukrainian Revolution was viewed by the Russian Federation as a direct threat to their interests. Vladimir Putin was asked to use armed forces to restore the rule of law, peace and stability and on 1 March Putin was given the right to use Russian troops in Crimea. On 24 June, Putin asked the Russian parliament to cancel the resolution on use of Russian forces in Ukraine. The next day the council voted to repeal previous decisions. It became legal for Russia to use military force in Ukraine.25. The history of writingWriting is the visual representation of language through the use of an established selection of markings.Writing developed independently in three different regions of the world: the Middle East, China, and Mesoamerica.The first true writing in the Western Hemisphere appeared in the 2ndcentury BCE in Mexico. The Epi-Olmec, the successor culture to the Olmec, used a complete writing system featuring hieroglyphics with both whole words and syllabic sound. Mayan, Mixtec, and Aztec writing also appeared in Central and South America not long after Epi-Olmec writing. Several writing traditions developed as the major indigenous ethnic groups of the Americas expanded and consolidated their empires.In the 4th millennium BCE, proto-writing began to evolve into phonetic writing systems in Egypt, India, Iran, and Sumer. Sumerians began transforming their primitive pictographic system into one featuring syllabic, alphabetic, and phonetic symbols. Between its first appearance in 3400 BCE and its replacement by the Roman alphabet in the first century CE, the Sumerian symbol group decreased in size from 1,000 characters to approximately 400, with a corresponding increase in sophistication.The Egyptian hieroglyphic system, using both logographic and alphabetic elements, was developed circa 3300 BCE, probably as a result of exchanges between Egypt and Sumerian Mesopotamia. The Egyptian hieroglyphic system was used until the 5thcentury BCE.Since the appearance of the oracle bone script, Chinese writing has undergone a number of fundamental changes, including the use of compound characters for clarity and alterations in script appearance. Nevertheless, more than one-thousand characters appearing in the oracle bone script can be identified, in modified form, in modern Chinese writing. Whats more, speakers of other Asian languages adopted and modified Archaic Chinese, eventually leading to the development of writing systems for Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, among other languages.

Through a natural evolution of language, culture, script, and necessity, these early traditions became the foundation for the modern written word.

British Empire,a worldwide system of dependenciescolonies, protectorates, and other territoriesthat over a span of some three centuries was brought under the sovereignty of the crown ofGreat Britainand the administration of the British government.

Great Britain made its first tentative efforts to establish overseas settlements in the 16th century. Maritime expansion, driven by commercial ambitions and by competition with France, accelerated in the 17th century and resulted in the establishment of settlements in North America and the West Indies. By 1670 there were British American colonies in New England, Virginia, and Maryland and settlements in the Bermudas,Honduras, Antigua,Barbados, and Nova Scotia.Jamaica was obtained by conquest in 1655, and theHudsons Bay Companyestablished itself in what became northwesternCanadafrom the 1670s on.In the 17th and 18th centuries, the crown exercised control over its colonies chiefly in the areas of trade and shipping. In accordance with the mercantilist philosophy of the time, the colonies were regarded as a source of necessary raw materials for Englandand were granted monopolies for their products, such as tobacco and sugar, in the British market. In return, they were expected to conduct all their trade by means of English ships and to serve as markets for British manufactured goods.After World War I and even more so after World War II,Nationalist sentiment developed rapidly in many of these areas with the result that, beginning with India in 1947, independence was granted them, along with the option of retaining an association with Great Britain and other former dependencies in the Commonwealth of Nations (the adjective British was not used officially after 1946).The last significant British colony,Hong Kong, was returned to Chinese sovereignty in 1997. By then, virtually nothing remained of the empire. The Commonwealth, however, remained a remarkably flexible and durable institution

51 The History of Chemistry.Humans have always sought to identify, use and change the materials in our environment. Early potters found beautiful glazes to decorate and preserve their wares. Herdsmen, brewers and vintners used fermentation techniques to make cheese, beer and wine. Housewives leached the lye from wood ash to make soap. Smiths learned to combine copper and tin to make bronze. Crafters learned to make glass; leatherworkers tanned hides.In the eighth century A.D.,Jbir ibn Hayyn, a Muslim astronomer, philosopher and scientist, became one of the first to use scientific methods to study materials. Also known by his Latinized name, Geber, he is known as the "father of chemistry." He is thought to be the author of 22 scrolls describing methods of distillation, crystallization, sublimation and evaporation. He invented the alembic, a device used to distill and study acids. He also developed an early chemical classification system using the properties of the materials he studied. His categories were: Spirits materials that would vaporize when heated. "Metals" including iron, tin, copper, and lead. Non-malleable substances materials that could be made into powders, such as stone.In Europe, the study ofchemistrywas conducted by alchemists with the goals of transforming common metals into gold or silver and inventing a chemical elixir that would prolong life. Although these goals were never achieved, there were some important discoveries made in the attempt.Robert Boyle(1627-1691) studied the behavior of gases and discovered the inverse relationship between volume and pressure of a gas. He also stated that all reality and change can be described in terms of elementary particles and their motion, an early understanding of atomic theory. In 1661, he wrote the first chemistry textbook, The Sceptical Cymist, which moved the study of substances away from mystical associations withalchemyand toward scientific investigation.Dmitri Mendeleev(1834-1907) was a Russian chemist known for developing the firstPeriodic Table of the Elements. He listed the 63 known elements and their properties on cards. When he arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass, he could group elements with similar properties.In many ways, the history of civilization is the history of chemistry the study of matter and its properties.

52. The history of parfumeThe word perfume comes from the Latin phrase, "per" meaning "through" and "fumus" meaning smoke." The French later gave the name parfum to the pleasant smells that drift through the air from burning incense. There are few periods of history that have not been influenced by perfume. The history of perfume is often intertwined with the history of the human race.The first form of perfume was incense. Incense was first discovered by the Mesopotamians about 4,000 years ago. Ancient cultures burned many kinds of resins, bums and woods at their religious ceremonies. They often soaked the fragrant woods and resins in water and oil, and rubbed their bodies with the liquid. They also embalmed the dead with these perfumes.Egyptians carried perfume with them from birth until after their death. Many Egyptians put perfumes in their tombs to keep their skin silky smooth in the afterlife. Since the Egyptians believed that the soul ascended into heaven, relatives saw to it that perfume accompanied the spirit. Urns encrusted with gold, jars of delicate pottery, and chalcedonies filled with aromatics were placed in the tombs. So potent were some of the oils used, that 3,300 years after Tutankhamen's death, a trace of fragrance in the tightly sealed pots of unguents could be detected when the tomb was opened. Perfumes were used during the embalming process and took 40 to 70 days to complete! Powdered myrrh, cassia and other perfumes were used in the embalming process.The Phoenicians of Syria were the traders or salesman of antiquity. Aromatic gums brought overland from China were bought by Europeans who could afford them. Possession of the sweet-smelling herbs was evidence of wealth. It was prestigious to wear perfume, and owners of large amounts of oils and unguents were greatly respected.Linking the past and present of the perfume industry are the Arabs. The process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, (the procedure most commonly used today), was developed by Avicenna, the Arabian doctor unto was also a chemist. He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed herbs, or petals which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular.There are few periods of history that have not been influenced by perfume. So we can conclude that the history of perfume can be intertwined with the history of the human race.