eaching bjecTives Ore subjecTs - Tapestry of Grace...Bryan Magee (180) p. 66-67 (stop at “Isaac Newton”) Lower Grammar Upper Grammar Dialectic Rhetoric. r eaDing a ssignmenTs 5

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Teaching ObjecTives: cOre subjecTs

Threads: History Teacher’s Notes, p. 34-52

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� Learn about Jamestown and how it was founded. � Read about the Powhatan Indians and their relationship with the new settlers.

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� Learn about Jamestown and how it was founded. � Read about the Powhatan Indians and their relationship with the new settlers.

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ic � Make connections between Elizabeth I, James I, and the founding of Roanoke and Jamestown. � Review the relationship between the Powhatan Indians and the new settlers. � Consider the spiritual and moral foundations of Jamestown and their results. � Learn about Galileo’s scientific advancements.

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� Study the difficulties and distresses that the colonists encountered at Jamestown. � Review the relationship between the Powhatan Indians and the new settlers. � Discuss the consequences of the Jamestown settlers’ worldly emphases. � Focus on conditions in eastern Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, noting in particular

the course of the Thirty Years’ War and the issues surrounding it. � Learn more about the Scientific Revolution, focusing on the work of Galileo.

Threads: Writing Writing Assignment Charts, p. 8-10

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ls � Student assignments are found in the Writing Assignment Charts contained in this week-plan. Make sure your child writes every week!

� Teachers should consult Writing Aids or their choice of writing handbook each week for additional help in teaching the week’s assignment.

If this is your first week using Tapestry of Grace, please note the following start-up aids: � If you are using our Digital Edition, anywhere you see dark blue text, click on it to go to the Internet for helps! � Do you need to know how to do your weekly planning? Watch our online video for ideas! � Look on the Loom for detailed set-up instructions. Your set-up can be done the first day of school or you may

choose to do it gradually the week before you begin your academics. � If you are teaching dialectic or rhetoric students, read the tips for leading Socratic discussions found on the Loom. � There is a cutting chart in the document entitled Teaching Rhetoric Literature that is also on the Loom. This will

give you guidance as you plan which books to assign for this subject. � Please read through the Unit Introduction as it will give you the big picture for the academic weeks ahead. � Lastly, peruse all of the documents on the Loom; it will help you to know where to find these helps ahead of time.

http://www.tapestryofgrace.com/plan/

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Threads: Literature Teacher’s Notes, p. 52-61

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� Learn the difference between fiction and nonfiction and a biography and autobiography. � Complete simple story maps regarding the biography of Pocahontas.

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� Answer questions about the setting and characters in this week’s biography. � Write a short summary about each chapter.

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Complete journal entries about circumstances that the main character experiences.

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� Learn about characterization and apply it to in Don Quixote. � Introduce the farcical mode and discuss Don Quixote as an example of its elements. � Review the romantic and realistic modes, as well as the genre of romance, and apply these to Don Quixote. � Discuss Don Quixote as a “realistic romance” and evaluate whether Cervantes is truly satirizing romantic

ideals in it. Teaching ObjecTives: elecTives

Threads: Geography Teacher’s Notes, p. 61-62

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� Survey the major landforms of North America, focusing on large topographical features and major river systems.

� Begin memorizing the locations of the original thirteen colonies.

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� Review major landforms of North America, focusing on the East Coast. � Begin to memorize the names and locations of the original thirteen colonies.

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oric � Review major landforms of North America, focusing on the East Coast.

� Begin to memorize the names and locations of the original thirteen colonies. � Identify eastern European countries after the Peace of Westphalia.

Threads: Fine Arts and Activities Teacher’s Notes, p. 62

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� Play some games that the colonists may have played indoors. � Young colonial girls often played with homemade dolls. Try your hand at making one this week. � Draw a picture of Pocahontas and John Smith. � Go on a field trip, either real or virtual, to Jamestown, one of America’s earliest settlements.

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� “Enlist” friends to travel across the Atlantic Ocean by creating a travel brochure. � Complete activities and worksheets that reinforce learning about the establishment of the colonies. � Go on a field trip, either real or virtual, to Jamestown, one of America’s earliest settlements.

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Threads: Fine Arts and Activities Teacher’s Notes, p. 62D

iale

ctic � Make crafts about the Native Americans related to fishing and trading.

� Go on a field trip, either real or virtual, to Jamestown, one of America’s earliest settlements. � Complete activities to augment your study of Galileo Galilei.

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Optional: Do an overview of the Baroque period using your History: In-Depth resource.

Threads: Church History Teacher’s Notes, p. 63

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� Learn how the Thirty Years’ War in Germany affected the church. � Learn how the Peace of Westphalia ended the religious wars in Europe.

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oric Begin comparing and contrasting the aspects of the two most famous early English settlements—Jamestown and

Plymouth. Be sure to thoroughly discuss Jamestown’s spiritual emphases (or lack thereof) as you study. You will continue this discussion next week.

Threads: Government Teacher’s Notes, p. 63-64

Rhet

oric Learn more about early forms of representative government by studying the documents settlers wrote to estab-

lish new governments for their colonies.

Threads: Philosophy Teacher’s Notes, p. 65-66

Rhet

oric This week, Simplicio will learn how Galileo tried to resolve the tension between the church’s interpretation of

Scripture and the new Copernican theory of astronomy.

From World Book (c) 2005 World Book, Inc., 233 N. Michigan Avenue, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60601. All rights reserved. World Book map

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Primary resOurces

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☐ The New Americans, by Betsy Maestro (J 970) p. 3-7

☐ The Awakening of Europe, by M.B. Synge, chapter 28

☐ Making Thirteen Col-onies, by Joy Hakim (J 973) chapters 1-10

☐ This Country of Ours (Yesterday’s Classics version), by H.E. Mar-shall, chapters XIII-XVIII

☐ The Colonial Period: 1607-1750, edited by Brenda Stalcup (973) p. 10-57

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☐ The Jamestown Col-ony, by Brendan January

☐ Three Ships Come Sailing, by Gilchrist Waring (J 975)

☐ Exploration and Con-quest, by Betsy Mae-stro (J 970) p. 32-37

☐ Our Island Story (Yesterday’s Classics version), by H.E. Mar-shall, chapter LXXIV

☐ Along Came Galileo, by Jeanne Bendick

☐ The Age of Religious Wars, 1559-1715, by Richard S. Dunn (940) p. 58-102, 199-208

suggesTeD reaD-alOuD ☐ Colonial Living, by Edwin Tunis (J 917) p. 19-22 (middle)

gOvernmenT elecTive ☐ First Charter of Virginia;

Ordinances for Virginia (Key Documents in Government 2)

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☐ Pocahontas, by Ingri and Edgar D’Aulaire (JUV BIO)

☐ William Bradford, Pil-grim Boy, by Bradford Smith, p. 11-91 (Week 1 of 2)

☐ Almost Home, by Wendy Lawton (JUV FICTION) (Week 1 of 2)

beginning anD cOnTinuing levels ☐ Excerpts from Don Quixote,

by Miguel de Cervantes (Year 2 Shorter Works Anthology)

☐ Readings in Poetics

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☐ Colonial Kids, by Laurie Carlson (J 973) p. 116, 118, 120, 123, 125-129

☐ America: Ready-To-Use Interdisciplinary Lessons & Activities, by Dwila Bloom, sec-tions 3-2A, 3-5, 3-6, 3-11, 3-12 and 3-14

☐ More Than Moccasins, by Laurie Carlson (J 973) p. 27-30, 34-36

☐ Optional: The Age of Re-ligious Wars, 1559-1715, by Richard S. Dunn (940) p. 216-235

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church hisTOry church hisTOry church hisTOry ☐ The Church in History,

by B.K. Kuiper, chapter 30 (sections 6-7) and chapter 41 (sections 1-2)

church hisTOry elecTive

PhilOsOPhy elecTive ☐ Pageant of Philosophy supple-

ment: Galileo Galilei ☐ The Story of Philosophy, by

Bryan Magee (180) p. 66-67 (stop at “Isaac Newton”)

Lower Grammar Upper Grammar Dialectic Rhetoric

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☐ The Story of the World, Volume 2, by Susan Wise Bauer, chapters 37 (sec-ond section) and 40

☐ The Story of the World, Volume 3, by Susan Wise Bauer, chapters 3, 7, 8 (optional) and 9

☐ Streams of Civilization, Volume 2, by Garry J. Moes, p. 31-38, 132-142 (stop at “Isaac Newton”)

☐ Heritage of Freedom, by Lowman, Thomp-son, and Grussendorf, p. 26-29

☐ Western Civilization (Combined Volume, Sixth Edition), by Jackson J. Spielvogel, p. 410-417 (stop at “The Practice of Absolutism”) 448-457 (stop at “Newton”)

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☐ The Thirteen Colonies, by Brendan January (J 973) p. 4-10

☐ Galileo’s Journal, by Jeanne K. Pettenati (JUV BIO)

☐ Galileo, by Leonard Everett Fisher

☐ Kings and Queens of England, by John Green, p. 20

☐ The Jamestown Colony, by Gail Sakurai (J 921)

☐ Starry Messenger, by Peter Sỉs (JUV BIO)

☐ Galileo and the Universe, by Steve Parker (J 520)

☐ The Kings & Queens of England & Scotland, by Plantagenet Somerset Fry (941) p. 128-133

☐ The Story of the Thir-teen Colonies, by H.A. Guerber, p. 63-75

☐ The World of Captain John Smith, by Gen-evieve Foster (J 909) p. 32-172

☐ Rats, Bulls, and Flying Machines, by Deborah Mazzotta Prum, chap-ter 16

☐ The Story of Liberty, by Charles Coffin, chap-ter XXIX

☐ Sweet Land of Liberty, by Charles Coffin, chapters I-II

☐ The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles, by John Smith (917) read only excerpts

☐ Birth of a New Physics, by I. Bernard Cohen (530) chapters 1-5 (Week 1 of 2)

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☐ The True Story of Pocahontas, by Lucille Recht Penner (J 975)

☐ Don Quixote and the Windmills, by Eric A. Kimmel

☐ Pocahontas and the Strangers, by Clyde Robert Bulla (JUV BIO) (Week 1 of 2)

☐ The Double Life of Pocahontas, by Jean Fritz (J 975) (Week 1 of 2)

☐ The Diary of Remember Patience Whipple, by Kathryn Lasky (Week 1 of 2)

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☐ Kids’ America, by Ste-ven Caney (J 745)

☐ Pocahontas Color-ing Book, by Brian Doherty

☐ Native Americans (Make It Work!) by Andrew Haslam (J 970) p. 4-7

☐ Galileo for Kids, by Richard Panchyk (JUV BIO) chapter 1

☐ Music: An Appreciation (Sixth Brief Edition), by Roger Kamien, p. 89

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☐ The King’s Book, by Louise A. Vernon (Week 1 of 2)

☐ For Those Who Dare, by John Hudson Tiner, p. 40-46

☐ A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada, by Mark Noll, p. 30-38 (top of page)

☐ In the Beginning, by Ali-ster McGrath (220)

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☐ Invitation to the Clas-sics, by Louise Cowan and Os Guinness (809) p. 139-148

☐ The Encyclopedia of Na-tive America, by Trudy Griffin-Pierce (J 970) p. 38-43

☐ VIDEO: Man of La Mancha (PG) starring Peter O’Toole and Sophia Loren


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☐ Study the exciting story of the found-ing of Jamestown.

☐ Explore the lives of the Powhatan Indians.

☐ Study the exciting story of the founding of James-town.

☐ Explore the lives of the Powhatan Indians.

☐ Learn about the coloniza-tion of Jamestown and note the factors that made Jamestown successful when other colonies had failed.

☐ Put the beginnings of English colonialism in the context of the explorers, European commercial rivalry, and the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I.

☐ Review the relationship between the Powhatan In-dians and the new settlers.

☐ Study the scientific accom-plishments of Galileo.

☐ Learn about the coloniza-tion of Jamestown and its cultural practices.

☐ Note the changes in the Holy Roman Empire, particularly through the Thirty Years’ War during the time of colonization of the New World.

☐ Assess the spiritual and moral foundation of Jamestown and its effects on the colony’s history.

☐ Review the relationship between the Powhatan In-dians and the new settlers.

☐ Learn about the beginning of the Scientific Revolu-tion as marked by the studies of Galileo.

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☐ Walter Raleigh ☐ Virginia Dare ☐ James I ☐ John Smith ☐ John Rolfe ☐ Pocahontas ☐ Powhatan

☐ Walter Raleigh ☐ James I ☐ John Smith ☐ John Rolfe ☐ Pocahontas ☐ Powhatan ☐ Galileo Galilei

☐ Walter Raleigh ☐ James I ☐ John Smith ☐ John Rolfe ☐ Edward Wingfield ☐ Pocahontas ☐ Powhatan ☐ Lord Delaware ☐ Thomas Dale ☐ Galileo Galilei

☐ James I ☐ Christopher Newport ☐ John Smith ☐ John Rolfe ☐ Pocahontas ☐ Powhatan ☐ Opechancanough ☐ Lord Delaware ☐ Gustavus Adolphus ☐ Galileo Galilei

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Recognize or spell (op-tional) these words:

☐ climate ☐ colony ☐ colonist ☐ settlement ☐ famine ☐ tobacco ☐ massacre ☐ malaria

All lower-grammar words, plus these:

☐ palisade ☐ calamity ☐ trinket ☐ provisions ☐ Burgesses ☐ bachelor

Add the following dates to your time line this week:1580-1631c. 1595-16171603-162516071618-164816191619

1648

Life of John SmithLife of PocahontasReign of James I of EnglandJamestown is founded.Thirty Years’ WarThe first slaves are sent to Jamestown.The House of Burgesses meets for the first time.Peace of Westphalia


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☐ Choose a long-term project and map out your plan for finishing your project over this unit.

☐ Make a doll like the ones young colonial girls may have played with.

☐ Draw a picture of Poca-hontas.


☐ Make a travel brochure. ☐ Do one or more of the

activities or worksheets found in your resource book.


☐ Construct a model of a canoe.

☐ Create a fishing lure. ☐ Make a duck decoy. ☐ Make a peace pipe.

☐ Do an optional over-view of the Baroque period using your History: In-Depth resource.

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☐ Play indoor colonial games.

☐ Plan a visit to Jamestown.


☐ Plan a visit to Jamestown.


☐ Make wampum and trade some objects with your siblings or friends.

☐ Plan a field trip to visit the settlement of Jamestown in Virginia.

☐ Do activities to en-hance your study of Galileo.

☐ Do an optional over-view of the Baroque period using your History: In-Depth resource.

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☐ Begin learning about the North American conti-nent. This week, we will look at the “big picture” of the continent as a whole, seeking to learn its major landforms. With your teacher, choose one of the following projects:

☐ Begin a salt map of North America.

☐ Begin making a dis-play board based on a map of the thirteen colonies. Over the next eight weeks, add information on the colonies you study.

☐ Label a paper map with or find the landforms listed in the Student Activity Pages.

☐ Begin memorizing the names and locations of the original thirteen American colonies.

☐ Begin learning about the North American conti-nent. This week, we will look at the “big picture” of the continent as a whole, seeking to learn its major landforms.

☐ Label a paper map with or find the landforms listed in the Student Activity Pages. You may also choose to make a salt map or display board.

☐ Begin memorizing the names and locations of the original thirteen American colonies.

☐ Review the major landforms of North America.

☐ Begin to memorize the names and locations of the original thirteen colonies.

☐ Review the major landforms of North America.

☐ Begin to memorize the names and locations of the original thirteen colonies.

☐ Identify the borders of eastern European countries after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.


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level genres insTrucTiOns anD TOPics

1 ☐ Cluster and Describe ☐ Descriptive Writing ☐ Paragraph Construction ☐ Making Books (Week 1

of 11)

☐ This week, with your teacher, read about paragraphs in Writing Aids or your hand-book. Find out the answers to these questions:

☐ What exactly is a paragraph? ☐ How is a paragraph different from a sentence? ☐ What does “indent” mean? How can you tell how many paragraphs are on a

page? ☐ One way to organize your thoughts in a paragraph is to “cluster” your ideas. An-

other name for “clustering” is “mind mapping.” ☐ Begin making a “Colonial America” book. For most weeks, you will cluster your

ideas and use them to describe Colonial America. This is called “descriptive writ-ing.” With your teacher, read about descriptive writing in Writing Aids or hand-book.

☐ Using Writing Aids or your handbook, learn how to cluster your ideas for one of the following topics suggested for your “Colonial America” book, using the Simple Cluster Diagram (Writing Aids Graphic Organizer). Here are suggested topics:

☐ Write a paragraph that introduces you and your book. Tell your name, how old you are, and what you hope this book will inform your readers about.

☐ Cluster ideas about Jamestown for a paragraph you’ll finish next week.

2 ☐ Fables (Week 1 of 4)

☐ Read about fables in the Talking Points of Writing Aids, in your handbook, or in an encyclopedia.

☐ Write a definition of a fable in the “Reference” section of your Grammar and Com-position Notebook.

☐ Begin writing a fable. Start by thinking about the characters you might include. If your teacher instructs you to, use a Story Map (Writing Aids Graphic Organizer) to begin your prewriting.

☐ You might choose one of the following morals for your fable: ☐ Birds of a feather flock together. ☐ Look before you leap. ☐ Slow but steady wins the race.

☐ Complete a Story Map according to your teacher’s instructions. ☐ File your story under “Work in Progress” in your Grammar and Composition

Notebook.

3 ☐ Playwriting (Week 1 of 4)

☐ Playwriting is introduced early on in this unit so that if you desire to perform it at your Unit Celebration, you will have time to rehearse and prepare props and cos-tumes. If you have co-op friends or siblings working in Levels 6 or 9, you can join forces with them to both write and produce your play.

☐ Print and read the Talking Points about playwriting in Writing Aids. ☐ Decide on a basic story line, and make a Story Map (Writing Aids Graphic Orga-

nizer). If you’re writing by yourself, you may want to write a simple, short, one-act play. The suggested subject for your play is the adventures of the colonists and the Indians.

☐ If you’re working with a group, create an overall plot outline for the play, then as-sign scenes to each writer. They’ll have to revise the scenes according to the group consensus later, but they can draft the scenes separately. Schedule draft deadlines and editing meetings for the next two weeks.

☐ Decide on at least three characters, and draft one-page accounts of their lives up until the time in which your play is set. You may wish to use a Characterization Grid (Writing Aids Graphic Organizer). How old are your characters? Where did they grow up? Are they nice or mean?

☐ File your work under “Work in Progress” in your Grammar and Composition Notebook.

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4 ☐ Historical Fiction (Week 1 of 4)

☐ Historical fiction can be both interesting and informative. Because the writer inter-weaves historical information with an interesting plot and characters, history can seem to come alive. This week, you will begin to write a piece of historical fiction.

☐ Talk with your teacher about different works of historical fiction you’ve read and enjoyed. Discuss why you liked them and how they helped you understand the period in which it was set.

☐ Print and read the Talking Points about writing historical fiction in Writing Aids. You will not have time to write a long piece, so work with your teacher on plan-ning a manageable project.

☐ We suggest that you choose a Medieval, Renaissance, or Reformation setting for your story (this will require less research, since we just finished learning about these eras). Alternately, you may want set your story in Jamestown or Plymouth.

☐ Plan your story using a Story Map and outline major characters using a Charac-terization Grid (Writing Aids Graphic Organizers).

☐ File any work under “Work in Progress” in your Grammar and Composition Notebook.

5 ☐ Personal Narrative (Week 1 of 4)

☐ Print and read the Talking Points about personal narratives in Writing Aids. ☐ Plan your narrative using a Story Map and Characterization Grid (Writing Aids

Graphic Organizers). Keep in mind that your finished narrative should be about three pages long.

☐ File any graphic organizers under “Completed Work” in your Grammar and Composition Notebook.


☐ Playwriting is introduced early on in this unit so that if you desire to perform it at your Unit Celebration, you will have time to rehearse and prepare props and costumes. If you have co-op friends or siblings working in Levels 3 or 9, you can join forces with them to both write and produce your play.

☐ Read the detailed directions for Level 3 to see what you should do this week to begin playwriting.

7 ☐ Reports

☐ Print and read the Talking Points about reports in Writing Aids. ☐ Write a one-page report about one of the early colonists that you read about this

week. Follow all of the steps in the writing process. You may wish to use a Report Chart or Report Grid (Writing Aids Graphic Organizers).

☐ File your report under “Completed Work” in your Grammar and Composition Notebook.

8 ☐ Pet Peeve Essay

☐ It is important to develop the ability to graciously, humbly, and biblically express your views on matters that truly bother you. Print and read the Talking Points in Writing Aids about the unique characteristics of a pet peeve essay.

☐ Using all of the steps in the writing process, write a pet peeve essay this week on a subject that your teacher approves. Remember to be gracious and forbearing!

☐ File your essay under “Completed Work” in your Grammar and Composition Notebook.

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☐ Playwriting is introduced early on in this unit so that if you desire to perform it at your Unit Celebration, you will have time to write, rehearse, and prepare props and costumes. If you have co-op friends or siblings working in Levels 3 or 6, you can join forces with them to both write and produce your play.

☐ Print and read the Talking Points about playwriting in Writing Aids. ☐ Decide on a basic story line, and use a Story Map (Writing Aids Graphic Organizer).

If you’re writing by yourself, you may want to write a simple, short, one-act play. The suggested subject for your play is the adventures of the colonists and their inter-actions with their Indian neighbors.

☐ If you’re working with a group, create a general plot outline for the entire play, then assign scenes to each writer. They’ll have to revise the scenes according to the group consensus later, but they can draft the scenes separately. Schedule draft deadlines and editing meetings for the next two weeks.

☐ Decide on at least three characters, and draft one-page accounts of their lives up un-til the time in which your play is set. You may want to use a Characterization Grid (Writing Aids Supplement) for each character. How old are your characters? Where did they grow up? Are they nice or mean?

☐ File your work under “Work in Progress” in your Grammar and Composition Note-book.

10 ☐ Essay of Argumentation

☐ Print and read the Talking Points about essays of argumentation in Writing Aids. ☐ Also, scan the Grading Rubric for essays of argumentation in Writing Aids to under-

stand how your teacher will be grading your assignment. ☐ Write an essay of argumentation. Begin by choosing a topic. You may pick a cur-

rent-day issue, or you may decide to write on one of the following historical topics: ☐ Commercial companies should never have conducted colonization expeditions. ☐ The Jamestown experiment was a recipe for disaster and would have failed but

for the intervening grace of God.

11 ☐ Story Writing (Week 1 of 3)

☐ Print and read the Talking Points about story writing in Writing Aids. ☐ Short stories have special advantages and constraints. With your teacher, plan your

short story this week. Fill out a Story Map (Writing Aids Graphic Organizer), and then write character sketches for your story. Use a Characterization Grid (Writing Aids Graphic Organizer) if desired.

☐ Suggested topics for your story include the following: ☐ A story from your personal experience ☐ A story from a newspaper article or other story that you’ve read or heard ☐ A story set in one of the time periods we’ve studied this year

12 ☐ Historical Fiction (Week 1 of 5)

☐ Historical fiction can be both interesting and informative. Because the writer inter-weaves historical information with an interesting plot and characters, history can seem to come alive. This week, you will begin to write a piece of historical fiction.

☐ Talk with your teacher about different works of historical fiction you’ve read and en-joyed. Discuss why you liked them and how they helped you understand the period in which it was set.

☐ Print and read the Talking Points about writing historical fiction in Writing Aids. You will not have time to write a long piece, so work with your teacher on planning a manageable project.

☐ We suggest that you choose a Medieval, Renaissance, or Reformation setting for your story (this will require less research, since we just finished learning about these eras). You may also set your story in Jamestown or Plymouth.

☐ Plan your story using a Story Map and outline major characters using a Character-ization Grid (Writing Aids Graphic Organizer).

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general infOrmaTiOn fOr all graDes

Over the next eight weeks, we will be studying Colonial America, the period of American history that occurred between the founding of the first European colonies on American soil and the end of the Revolutionary War. Maybe you’ve never studied Colonial America before. If not, you will enjoy learning about the famous people who contrib uted to building this country. If you have studied this period in the past, then you already know some of the stories from early American history, but we guarantee you’ll learn even more this time through.

This period is called the “colonial” period because during this time, the settlements in America were colo nies of diverse European countries. Though the colonists enjoyed an unprecedented amount of political and reli gious freedom, they were not American men and women in their hearts and minds during this period. They were Englishmen, Scotsmen, Dutchmen, Frenchmen, Swedes, or Ger mans. As such, they brought their traditions, their cultural and religious be-liefs, and their expectations with them to the colonies.

Throughout this unit, older students will dig deeper into the fascinating time of the European colonists through a dual focus on Colonial America and Europe. Although much of what happened in Colonial America was a direct result of what was going on in Europe, many people never get the chance to make connections between these two regional his-tories. These next eight weeks will allow you to continue to study God’s unfolding plan by looking at European history that is concurrent with events in Colonial America.

In Unit 2, we studied the life of Sir Walter Raleigh, and noted his colonization attempts, which all failed. His most famous attempt is remembered as the Lost Colony of Roanoke, so called because a small group of British settlers were left for three years (1587-1590) in the New World when the Spanish Armada interrupted Raleigh’s attempts to resupply the infant colony. It was Raleigh who named Virginia, after his Queen, Elizabeth.

This week, we will begin by noting that the first permanent European settlement in America belonged to Spain. Named St. Augustine, it was in what is now northern Florida. Spanish America largely grew strong in Central Amer-ica, however, so we will focus our in-depth study on the earliest English settlement in North America, Jamestown. It was named for Elizabeth I’s nephew, King James I who had become King of England in 1603, since Elizabeth never married and thus had no heirs. James I was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and had long been the King of Scotland. He was clever and well educated. He was a Prot es tant who supported the Anglican Church, but he was harsh with dissent-ers, both Catho lic and Puri tan. James did not like Raleigh and had him put into the Tower of London. Meanwhile, he gave a charter and his royal permission for a group of British adventurers to form a joint-stock company and try their hand at planting a new colony in America.

Jamestown

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all levels

This week, with your teacher, decide on any long-term projects you would like to work on over this unit. Some of these projects overlap with specific writing and geography assignments listed elsewhere. You may choose to complete one or more of the following: 1

� Make a “Book of Colonies” in which you research the geography, customs, and cultures of the original thirteen colonies, including detailed maps and reports on the wildlife and early history of each.

� Make a book on early colonial handcrafts or occupations. (We recommend using Dover coloring books to help with this project.)

� Make a book or display board on Native American tribes of the American eastern seaboard. Tell about their cus-toms, tools, clothes, housing, and interactions with Europeans in various places. Depend ing on the scope of your project, include a color-coded map of the locations of Native American tribes (perhaps on an acetate overlay).

� Make a book or display board about Colonial American agriculture. Include information on products (sold and used), processes, and diet (recipes). Plan to offer some sample food at your Unit Celebration.

� Make a display board based on a large map of the thirteen colonies. Use small paragraphs to tell about each colony’s European background and some of its unique cultural flavor. Include Canada, if you like.

� Research and make a display board on colonial fashions in terms of dress, décor, customs, or child rearing. � Make display boards for each of the colonies. Include detailed maps and reports on the wildlife and early history

of each. � Make one or more display boards that describe particular handcrafts of Colonial America. Try your hand at one

or more of them (take pictures to put on your board) and then report on how, where, and with what the handcrafts were made.

� Make a detailed salt map of the eastern seaboard of the United States. Label and paint a new part of your map each week as you learn about specific colonies.

� Make a large colonial time line, illustrating key events in Colonial American history. (Consider tying them back to events in Europe, if your teacher so directs.)

� Make a colonial card game (play it like Old Maid or Go Fish) and add new cards each week. Match events to people, or colonies to events, or geographical places to colonies—the possibilities are endless!

� Plan to wear costumes to the your Unit Celebration, and do a little sewing on your costume (or just part of your costume, if you’re a beginning sewer) each week.

There will be other, more short-term ideas presented in the Weekly Overview Charts as we progress through the unit. Your teacher will provide you with books to help with details for many of these projects.

1 Obviously, some of these ideas are more applicable to groups larger than single-family settings.

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fine arTs anD acTiviTies 1. Begin one of the projects suggested for all levels on page 12 (perhaps as a group project with other siblings).

(Week 1 of 8)2. Draw a picture of Pocahontas saving John Smith’s life.3. Plan a field trip to Jamestown, Virginia.Try these activities from Colonial Kids:4. Make a cornhusk doll, a spoon doll, or a poppet. 5. Learn to play indoor games like the ones colonists might have played during their travels. (You will have the op-

portunity to learn outdoor games in Week 23. During the last week of the unit, we recommend choosing some games to share during your Unit Celebration.) Play a few of the following games this week. (Week 1 of 3)

� “Hide the Thimble” � “Bilbo Catcher” � “Shooting Marbles” � “Twirl a Top”

geOgraPhy

In this unit, we will learn about (or review) the geography of North America, focusing on general geography, climate, flora, and fauna of each region as we study in dividual colonies. This week, we will get an overview and learn to recog-nize North America’s major land forms.1. Begin learning about the continent of North America. With your teacher’s help, choose one of the following projects:

� Make a salt map of North America. Plan to paint and label it next week. (Week 1 of 2) � Begin making a display board of a large outline map of the thirteen colonies and add information about

regional crops, products, or climate for each of the colonies you study over the next eight weeks. You can use Internet pictures, illustrations from coloring books, or your own drawings to decorate your board.

2. With your teacher’s help, look at an atlas of North America and find the following:

3. Throughout our study of Colonial America, we will be memorizing the names and locations of the original thir-teen colonies. This week, we are studying the founding of Jamestown, and of Virginia. Though Jamestown was only a small foothold in Virginia, color in the entire colony this week on your map of the thirteen colonies as they appeared in 1776. (A reference copy of the territories as they appeared in “final” form is provided on page 3.)

Oceans � Pacific Ocean � Atlantic Ocean � Gulf of Mexico � Caribbean Sea

Major Geographic Regions � Greenland � Canadian Shield � Coastal Lowlands � Interior Plains (Prairies) � Appalachian Highlands � Blue Ridge Mountains � Piedmont Region � Rocky Mountains

Major Landforms � Mt. McKinley � Death Valley � Grand Canyon

Major Rivers (East & Central) � Saint Lawrence River � Hudson River � Delaware River � Susquehanna River � Potomac River � Roanoke River � Savannah River � Mississippi River System

(include all tributaries)

Waterways � Lake Superior � Lake Michigan � Lake Huron � Lake Erie � Lake Ontario � Hudson Bay � Labrador Sea � Baffin Bay � Beaufort Sea � Bering Sea � Cape Cod Bay � Delaware Bay � Long Island Sound � Chesapeake Bay

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Worksheet for Pocahontas, by Ingri and Edgar D’Aulaire

Circle the correct answer in each pair:

1. Is this book fiction or nonfiction?

2. Is this book a biography or an autobiography?

Draw a picture of Pocahontas at the beginning of the book, the middle of the book, and the end of the book:

Beginning Middle End

Now, write one sentence describing each of the pictures you drew:

Beginning:

Middle:

End:

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fine arTs anD acTiviTies

1. If you live on the East Coast, plan a field trip to visit the Jamestown settlement in Virginia, either this week or over an upcoming vacation. If you are remote, take a virtual field trip using their interactive website, linked to the Year 2 Arts/Activities page of the Tapestry website. (Week 1 of 8)

2. Make a travel brochure to enlist people to sail across the Atlantic Ocean and settle in the New World.3. Begin one of the projects suggested for all levels on page 12 (perhaps as a group project with other siblings).From America: Ready-to-Use Interdisciplinary Lessons & Activities:4. Ask your teacher which of the following activities or worksheets you should complete this week. Some of the

worksheets rely on information you’ve read about in your history assignments so it may take you more than one week to find all of the answers.

� The Early Southern Colonies � What Will it Cost? � Southern Terms � Pomander Balls � Basics of Southern Cooking � Sweet Potato Muffins

geOgraPhy

In this unit, we will learn about (or review) the geography of North America, focusing on general geography, climate, flora, and fauna of each region as we study in dividual colonies. This week, we will get an overview and learn to recog-nize North America’s major land forms.1. Ask your teacher whether she would like you to point these out to her on a resource map or find them for your self

and label them on a paper map. You could also make and label a salt map or display board. (Week 1 of 2)








http://www.tapestryofgrace.com/year2/artsactivities.php


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Worksheet for William Bradford, Pilgrim Boy, by Bradford SmithAnswer the questions below for the first five chapters. You are assigned to read seven chapters, but for the other two, just think about answers to the same questions and answer them orally with your teacher.

Chapter “William Gets a Gift”Who are the main characters in this chapter?

Where and when does this chapter take place?

Give a short summary of what happens in this chapter.

Chapter “Grandfather Bradford”Who are the main characters in this chapter?



Chapter “Mercy Loses Her Coat”Who are the main characters in this chapter?



Chapter “The Fair at Doncaster”Who are the main characters in this chapter?



Chapter “Lost Sheep”Who are the main characters in this chapter?



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Accountability Questions1. Who was the first champion of the English colonies in Virginia?2. Which two companies were founded by the authority of King James? Who founded them, and for what purposes?

What were some of the results of these two charters in the history of English colonies in America?3. List some of the problems and difficulties that Jamestown colonists faced in their early years.4. List key people and events that saved the Jamestown colony from utter failure.5. What three significant events occurred in Virginia in 1619?6. List the scientific advances that Galileo made.7. Before Galileo’s discoveries, how did people view the universe?8. Which three famous astronomers influenced Galileo’s thinking? What did each of them believe about the universe?

Thinking Questions1. What kind of men colonized Jamestown during its first years, and what connection did their social status and

vocational skills have to the success or failure of the colony?2. Given John Smith’s character, do you think he was qualified to lead Jamestown? If not, why do you think God al-

lowed him to do so?3. Prepare to discuss the character of King James I, based on what you read.4. The Native Americans and the English colonists came to be bitter enemies.

� What were the factors that contributed to their enmity? � In what ways do you feel each side was right? � In what ways do you feel each side was wrong? � If you had been the ruler of the land, how would you have mediated between these two peoples?

5. Learn why Galileo’s telescope seemed threatening to the Roman Catholic Church by answering these questions: � Use your Bible concordance to find out what God says about the heavens. Whose glory do they declare, ac-

cording to Psalms? � What does the Bible say God’s purposes are for the stars and moon? � Given these things, why would a telescope have been threatening in Galileo’s day? Is it threatening to your

faith? Why or why not?

fine arTs anD acTiviTies

1. If you live on the East Coast, plan a field trip to visit the Jamestown settlement in Virginia, either this week or over an upcoming vacation. If you are remote, take a virtual field trip using their interactive website, linked to the Year 2 Arts/Activities page of the Tapestry website. (Week 1 of 8)

2. Begin one of the projects suggested for all levels on page 12 (perhaps as a group project with other siblings).

From More Than Moccasins:3. Make a model of a canoe using Styrofoam trays and yarn.4. Create a simple fishing lure using feathers, fishing line, a fishhook, a flat shell, and a small stone. You will need

adult supervision for this activity.5. Make a duck decoy that can actually float.6. Indians traded wampum with settlers in the New World. Make your own form of wampum using uncooked

macaroni and yarn. Pretend to trade with your siblings or co-op members.7. Make a model of a peace pipe from a paper towel tube, a bathroom tissue tube, feathers, and yarn.



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Choose from the following activities to enhance your study of Galileo Galilei and his work:Falling Bodies1. Find a second-story window (or something higher, if you have it) and replicate Galileo’s experi ment. Make sure the

objects that you drop are smooth and dense (like a brick or croquet ball), or else air re sistance will slow them down. 2. Try dropping some objects from your window that have a lot of air resistance (a piece of cardboard or umbrella, for

instance) next to your brick or ball to see how much of a difference this makes. What would happen if you could do this on the moon, where there is no air?

3. A great way to demonstrate Galileo’s conclusion indoors is with a book (preferably a big, heavy one!) and a piece of paper slightly smaller than the book. First, drop the two separately to see how much of a dif ference the paper’s high air resistance (compared to its weight) makes. Then lay the paper on top of the book (to eliminate air resis-tance) and drop them together! Are you surprised by what happens?

The Pendulum1. Measure out two equal lengths of string and then tie the string to two identical objects (such as spoons). Have two

people each take one string and weight, and ask them to start the weights swing ing back and forth in perfect time. (If one is swinging a little faster than the other, the string is most likely too short. Let out a little more string until the two swing times match exactly, and then measure the string length. They should be exactly equal.)

2. If you have time, try making one pendulum four times as long as the other. By adjusting the lengths a little, you should be able to get the shorter pendulum to swing back and forth exactly twice as fast as the long pendulum.

3. Discuss how the discovery of the pendulum made it possible to develop a precise clock.

The TelescopeBorrow a telescope and take it out at night. First, look up at the sky and think about what Ptole my and Aristotle thought about the heavens being perfect, fixed, and unchanging. What can you see of the moon, Jupiter’s moons, or Venus with your naked eye? Now, try looking at these bodies with your telescope. How does your opinion of them change?

The Birth of a New Physics by I. Bernard Cohen (one of our alternate resources) states that Medieval science relied heavily on the teachings of Aristotle, who had made his conclusions through logic and thought, not through observation and experimentation. Below is a good example of what most educated people would have believed about the properties of matter in Galileo’s day:

The first stage of form, Aristotle believed, was found in the four elements of Earth, Air, Fire, and Water. The elements, while distinguished from each other, are also related by four qualities. These qualities are dry, moist, hot, and cold. Each element possesses two qualities, of which one predominates, and each element is linked to two other elements by the quality they possess in common. Here is how this system applies: Fire is hot and dry with heat predominating.Air is hot and moist with moisture predominating.Water is moist and cold with cold predominating.Earth is cold and dry with dryness predominating. 1

Choose one of the following activities on Aristotelian science to complete, and be prepared to share your results during class discussion time.1. Explain the appearance of your backyard or a nearby deciduous tree using Aristotle’s fire, air, water, and earth

system.2. Explain, in Aristotelian terms, what happens when logs burn to form ashes.3. Explain, in Aristotelian terms, why gravity operates (use water and a thrown rock as examples).

1 Amanda Diane Doerr. “The Wisdom of Aristotle.” Alchemiae Basica: An Alchemy Primer for the Ignorant and Historically Impaired. <http://fuzzy.snakeden.org/alchemy/aristot.html>. Article footnote: Neil Powell. Alchemy, the Ancient Science, 26-30.

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In this unit, we will learn about (or review) the geography of North America, focusing on general geography, climate, flora, and fauna of each region as we study in dividual colonies. This week, we will get an overview and learn to recog-nize North America’s major land forms.1. Label the following on a paper (or transparency) map:

2. Throughout our study of Colonial America, we will be memorizing the names and locations of the origi-nal thirteen colonies. This week, we are studying the founding of Jamestown, and of Virginia. Though Jamestown was only a small foothold in Virginia, color in the entire colony this week on your map of the thirteen colonies as they appeared in 1776. (A reference copy of the territories as they appeared in “final” form is provided on page 3.)

church hisTOry

The Church in History, by B.K. KuiperYour recommended resource, The Church in History, usually has questions for discussion listed in each chapter. There are no specific follow-up questions assigned this week. Ask your teacher whether you need to prepare to discuss any-thing with her.







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Worksheet for Almost Home, by Wendy LawtonAfter reading the first half of the book, pretend that you are on the journey with Mary and journal your reactions to the circumstances listed below.

E

reparing for a big change in your life …eaving family and friends behind as you move…

xperiencing difficulties on the journey … cripture references that give you comfort …

L P

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Accountability QuestionsNote: The questions below reflect our dual focus on concurrent European and American events. This week’s reading on the European scene focuses on eastern Europe and encompasses dates up to 1715 in some cases, but the time period we will be concentrating on is 1600-1650. Thus, your reading for this week provides background for both European and American events discussed in Weeks 20-22. Events relating to the settlement of Jamestown occurred from 1607-1620, and Galileo’s most influential work was done in the early 1600’s.1. Your reading in Age of Religious Wars, 1559-1715, by Richard Dunn, summarizes conditions in eastern Europe dur-

ing 1559-1715. As you read, keep details straight by filling in the chart on page 22 (or expand a copy of the chart in your notebook and then fill it in) with key aspects of life in eastern Europe in the second half of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.

2. Summarize the Thirty Years’ War by answering these questions: � When did it occur? � Who were the main combatants, and why were they fighting? � In what regions was this war waged? � How severe were casualties during this war? � What treaty resolved it, and what were the conditions of settlement?

3. Summarize the settlement of Jamestown by answering these questions: � When was Jamestown founded, and by whom? � What were the main obstacles the Englishmen had to overcome in colonizing Jamestown? � Who were the key leaders of the colony, and what did they each contribute? � When were slaves introduced into Jamestown? How were they treated? � What key crop brought prosperity and longevity to Jamestown?

4. Outline or list the accomplishments and advances of Galileo. What were his major breakthroughs, and why is he often called the “Father of Modern Science”?

Thinking Questions 1. Based on your reading, what were the goals of those who sent the Jamestown colonists? What were the goals of the

colonists themselves in moving to the New World? (List specific evidence to support your answer.)2. How did the colonists’ character affect the success or failure of Jamestown as a whole during its first ten years?3. Given John Smith’s character, do you feel he was qualified to lead Jamestown? If not, why do you think God al-

lowed him to do so?4. What is meant by “the quiet hand of Providence,” and how do you see that hand working in the histories of Roanoke

and Jamestown?5. Prepare to compare and contrast the “before and after” ideas about the cosmos, the nature of substances, and the

physics between the medieval mindset and the post-Galileo mindset.6. How did Galileo’s discoveries powerfully change men’s minds about the world and challenge the authority of the

Roman Catholic Church?

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eThnic/sOcial makeuP POliTical sTrucTures religiOus cOnDiTiOns majOr evenTs/facTOrs

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geOgraPhy

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3. Look in a historical atlas or use online links to find the boundaries of the eastern European countries that you sur-veyed in your readings this week (listed below for your benefit). Ideally, look at a map of Europe in 1648, following the Peace of Westphalia (the treaty that ended the Thirty Years’ War).

� Holy Roman Empire � Ottoman Empire � Russia � Sweden � Poland � Austria � Brandenburg-Prussia

liTeraTure

Literary Introduction“In a village of La Mancha, the name of which I have no desire to call to mind,

there lived not long since one of those gentlemen . . . “

— Miguel Cervantes, Don Quixote (Chapter 1)

In Part I of Don Quixote we meet the hero, a somewhat elderly and impoverished Spanish gentleman from the re-gion of La Mancha. He is “bordering on fifty . . . of a hardy habit, spare, gaunt-featured, a very early riser and a great sportsman” (Chapter 1), and his surname is either Quijada or Quesada. Cervantes, after the usual manner of medieval authors, promises to tell the absolutely true and accurate history of this “ingenious” gentleman (who is completely fictional, so far as anyone has been able to discover).

Quijada lives with his housekeeper, his niece, and an errand boy. His great passion is for books of chivalrous romance, and as the story opens we learn that he has sold many acres of his estate in order to purchase these books. He pores over his volumes night and day until they at last drive him mad and he comes to believe that their stories are literally







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true. Quijada then decides to become a knight-errant and go throughout the world righting wrongs, serving dam-sels, redressing grievances, and removing abuses. He chooses a new name for himself, “Don Quixote de la Mancha” (“Quixote” based on “Quijada,” “Don” meaning “Lord,” a title of respect, and “de la Mancha” meaning “from La Mancha”), and renames his broken-down barn nag “Rocinante” (which means “once a hack,” a hack being an ordinary riding horse). Having glorified himself and his horse, Quixote chooses a pretty farm girl whom he has long admired, changes her name from Aldonza Lorenzo to “Dulcinea del Toboso,” and describes her as his beautiful lady-love.

Quixote gets out his great-grandfather’s ancient suit of armor, fashions a new part for his visorless helmet out of card-board, mounts his broken-down horse, and rides out into the world without telling anybody where he is going. After riding all day without adventure, he is further depressed by the realization that he has not been formally knighted, and so has no right to challenge other knights to single combat. In the evening he comes upon an inn. After a few hilari-ous adventures occasioned by his mad mistakes, such as taking the inn for a castle and the innkeeper for its lord, he is knighted in a barnyard by the innkeeper. Quixote then goes home to fetch money and clean shirts.

What follows are various adventures involving Quixote and his “squire,” a poor and witless neighbor named Sancho Panza, whom Quixote persuades to join him by promising Sancho the governorship of an island (as soon as Quixote has won an island from the enemy knight whom they are sure to meet). The most famous episode is that of the wind-mills, wherein Quixote mistakes a group of windmills for giants and sets off to joust with them, getting knocked off his horse and badly battered in the process. After many more adventures that span the rest of Part I and all of Part II, Quixote finally arrives home for the last time.

At the end of his life, Quixote miraculously recovers from his lunacy and repudiates the tales of chivalry that drove him mad in the beginning of the story. Ironically, his entire household now so prefers his madness that they try to make him believe it was all true. Quixote, however, will have nothing of it and dies as a sane man in his own bed.

As you start each week’s work in this unit, don’t forget that your Student Activity Page exercises and questions are likely to be based at least in part on your readings from Poetics. Be sure to do those readings before you start on the exercises and questions below.

ReadingFrom Poetics

� Book I � II.B.3: “Poetry and Prose” � IV.B.7: “Characterization: The Author’s Presentation of Characters” � Review IV.I.1-3: “Modes” through “Distinguishing and Mixing Mode and Genre” as needed

� Book II — IV.B.6: “Spain’s Renaissance: 1492-1681” � Appendix A: Double Act, Straight Man, Funny Man, Crude Physical Humor, Crude Verbal Humor, Farce. Review

Realistic Mode, Romantic Mode, and Satiric Mode as needed. � Appendix B: Miguel de Cervantes

Recitation or Reading AloudYour teacher may let you pick your own selection for recitation or reading aloud this week, or may assign you one of the following selections:

� For A Single Student: “The Golden Age Monologue” (Year 2 Shorter Works Anthology, Chapter 11), beginning with “Happy the age” and ending with “I should thank you for yours.”

� For Two: 1 the conversation between Don Quixote and Sancho Panza concerning Fierabrás’s balm (Year 2 Shorter Works Anthology, Chapter 10), beginning with Sancho’s statement that he has never read any history, and ending with Don Quixote’s admission that his ear is hurting “more than I could wish.”

1 Whenever a suggestion is made for two students, the recitation might also be done with a student and a teacher.

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Defining Terms1

You should continue your index card bank of literary terms this week, and make cards for whichever of these terms you do not already have. Be sure to write down exactly what you see here. Your teacher may give you a quiz on these terms (or any of your old ones) at any time during the rest of the year, so be sure to review them before classes. If one of these doesn’t make sense to you, or if you need examples in order to understand it better, try looking it up in the Terms Index (Appendix A) of Poetics.

� Characterization: The selection, arrangement, and presentation of information by an author about characters. � Direct Characterization: A literary technique whereby the author uses his own direct comments or those of a nar-

rator or a character to inform the audience about how to understand, interpret, and value one or more characters. � Farcical Mode: A mode emphasizing buffoonery, characterized by horseplay or even violence, crude physical trick-

ery or crude verbal wit, ludicrous situations, and overbearing or impudent characters. � Indirect Characterization: A literary technique whereby the author indirectly guides the reader’s understanding, in-

terpretation, and evaluation of characters through his presentation of their appearance, behavior, and various details about them.

� Satiric Mode: A mode emphasizing the exposure, through ridicule or rebuke, of human vice or folly (based on Ryken, Words of Delight 517).

Beginning and Continuing Levels1. This week and in the weeks ahead, be prepared for the fact that your teacher may ask questions about what was in

your reading assignments from Poetics. Try to read those assignments carefully each week so that you are pre-pared for questions about them.

2. Thinking Question: Do you think Don Quixote is written more in the realistic mode or in the romantic mode? Why?

3. Written Exercise: In Unit 1 you learned that a romance is a story, written in prose or poetry, that strongly expresses the characteristics of the romantic mode. What are some of its characteristic traits of content and form? Based on these, do you think Don Quixote is a romance?

4. Thinking Question: Can you think of examples of episodes in Don Quixote where Cervantes seems to be deliber-ately satirizing the common elements of romances? Which were some of your favorite funny episodes from this story?

5. Written Exercises: Write out responses to each of the following questions. � What is Don Quixote’s experiment in living, and what are its result in Part I? � Does the example of Don Quixote’s life up to this point seem to support Cervantes’s goal of undermining

romances? � What seem to be Cervantes’s views of reality, morality, and values, as expressed in Part I of Don Quixote? � Part I was written and published first, and was a great success. Cervantes followed up this success with Part

II, which is a little different in tone. What is Don Quixote’s experiment in living and its result in Part II? Has anything changed?

6. Thinking Question: Quixote may drive a reader as crazy as its hero, because no sooner does one see that Cervantes is mocking the romance, than one begins to wonder “Is Cervantes really making fun of chivalric ideals, or does he seem to be subtly supporting them by making Don Quixote so lovable?” What do you think? Can you see any places where Cervantes seems to be actually upholding Quixote’s views?

7. Thinking Question: In Don Quixote the chivalric ideals of perfect kindness and faithfulness are mocked and ridiculed, portrayed as ineffective and unrealistic. However, from Don Quixote’s behavior and experiences, do you think Cervantes is saying that such virtues are unrealistic, or only that the overblown chivalric ideals of them are?

1 Whether or not you are doing literary vocabulary cards, remember that you always have the Terms Index (Appendix A) of Poetics at your disposal as a reference. This index includes definitions, descriptions, examples, and “what to look for” suggestions for many terms that you will be using in your weekly exercises, so you can always go to it if you are confused.

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church hisTOry

There is no Church History assignment for this week.

gOvernmenT

The First Charter of Virginia was established by King James I. It set up three councils of thirteen men each to manage the new colonies in America. These councilmen were not representatives of the inhabitants; they were more like the stockholders of a corporation.

The council established by the Charter of Virginia then wrote up the Ordinances for Virginia. These ordinances cre-ated a much more representative form of government, which included a general assembly made up of burgesses chosen from each town. The laws enacted by this general assembly still had to be ratified by the council of thirteen established under the Charter, however.

The legislative body created by the Ordinances for Virginia in 1621 still exists today. Even though it revolted against King George III in 1776 and seceded from the United States in 1861, Virginia’s General Assembly is still in operation.

First Charter of Virginia1. The first paragraph of the charter describes the boundaries of Virginia. Find these lines of latitude on a map or

globe. Which states lie at least partly within the boundaries described in the first paragraph of the charter?2. The charter authorizes two separate colonies. What are they called, and where were they to be located? (Use your

map to find the states each colony could have chosen for its first settlement.)3. What three councils of thirteen men were established by the charter?4. What was the king’s share of any gold or other precious metals mined in the new colonies?5. What right did the colonies have to protect their borders?6. Did the colonists give up any of their rights as English citizens?

Ordinances for Virginia7. Read the greeting in the first sentence of this document carefully, remembering what you just read in the First

Charter of Virginia. Who wrote the Ordinances for Virginia?8. What specific purposes for these ordinances are listed in the rest of the first paragraph?9. Describe the nature and function of the two councils established by the ordinances.10. What law governed the new colony?

Faceplate of book in which Charter was published

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PhilOsOPhy

The life of Galileo Galilei was much influenced by Saint Thomas Aquinas, who lived 340 years earlier, around the time of the first Crusades. Although Aquinas and Galileo had much in common, Galileo experienced great sorrow and frustration because his scientific ideas conflicted with what Aquinas had said. Galileo lived out a good part of his life under house arrest because the Roman Catholic Church declared his scientific theo ries to be heresy.

Galileo and Aquinas had much in common because each was a brilliant and sincere Catholic who tried to reconcile his religious beliefs with the latest thinking. For Aquinas, the “latest thinking” con sisted of the ancient ideas of Aristotle and other pagan authors, whose writings came to Europe with the returning Cru saders. For Galileo, the latest think-ing consisted of the Copernican theory that the earth revolves around the sun, instead of the accepted belief that the sun revolves around the earth. Both men, as far as we can tell, sincerely believed that what they had to offer was a gift to the church.

Unfortunately, the Roman Catholic Church was not interested in what Galileo had to offer. The problem was that one could not accept what Copernicus said about the motion of the earth without rejecting what Aristotle said about the earth’s immovability. Aquinas’s synthesis of the Scriptures with Aris to telian philosophy left no room for future scien-tific discoveries. When the church made Aqui nas’s teaching part of its official doctrine, it incorporated pagan philoso-phy but excluded secular science.

Galileo tried to find a way to share the latest scientific thinking without offending the church. In his Dialogues Con-cerning the Two Chief World Systems, he presented the arguments for and against a sun-centered system purely hypo-thetically, without ever claiming they were true. He just wanted people to con sider the possibility that the earth moves and the sun stands still.

Rehearse Galileo Galilei, which is this week’s Pageant of Philosophy material. Did you include your father? If he is available, make an effort to have him rehearse with you at least one time.

Galileo Galilei

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The PageanT Of PhilOsOPhy galileO galilei

(Simplicio stands on a bare stage, holding a Bible. Galileo enters, bearing a rosary and a sign that reads, “Galileo Galilei, 1564-1642.” He seems surprised to see Simplicio.)

Galileo: Where did you come from?

Simplicio: Me? Well … that’s a little hard to explain.

Galileo: What are you doing here? How did you get in here? I’m under house arrest, child, and am not supposed to be receiving visitors.

Simplicio: Oh, I’m sorry, sir. I’m here because I’m looking for truth.

Galileo: (peers around to see if anyone is listening, then relaxes) Truth, is it? In that case, you’re welcome, however you managed to sneak in. My name is Galileo Galilei, and I’m locked up here because nobody else seems to be inter-ested in the truth.

Simplicio: I’m pleased to meet you, Mr. Galilei, sir. My name is Simplicio.

Galileo: (startled) Your name is Simplicio? How odd! I wrote a book once, with a character named Simplicio.

Simplicio: Really? I’ve never met anyone with my name before. Could I see the book?

Galileo: I’m afraid not, child. I’m not allowed to keep a copy of it.

Simplicio: You aren’t allowed to keep a copy of your own book?

Galileo: No, because it is the book that got me into so much trouble. You see, after I published my Dialogue Concern-ing the Two Chief World Systems, I was put on trial for heresy.

Simplicio: I’m not sure I know what you mean by the “two chief world systems.” What are they?

Galileo: The first is the theory that the sun goes around the earth. It was invented by the great Greek, Ptolemy, sup-ported by the great philosopher Aristotle, and upheld by Saint Thomas Aquinas and all the doctors of the church.

Simplicio: Well, of course! The sun does go around the earth. How else could it rise and set?

Galileo: There is another way! What if the sun sits still and the earth itself turns round?

Simplicio: How can that be?

Galileo: Here, let me demonstrate. First I will show you how Ptolemy’s theory works. You be the earth, and I will be the sun. You stand still, and I will go in circles around you. (walks around Simplicio) See how I’m “rising” and “setting”?

Simplicio: Sure. That’s the way it works!

Galileo: Does it? Now let me stand still, and you spin in circles. (Simplicio turns) Try not to get dizzy!

Simplicio: I see what you mean—sort of. I can see you “rising” and “setting” this way, too.

Galileo: The Polish mathematician Copernicus has suggested that everything we see in the heavens can be explained more simply if we just assume the earth moves, instead of the sun. That is the other “chief world system” I wrote about.

Simplicio: (stops spinning) It seems a bit far-fetched to me. (jumps up and down gently) The earth looks pretty stable. It seems hard to believe that it could move!

Galileo: That is true, but have you ever been aboard a large ship? When it glides through smooth water, you can forget that you are even moving. The earth is a lot bigger than a ship, and the heavens are smoother than any sea. You cannot tell by “feeling” whether the earth is moving or standing still.

Simplicio: Yes, I see what you mean. It’s an interesting idea, but if you can’t tell whether the earth is moving or stand-

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ing still, it doesn’t seem to make a lot of difference. It certainly doesn’t seem like a thing that people should get locked up for!

Galileo: Ah, but my church, the Roman Catholic Church, says it is heretical to suggest that the earth moves.

Simplicio: Why would they do that?

Galileo: It conflicts with Aristotle’s teaching, which Aquinas relied on for his theology.

Simplicio: So, was Copernicus a heretic?

Galileo: Copernicus published his theory many years ago, in 1543, and nobody called it a heresy then. Of course, he said his theory was just a mathematical hypothesis, which he dedicated to the pope. My problem is that I think he was right.

Simplicio: So it’s okay to publish a “mathematical hypothesis” as long as you don’t actually believe it?

Galileo: Apparently so. I tried to do the same in my Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. I wrote in my book, “I have taken the Copernican side in the discourse, proceeding as with a pure mathematical hypothesis and striving by every artifice to represent it as superior to supposing the earth motionless.” 1 It got me tried and convicted for heresy.

Simplicio: (heatedly) That’s not fair!

Galileo: Ah, but you see, child, I had been stirring up controversy for quite a while, ever since some years ago when I discovered in the heavens many things that had not been seen before our own age. The novelty of these things, as well as some consequences which followed from them in contradiction to the physical notions com-monly held among academic philosophers, stirred up against me no small number of professors—as if I had placed these things in the sky with my own hands in order to upset nature and overturn the sciences. 2

Simplicio: Wait, sir—things in the heavens? What sort of things? How did you discover them?

Galileo: Have you not heard about the marvelous things I saw through the telescope? I was the first to see satellites around Jupiter, mountains on the moon, spots on the sun, and the phases of Venus. Each of these wonders rocked the general agreements about the nature of the universe.

Simplicio: How so?

Galileo: The satellites of Jupiter astonished the astronomers and physicists, because everyone knows that the heavenly bodies are made of quintessence, the fifth element, which differs from the other four (earth, air, fire, and water) in that it always moves in perfect circles around the center of the earth.

Simplicio: And satellites of Jupiter couldn’t be made of quintessence?

Galileo: If they were made of quintessence, or ether, as it also known, they would travel in perfect circles about the earth—but these bodies travel around Jupiter, the king of the planets!

Simplicio: Oh! That is a puzzle.

Galileo: How can the sun, which is perfect and immutable, have blemishes upon its face like a young man? How can a moon made of ether have mountains made of earth? How can Venus wax and wane like the moon does?

Simplicio: Those are good questions, sir. What did your opponents say?

Galileo: Say? (bitterly) Showing a greater fondness for their own opinions than for truth they sought to deny and disprove the new things which, if they had cared to look for themselves, their own senses would have demon-strated to them. 3

Simplicio: I guess that’s what Sir Francis Bacon would have called the “idols of the theater.”

Galileo: I do not know this Bacon, you refer to, but “idolatry” would be a good word for their blind zeal for their old 1 Galileo, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Stillman Drake, trans. (New York: Random House, 2001) 5-6.2 Galileo, Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, in Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo, Stillman Drake, trans. and ed. (New York: Double-day Anchor Books, 1957) 175.3 Ibid.

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ideas. To this end they hurled various charges and published numerous writings filled with vain arguments, and they made the grave mistake of sprinkling these with passages taken from places in the Bible which they had failed to understand properly, and which were ill-suited to their purposes. 1

Simplicio: (looking down at his Bible) Doesn’t the Bible say the sun moves and the earth stands still?

Galileo: Well, there is one passage I have heard often enough to quote from memory: “Then spake Joshua to the Lord in the day when the Lord delivered up the Amorites before the children of Israel, and he said in the sight of Is-rael, Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon. And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher? So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day.” 2

Simplicio: (slowly) So then the Bible does say the sun moves around the earth. Or are you saying the Bible is not true?

Galileo: No, it is true! But that does not mean it is a science book. As Cardinal Baronius has said, “The intention of the Holy Ghost is to teach us how one goes to Heaven, not how heaven goes.” 3

Simplicio: I guess that might be so. Now that you come to mention it, I can’t see why it would be otherwise.

Galileo: (looks shocked) Be careful, child! (whispering) The walls have ears! (looks around for eavesdroppers, then continues) What I say is not against the church, if they would only see it. I have higher church authority on my side than just the word of one cardinal. Consider what Saint Augustine said: “One does not read in the Gospel that the Lord said: ‘I will send you the Paraclete who will teach you about the course of the sun and moon.’ For he willed to make them Christians, not mathematicians.”

Simplicio: Yes, but Joshua said, “Sun, stand still.” You don’t have to be a mathematician to know what that means!

Galileo: Don’t you? Saint Augustine warned Christians not to jump to conclusions about such matters. He said we ought not to believe anything inadvisedly on a dubious point, lest in favor to our error we conceive a prejudice against something that truth hereafter may reveal to be not contrary in any way to the sacred books of either the Old or the New Testament.” 4

Simplicio: What?

Galileo: He said our eagerness to defend our understanding of Scripture might prejudice us against something true. And, as it happens, my earlier controversial discoveries have been generally accepted by everyone with an open mind.

Simplicio: You mean people have begun to agree with you now?

Galileo: Some do. Men who were well grounded in astronomical and physical science were persuaded as soon as they received my first message. There were others who denied them or remained in doubt only because of their novel and unexpected character, and because they had not yet had the opportunity to see for themselves. These men have by degrees come to be satisfied. 5

Simplicio: But some don’t agree?

Galileo: Sadly, no. The ones who cannot prove me wrong and will not listen to reason devote themselves to despising me. I fear these now divert their thoughts to other fancies and seek new ways to damage me. 6

Simplicio: That’s too bad!

Galileo: Yes, and what is worse is that they have abandoned any effort to prove me wrong by the observable facts or sound logic, and have instead resolved to fabricate a shield for their fallacies out of the mantle of pretended religion and the authority of the Bible. These they apply with little judgment to the refutation of argu ments that they do not understand and have not even listened to. 7

1 Ibid.2 Joshua 10:12-13 (KJV).3 Ibid., 186.4 Ibid., 176.5 Ibid.6 Ibid.7 Ibid., 177.

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Simplicio: That seems unfair!

Galileo: It is unfair, and terribly damaging. They have endeavored to spread the opinion that such propositions in general are contrary to the Bible and are consequently damnable and heretical.1 Yet the author of this theory, or rather its restorer and confirmer, was Nicholas Coper ni cus; and he was not only a Catholic, but a priest and a canon. He was in fact so esteemed by the church that when the Lateran Council under Leo X took up the correction of the church calendar, Copernicus was called to Rome from the most remote parts of Germany to undertake its reform. 2

Simplicio: Yes, but even priests can become heretics.

Galileo: True, but he dedicated this book On the Celestial Revolutions to Pope Paul III. When printed, the book was accepted by the holy Church, and it has been read and studied by everyone without the faintest hint of any objection ever being conceived against its doctrines. 3 Which is where we started from—the only crime, ap-parently is to believe such things as true! (sighs deeply) Now they have gone and banned Copernicus’s book and locked me up in my own home. I am surprised that nobody has come to run you out yet.

Simplicio: I could understand the church saying that it was wrong to believe in these mathematical theories instead of the Bible.

Galileo: I think the greater wrong is to condemn something without understanding it, weighing it, or so much as reading it. 4 Copernicus did not ignore the Bible, but he knew very well that if his doctrine were proved, then it could not contradict the Scriptures when they were rightly understood. 5

Simplicio: What do you mean by “rightly understood”? Do you mean he could twist the Scriptures to support what-ever conclusions he made?

Galileo: No, lad, not at all! The Scriptures should not be used to support just anything, but they will always support the truth. They must! I say that the holy Bible can never speak untruth—whenever its true meaning is understood. But I believe nobody will deny that it is often very abstruse, and may say things which are quite different from what its bare words signify. 6

Simplicio: Don’t you believe the “bare words,” though?

Galileo: If I did, I would be a heretic!

Simplicio: How can that be?

Galileo: If one were always to confine oneself to the unadorned grammatical meaning, one might fall into error. Not only contradictions and propositions far from true might thus be made to appear in the Bible, but even grave heresies and follies. For example, it would be necessary to assign to God feet, hands, and eyes, as well as corporeal and human affections, such as anger, repentance, hatred, and sometimes even the forgetting of things past and ignorance of those to come. 7

Simplicio: Why would the Bible say such things if they aren’t true?

Galileo: I am not saying they are not true in any sense, just that God uses limited human language to get His ideas across to limited human minds. These propositions uttered by the Holy Ghost were set down in that manner by the sacred scribes in order to accommodate them to the capacities of the common people, who are rude and unlearned. 8 The Roman Catholic Church has long believed that wise expositors should produce the true senses of such passages, together with the special reasons for which they were set down in these words. This doctrine is so widespread and so definite with all theologians that it would be superfluous to adduce evidence for it. 9

1 Ibid.2 Ibid., 178.3 Ibid., 178-79.4 Ibid., 179.5 Ibid., 179-80.6 Ibid., 181.7 Ibid.8 Ibid.9 Ibid., 181-82.

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Simplicio: I don’t suppose that Martin Luther and the other Protestants would agree with that—having only “wise expositors” interpret Scriptures.

Galileo: (scoffs) Luther! He and I would agree on almost nothing. Luther said Copernicus was a fool who would turn the whole science of Astronomy upside down. But as Holy Writ declares, it was the Sun and not the Earth which Joshua commanded to stand still.” 1 And John Calvin was no more open-minded. He said that those who assert that the earth moves and turns are “motivated by a spirit of bitterness, contradiction, and faultfind-ing,” 2 are possessed by the devil, and aim “to pervert the order of nature.” 3 But Catholics should not let the opinion of such heretics influence their thinking!

Simplicio: Still, it seems like you want to interpret the Bible to fit your theories, and not vice versa.

Galileo: Not my theories, child. I want to interpret the Bible in light of nature. You see, it is necessary for the Bible, in order to be accommodated to the understanding of every man, to speak many things which appear to differ from the absolute truth so far as the bare meaning of the words is concerned. But Nature, on the other hand, is inexorable and immutable; she never transgresses the laws imposed upon her, or cares a whit whether her abstruse reasons and methods of operation are understandable to men. 4

Simplicio: Oh! You mean that Scripture speaks in human words, but nature does not?

Galileo: That’s it. Nature speaks the pure language of mathematics, which many cannot or will not understand. Hu-man words are flexible, and capable of many meanings. Mathematics is not! You see, the Bible is not chained in every expression to conditions as strict as those which govern all physical effects. 5

Simplicio: That makes sense—the Bible is more concerned with telling a story about God than teaching science.

Galileo: I believe that God is no less excellently revealed in Nature’s actions than in the sacred statements of the Bible. Perhaps this is what the great church father Tertullian meant by these words: “We conclude that God is known first through Nature, and then again, more particularly, by doctrine, by Nature in His works, and by doctrine in His revealed word.” 6

Simplicio: (looking down at his Bible) Do we really need this, then? Could we get by with what we know about God from nature?

Galileo: Not at all! I do not mean to imply that we need not have an extraordinary esteem for the passages of holy Scripture. On the contrary, having arrived at any certainties in physics, we ought to utilize these as the most appropriate aids in the true exposition of the Bible and in the investigation of those meanings which are nec-essarily contained therein, for these must be concordant with demonstrated truths. 7 But we will always need the Bible to bring us the good news that Nature could never reveal. For my part, I should judge that the author-ity of the Bible was designed to persuade men of those articles and propositions which, surpassing all human reasoning, could not be made credible by science, or by any other means than through the very mouth of the Holy Spirit. 8

Simplicio: That makes sense but doesn’t this all mean that you will just reinterpret Scripture every time somebody comes up with a new theory?

Galileo: Not exactly. I would not try to do so if I had no need of it—but I hope I would not be averse to reinterpretation if new facts compelled me to it.

Simplicio: But how are you supposed to tell the difference?

Galileo: Through reason, child! Reason and Scripture should never have to be enemies. Or do you suppose the same

1 Quoted from Nicolaus Copernicus, “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres” (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952) 490. 2 John Calvin, sermon 8 on 1 Corinthians, 677, in John Calvin: A Sixteenth Century Portrait, by William J. Bouwsma (New York: Oxford UP, 1988) 72.3 Ibid.4 Ibid., 182.5 Ibid., 183.6 Ibid.7 Ibid.8 Ibid.

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God who has endowed us with senses, reason and intellect has intended us to forego their use? Would God require us to deny sense and reason, in physical matters which are set before our eyes and minds by direct experience or necessary demonstrations? 1

Simplicio: I—I guess not.

Galileo: Indeed not! Consider what Saint Augustine said: ‘If anyone shall set the authority of Holy Writ against clear and manifest reason, he who does this knows not what he has undertaken; for he opposes to the truth not the meaning of the Bible, which is beyond his comprehension, but rather his own interpretation, not what is in the Bible, but what he has found in himself and imagines to be there.” 2

Simplicio: (thinking) So the Bible itself, when rightly understood, will never contradict the truth of reason.

Galileo: Exactly. That is the blessed freedom of our field—if only our church would see it! But they will not. (sighs deeply) Instead they bind themselves to dead superstition that will not allow the Christian to revel in the truths created by his God, and so condemn themselves to irrelevancy in the new age of thinking men. They will not be able to force the world to comply forever. That is why I sit here now, under arrest—I will not contradict my God-given reason and deny that the earth moves!

Simplicio: Tell me, sir—since this has been very helpful—what should Christians do, then, if some new theory seems to conflict with Scripture?

Galileo: Christian thinkers should discern between theories that have been proven true and those that are merely speculative. In the books of the sages of this world there are contained some physical truths which are sound-ly demonstrated, and others that are merely stated; as to the former, it is the office of wise divines to show that they do not contradict the holy Scriptures. And as to the propositions which are stated but not rigorously demonstrated, anything contrary to the Bible involved by them must be held undoubtedly false and should be proved so by every possible means. 3

Simplicio: So Christians should try to prove physical theories false?

Galileo: Either false or unproven. But they should do this by using logic, mathematics, and physics, not just by quoting the Bible. Indeed, the Christian who doubts a physical theory because it conflicts with Scripture is the best man to prove it wrong, for those who believe an argument to be false may much more easily find the fallacies in it than men who consider it to be true and conclusive. 4 But listen—did you hear footsteps?

Simplicio: I don’t hear anything, sir.

Galileo: We must be sure to listen carefully. (peers around, then whispers) The church has banned this theory and locked me away in my own home in an effort to suppress what I say, but this is folly. To carry out such a decision it would be necessary not only to prohibit the book of Copernicus and the writings of other authors who fol-low the same opinion, but to ban the whole science of astronomy. 5

Simplicio: I suppose the pope could try to do that, though, if he wanted to.

Galileo: God forbid! To prohibit astronomy would be to censure a hundred passages of holy Scripture which teach us that the glory and greatness of Almighty God are marvelously discerned in all his works and divinely read in the open book of heaven. 6 (stops and listens to a distant noise) Child, I hear someone coming. You had better leave immediately!

Simplicio: But I’m still looking for truth, and you have so much to tell me!

Galileo: If you want to be free in order to keep looking, Simplicio, you must go now! I will remember you in my prayers, boy. May the God of all truth be with you. Now—go!

(Simplicio reluctantly backs away. Galileo takes up his rosary and begins counting the beads as he prays. Curtain.)1 Ibid., 183-84.2 Ibid., 186.3 Ibid., 194.4 Ibid., 195.5 Ibid.6 Ibid., 196.

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hisTOry: backgrOunD infOrmaTiOn

World Book on Saint Augustine 1Saint Augustine, Fla. pronounced AW guh steen, is the oldest permanent settlement established in the United

States by Europeans. It was founded in 1565 by a Spanish explorer, Pedro Menendez de Aviles. St. Augustine lies in north eastern Florida, near the Atlantic Ocean.

Spain ruled St. Augustine for more than 200 years. Historians believe the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon visited what is now the St. Augustine area in 1513. During the late 1500’s, St. Augustine served as Spain’s military headquarters in North America. The English naval commander Sir Francis Drake looted and burned the settlement in 1586. Spain ruled St. Augustine until 1763, when the Brit ish gained control of it. Spain again ruled the settlement from 1783 until 1821, when Florida be came a territory of the United States.

The narrow streets and Spanish-style architecture of the oldest district of St. Augustine reflect the city’s rich his-tory. Many of the old buildings have been restored to preserve the historical atmosphere of the district. The Castillo de San Marcos (Fort of Saint Mark), a large, gray stone fortress built by the Spanish in the 1600’s, domi nates the city. This structure, like many others in St. Augustine, is made of coquina, a limestone found nearby.

World Book on the Lost Colony of Roanoke 2 The Lost Colony is the name given to a settlement established in 1587 on Roa noke Island, off the coast of modern

North Carolina. The colony is called lost be cause no one knows what happened to its people or where they went. The Lost Colony was England’s second colony in America. The first had been established on Roanoke Island by a

group of 108 men sent to the island in 1585 by the English soldier and explorer Sir Walter Raleigh [whom we studied in Week 19]. The first colony was meant to serve chiefly as a base for repairing and resupplying English warships. But the colonists found that the seas around the island were too shallow for ships to seek shelter there. In addition, the land was not productive enough to support both the colony and the Indians already living there. As a result, the colonists returned to England in 1586.

A few days after the colonists left, a group of ships sent by Raleigh from England arrived at the island with sup-plies and more colonists. When the new col onists found that the others had left, most of them sailed back to England with the ships. However, 15 adventurers remained on the island.

In May 1587, Raleigh sent another group of colonists to America, to settle on the shores of Chesapeake Bay. These colonists became the lost colonists. They were led by John White, an Englishman who had been a member of the first colony.

In July 1587, the commander of the ships carrying the new colony refused to sail beyond Roanoke Island and forced the colonists to land there. When the colony landed, it consisted of 117 people—91 men, 17 women, and 9 children. Twenty-seven days later, on August 18, White’s daughter, Eleanor, gave birth on the island to a baby girl. Named Virginia Dare, the baby was the first English child born in America. Her father, Ananias Dare, was also one of the colonists. Later in August, White re turned to England for supplies. His daughter, granddaughter, and son-in-law re mained on the island. War between England and Spain [the famous battle with the Spanish Armada] pre vented White from returning to Roanoke Island until August 1590. By the time he ar rived, the colony had been abandoned. The only traces of the colonists were the letters CRO carved on one tree and the word Croatoan carved on another. The Croa toan, or Hatteras, Indians were friendly Indians who lived on an island south of Roa noke Is land. Although the colonists had intended to go north by land to Chesapeake Bay, White decided to see if they had gone to live with the Croatoans. However, a storm and the late ness of the season forced White and his expedition to abandon their search and re turn to England. The lost colonists were never seen again by any European.

Some modern historians think that most of the lost colonists may have moved to Chesapeake Bay and perished there in conflicts with Indians. Stories collected by Virginians indicate that other members of the Lost Colony may have mingled with several Indian tribes. The Lumbee Indians, who live in southeastern North Carolina, believe themselves to be descendants of the lost colonists and of Indians who lived nearby.

During the Age of Exploration, the opportunity for acquiring great wealth was open to both private individuals and nations. The goal of capitalism, unlike mercantilism, was to invest wealth, not just acquire it. As with Jesus’ parable of the talents, the mercantilist would be the man who buried his talent in the ground and could offer back to his master

1 Excerpted from a World Book article entitled St. Augustine. Contributor: Fred H. Whitley, Associate Editor, Saint Augustine Record.2 From a World Book article entitled Lost Colony. Contributor: Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Ph.D., Prof. of History, Univ. of Con necticut.

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only what he was given. The capitalist puts his talent to work. The talent therefore grows in value, making him more wealthy while it nourishes the greater economic system on which the capitalist de-pends. Enterprising individuals during the Age of Exploration used what money they had to make more money. Instead of hoarding gold or silver like mythological dragons, they invested their wealth, often at high risk, in order to make a profit.

We have already learned about moneychangers, the earliest capital-ists. Since they held money and goods for safe keeping and exchanged monies for world travelers, to some degree it was natural that they would take the next step and begin to invest their own money in sea journeys or overland trading ventures.

But such voyages were perilous. Storms, pirates, or angry natives might claim the ships and the investments. One such disaster could spell financial ruin for a single investor. For this reason, men orga-nized companies in which they shared gains and losses among them-selves. Since they could afford to finance more expeditions, the loss of one ship would not mean complete ruin for any one of them.

From this beginning arose joint-stock companies. Even moder-ately wealthy people could invest some money in a joint venture. Such investors would be issued stock certificates to validate their share in future profits. The invested money became part of the company’s capital, or supply of money. If a profit was made, it was given to the stock-holders, or investors, in the form of monetary payments called dividends. If the ships were lost, the stock-holders lost their investment and made no profit on that journey.

The English East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, and the French Company of New France were three such companies that became very large, profitable, and influential during the 1600’s. These companies did more than trade; they also set up bases of operation or settlements in newly discovered lands to make their work more permanent.

Yet another familiar form of capitalism that developed during this period was the prospectus. Then, as now, details of a proposed venture would be posted in a public place, and those interested in helping with the finances of the venture would sign their names under it. They would agree to receive profits or sustain losses according to the outcome of the journey. From this practice we get our modern word “underwriter,” which today is used to describe an insurance company.

World Book on Jamestown 1Jamestown, Va., was the first permanent English settlement in North Amer ica. On May 6, 1607, three ships

stopped at Cape Henry, at the southern entrance to Chesa peake Bay, after more than four months at sea. The day was April 26, accord ing to the calendar then in use. Captain Christopher Newport commanded the ships, the Susan Constant, Godspeed, and Discovery.

The ships carried 105 adventurers, who saw “faire meddowes and goodly tall trees” along the Virginia coast. They had been sent out by a group of London mer chants and other interested people known as the Virginia Company of London (later short ened to Virginia Company.) They came to America mostly to search for treasure and also to spread Christianity among the Indians. Few of the men were able or willing to do manual labor or to raise farm products that could not be grown in England.

The three ships sailed up the James River from Cape Henry for about 60 miles. The adventurers landed on a little peninsula on the river on May 24 (then May 14) and established their settlement there. They named both the river and their settlement in honor of King James I of England. The site turned out to be a bad choice. The ground was swampy, and the drinking water impure. A meager and unwholesome diet weak ened the men, and about two-thirds of them soon died of malnutrition, malaria, pneu monia, and dysentery. Sharp contrasts of climate added to their problems.

The Jamestown settlement suffered one dreadful disaster after another. Cap tain John Smith held the group together when he took control from mid-1608 to mid-1609. He forced the adventurers to stop searching for gold and

1 From a World Book article entitled Jamestown. Contributor: James Kirby Martin, Ph.D., Prof. of History, Univ. of Houston.

The London Company 1 was an as sociation of “noblemen, gentlemen, and merchants” during the early days of the American Colonies. It was part of the Vir ginia Company. In 1606, King James I of England chartered the London Company to form a colony in North America. It founded the Jamestown colony in 1607.

The founders of the London Com pany believed that precious metals existed in the Americas. They spent about $10,000 to send settlers to James town. Those who went to America and risked their lives were called planters. Those who stayed in Eng land and in vested their money in the com pany were called adventurers. Each plant er and adventurer was to share in the com pany’s profits. But the company failed to profit. The company reorganized under new char ters in 1609, and again in 1612. But still there were no profits.

1 From a World Book article entitled London Company. Contributor: Marshall Smelser, Ph.D., Former Professor of History, University of Notre Dame.

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silver and to start working for their survival, and he bought corn from the Indians. But an accident in 1609 forced Smith to return to England for treatment.

Fire, drought, Indian attacks, disease, starvation, and lack of another strong leader brought the settlement to its lowest ebb in the winter of 1609-1610. Later colo nists called that winter “the starv-ing time.” The arrival of Governor Thomas West, Lord De La Warr [Delaware], in 1610 with settlers and supplies saved Jamestown from aban donment.

About 18,000 Indians lived in Virginia during the early 1600’s. More than 30 of the tribes in the area united to form a confederacy under the mighty chief Pow ha tan (Wahunsonacock). His daughter, the Indian princess Pocahontas, was re port ed to have saved the life of John Smith. In 1614, Pocahontas married John Rolfe, one of the settlers. This marriage was treated as a diplomatic alliance. It brought about a few years of uneasy peace between the settlers and the Indians.

Jamestown’s agricultural and industrial activities began slowly. The early settlers failed in attempts to produce silk, grapes, and other items unsuited for the Vir ginia climate. Early industries included glass blowing, iron smelting, the making of potash, and shipbuilding.

The first farm products to be raised successfully were hogs and Indian corn. In 1612, John Rolfe introduced a new type of tobacco to the colony by bring ing seed from Trinidad. Rolfe also improved the method of curing the leaves. This new kind of tobacco was sweeter than the native Virginia plant, and the set tlers found a ready market for it in Europe. Tobacco, corn, and hogs provided a solid basis for James town’s economy.

In 1619, the first representative legislative assembly in the Western Hemi sphere met in Jamestown. This assembly, called the House of Burgesses, served as a model for many of the lawmaking bodies in the United States. In 1619, when the pop u la tion was about a thousand, the Virginia Company tried to encour age young men to make permanent homes in the colony by sending a number of “young, handsome and honestly educated maids” to become the bachelors’ wives. Before 1619, only a few mar ried women and female servants lived in Jamestown. Another im port ant event of 1619 was the arrival of a Dutch ship at Jamestown with 20 blacks for sale. These Af ricans [were indentured servants, but] the thousands who followed them would in time become slaves. Their labor helped make the colony prosperous.

In 1622, the Indians, afraid of losing their lands forever, un-expectedly at tacked the settlements around Jamestown, and killed about 350 people—one-third of the colo nists. The town itself was warned of the uprising and was able to resist the attack. The Indians rose again in 1644 and killed about 500 people, mostly in outlying set tlements. Both times, the colonists struck back, killing many Indians and destroying their food supplies and villages.

Two of the main reasons for the survival of the Jamestown settle-ment were that (1) the colonists learned to produce their own food, and (2) tobacco prov ed to be a highly marketable cash crop. But tra g edy struck Jamestown in the late 1600’s. The town was burned to the ground in 1676 during Bacon’s Rebellion, a revolt against royal governor William Berkeley led by plant er Nathaniel Bacon. [For more information, see the article on Bacon’s Rebellion in Week 23.] Fire again destroyed the settlement in 1698. These disasters caused the people in Vir ginia to transfer their capital to Williamsburg in 1699. Jamestown fell into decay.

The site of the Jamestown settlement no longer stands on a pen-insula. It now lies on an island, having been cut off from the main-land by water. Much of the origi nal land has been washed away by

American Indians smoked tobacco 1 in pipes long before Christopher Columbus sailed to the New World in 1492. Colum bus brought some tobacco seeds back to Europe, where farmers began to grow the plant for use as a medicine that helped people relax. In 1560, a French diplomat named Jean Ni-cot—from whom tobacco receives its botanical name, Nicotiana—introduced the use of tobacco in France.

Commercial production of tobacco began in North America in 1612, after an English colonist named John Rolfe brought some tobacco seeds from South America to Virginia. The Virginia soil and climate were excellent for tobacco, and it became an impor-tant crop there and in other parts of the South.

Most of the tobacco grown in the Amer ican Colo-nies was exported to England until the Revolutionary War began in 1775. Manufacturers in the United States then began to produce smoking tobacco, chew-ing tobacco, and snuff for domestic use. Cigars were first manufactured in the United States in the early 1800’s.

Spaniards and some other Europeans began to smoke hand-rolled cigarettes in the 1600’s, but few people in the United States used them until the 1850’s. Cig a rette smoking became increasingly popu-lar after the first practical cigarette-making machine was invented in the early 1880’s.

1 Excerpted from a World Book article entitled Tobacco. Contributor: J. H. Smiley, Ph.D., Exten-sion Prof. of Agronomy, Univ. of Kentucky.

Lord De La Warr 1 (1577-1618) be came the first governor of the Virginia col ony. He was also known as Lord Dela ware. The Delaware River, Delaware Bay, the colony of Delaware, and the state of Dela-ware were named for him. De La Warr arrived with supplies at Jamestown, Virginia, in June 1610, in time to prevent the discouraged settlers from desert-ing the colony. He returned to Eng land in 1611. As governor he was harsh and strict, but he succeeded in bringing order to the colony. He became a mem ber of the Privy Council of Queen Eliza beth I.

De La Warr was probably born at Wher well, Eng-land, near Winchester. His given and family name was Thomas West.

1 From a World Book article entitled Lord De La Warr. Contributor: Fred W. Anderson, Ph.D., Associate Prof. of History, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder.

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tidal currents of the James River. For many years, only a few foundation stones and the ruined tower of a brick church stood as remind ers of the settlement. But archaeologists have now found many relics of the original town. The As-sociation for the Preservation of Virginia Anti quities controls the land around the ruined church. The National Park Service manages the rest of the area. It operates its area as part of the Colonial National Historical Park.

World Book on John Smith 1John Smith (1580?-1631) was an English soldier and adventurer. He helped establish the first permanent English

colony in America, at Jamestown, Virginia.According to a book that Smith wrote, he was once captured by unfriendly Indians while on an expedition in the

wilderness. The Indian chief, Powhatan, in tend ed to kill Smith, but Pocahontas, the chief ’s daughter, stopped the execution. Smith was released, and he returned to Jamestown. Pocahontas remained Smith’s friend and warned him of at least one Indian plan to attack the settlement.

Early years. Smith was born in Willoughby, England, near Louth. He worked on his father’s farm and went to school until about age 15. Smith sought adventure, and so he left home and became a soldier. He fought in the Netherlands with the Dutch army against the Spaniards. In 1601, he joined the fight of several east European na tions against inva-sion by the Turks. Smith was quickly promoted to captain. Shortly after his promotion, the Turks captured Smith and sold him as a slave. He later escaped to Russia and then returned to England.

Life in the colonies. In 1606, Smith joined a group that sailed from Eng land to establish a colony in Virginia. The expedition was financed by the Virginia Com pany of London, an organization formed partly by London business people. These peo ple believed gold and silver could be found in America, and the colonists were instruct ed to trans-port the precious metals back to England.

The colonists landed in Virginia in 1607 and founded a settlement, which they named Jamestown in honor of King James I. From the beginning, Jamestown suffered heavily from disease, starvation, and Indian attacks. Most of the colonists were un able or unwilling to work to feed and protect themselves. Smith served as president of the colony in 1608 and 1609. He enforced order, required all the col onists to work, and traded with the Indians for food.

Under Smith’s leadership, Jamestown was almost free of hunger and disease. Smith treated the Indians harshly. They feared him, and so fewer conflicts occurred be tween the Indians and the colonists. But Smith’s rough manner to-ward the Indians in creased their hatred of the settlers. After Smith left Jamestown, the Indians in creased their attacks against the colony.

Some of the settlers criticized Smith’s leadership. Many of his opponents were aristocrats who resented being governed by a farmer’s son. Smith sailed back to Eng land in 1609 after being wounded in a gunpowder accident. That winter, the colony was almost wiped out by starvation and Indian raids.

Smith returned to America in 1614 and spent several months exploring the coast in the Massachusetts Bay area. He later named this region “New England.”

In his later years, Smith lived in London and wrote several books that pro moted American colonization. His most influential book was The Generall Historie of Vir ginia, New England and the Summer Isles (1624). Smith stressed the value of such prod ucts as fish, furs, and timber. He criticized the useless searches for gold and silver by earlier colo n ists. Smith also urged that future expeditions be carefully planned and that people chosen as colonists be willing to work and undergo hard ship.

World Book on Pocahontas 2Pocahontas, pronounced poh kuh HAHN tuhs (1595?-1617), was the daughter of the American Indian chief, Pow-

hatan. She worked to maintain friendly relations between the Indians and early English colonists in America. Cap-tain John Smith, the leader of the settlers in Jamestown, Va., claimed that she saved his life. He wrote in his book The Generall Historie of Vir ginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624) that Powha tan was about to kill him with a stone war club. But Pocahontas, Smith claimed, placed her head upon his and begged her father to spare him. It is not certain that this is a true story, because Smith, in an earlier book, failed to include an account of this incident. [An author in our rhetoric-level readings insists that Smith misunderstood a mock execution for a real one, and missed the intended symbolic nature of Pocahontas’s scripted intervention.]

1 From a World Book article entitled John Smith. Contributor: Alden T. Vaughan, Ph.D., Prof. of History, Columbia Univ.2 From a World Book article entitled Pocahontas. Contributor: James Kirby Martin, Ph.D., Distinguished University Professor of History, University of Houston.

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The name “Pocahontas” meant “playful one.” She was a child of about 12 at the time of the incident. She is men-tioned in William Strachey’s The Histories of Travell into Virginia Britania (1612). Strachey, the first secretary of the Virginia Colony, said Pocahontas married a chief from her tribe when she was about 14 years old. She was not seen in the Jamestown area for about three years after that.

By 1608, fighting had broken out between the white settlers and Pow hatan’s Indians. Pocahontas was lured on board an English ship in 1613 and temporarily held captive. During this time, she and the settler John Rolfe fell in love. Pocahontas was converted to Christianity and baptized Rebecca. She married Rolfe in 1614.

Pocahontas went with her husband to London in 1616 to help raise funds for the struggling colonists in Virginia. The English thought of her as an Indian “prin cess.” While waiting to sail back to America, she died of smallpox. Her son, Thomas, was educated in England. He later went to America and became an impor tant settler in Vir ginia. A number of noted Virginia families claim to be his des cen dants.

Parallel Events in Europe

World Book on James I 1James I (1566-1625) was the first Stuart king of England. He became James VI of Scotland in 1567 when his

mother, Mary, Queen of Scots, gave up that throne. When James’s cousin Elizabeth I died, he became King James I of England in 1603, and ruled both England and Scotland until his death. James’s son Charles I suc ceed ed him.

James believed in the divine right of kings, the belief that kings get the right to rule from God, rather than from the people. He set up a strong royal gov ernment in Scotland, but the English Parliament opposed his attempt to rule as ab solute monarch in England. This dispute over who should have power continued under Charles I, and led to the English Civil War in 1642 [which we will study in detail in Week 22].

James supported the Anglican Church and sponsored a translation of the Bible, published in 1611, that is now known as the King James Version. But he per secuted certain Protestant groups such as the Puritans. Some Puritans migrated to America in 1620 and founded Plymouth Colony. They were better known as Pilgrims.

Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in America, was named in his honor. But James showed an interest in colonies only in Northern Ireland, where he seized land from Irish Catholics and gave it to English and Scottish Protestants.

World Book on the Thirty Years’ War 2The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) was a series of religious and political wars that eventually involved most Euro-

pean nations. The conflict began as a civil war between Protestants and Roman Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire and other territories under the administration of the Habsburgs, the royal family of Austria. But before the war ended, it had become a general struggle for territory and political power.

Causes of the war. The underlying cause of the war was the old deep-seated hostility between Protestants and Catholics in central Europe and in the Holy Roman Empire, a German-based empire that included what are now Germany, Austria, and parts of Italy and the Czech Republic. The Protestants and Catholics disagreed in their inter-pretation of the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which had been intended as a settlement of the religious question in the Holy Roman Empire. Both groups had violated the peace. In addition, the Peace of Augsburg had recognized only Catholics and Lutherans. There were many Calvinists and other Protestants in southern and central Germany, and they also demanded recognition.

The Bohemian period (1618-1624). A conflict over constitutional liberties between Protestants in Bohemia (now the western part of the Czech Republic) and their Roman Catholic rulers led to the war. But the spark that ignited the fight ing came when the archbishop of Prague, the capital of Bohemia, ordered a Protestant church destroyed. In anger, the people appealed to Holy Roman Emperor Matthias, who ignored their protests. The Protestants revolted in May 1618 to defend their constitutional privileges. The rebels threw two of the emperor’s officials out a window in what became known as the Defe ne stra tion of Prague. Protestants in central Europe sided with the Bohemian rebels.

The Bohemian Protestants removed the Catholic king of Bohemia, Ferdinand, from the throne, and chose the Protestant Frederick, elector (prince) of the Palatinate, an area in Germany, in Ferdinand’s place. But in 1619, Ferdi-nand was chosen Holy Roman emperor. Ferdinand—who took the title Ferdinand II—had great power in this posi-

1 From a World Book article entitled James I. Contributor: Lacey Baldwin Smith, D.Litt., Prof. Emeritus of English History, Northwestern.2 Excerpted from World Book articles entitled Germany and Thirty Years’ War. Contributors: James J. Sheehan, Ph.D., Dickason Professor of Humanities, Stanford University; Phillip N. Bebb, Ph.D., Professor of History, Ohio University.

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tion. In 1620, his general, Johan Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, decisively defeated the Bohemians in the Battle of the White Mountain. This defeat cost the Bohemians their independence, and Catholicism again became the state religion.

The Danish period (1625-1629). After Bohemia was defeated, the other Protestant countries began to realize their danger. The Protestant king of Denmark, Christian IV [brother of James I’s wife, Anne, Queen of England], aided by several other countries, opposed Ferdinand’s forces in Saxony (now northern Germany). But the emperor had received unexpected help from the famous general Albrecht von Wallenstein, who had a large army of hired sol-diers and adventurers.

Wallenstein’s army, aided by forces of the Holy League, a military alliance of German Catholic states under the lead-ership of General Tilly, de feated the Danish king again and again. Christian IV signed the Treaty of Lu beck (1629) and withdrew from Saxony. Meanwhile, the emperor had issued the Edict of Restitution. It provided that all church pos-sessions which the Pro testants had acquired be returned to the Catholics. The edict marked the height of the em per or’s power. But it forced other leaders in the empire to oppose him be cause he had issued the edict without consulting them.

The Swedish period (1630-1634). The Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus, was devoted to the cause of Protes-tantism. He was also ambitious for Sweden, which would be in danger if Ferdinand became too powerful. So, for the first time, a major political issue entered the war. In 1630, Gustavus Adolphus set sail from Sweden with 13,000 men to relieve the city of Magdeburg, Germany, which Tilly was besieging. The Swedish king had the best-trained and best-disciplined army in Europe, but he arrived too late to prevent the destruction of the city. In 1631, the Swed-ish army defeated Tilly in the Battle of Breitenfeld. Afterward, the Swedish forces won another important battle, and Tilly was killed in the fighting.

Emperor Ferdinand now called back Wallenstein, whom he had dismissed. Another army of recruits was gath-ered from many parts of Europe and placed under Wallenstein’s leadership. Ferdinand also made an alliance with Philip IV of Spain. Wallenstein’s army met the Swedish forces in the Battle of Lutzen (1632). The Swedes won, but Gustavus Adolphus was killed in the battle.

The Swedes continued the struggle until 1634, when their army was destroyed in the Battle of Nordlingen. The emperor suspected that Wallenstein was negotiating with the Protestants and ordered his arrest. Wallenstein tried to escape but was assassinated.

The Swedish-French period (1635-1648). The war now lost most of its religious character and became largely po-litical. Cardinal Richelieu, who ruled France through King Louis XIII, determined to block the growth of Habs burg power by interfering on the side of the Protestants. The war became a strug gle between the royal Bourbon family of France and the Austrian Habsburgs. In 1635, Richelieu sent a French army into Germany, where it joined a Swedish army. The combined armies won a long series of battles, giving new hope to the Protestants in Germany. [We will study Richelieu and Louis XIII in depth during Week 22.]

The Peace of Westphalia (1648). For years the people of the Holy Ro man Empire had suffered misery and hard-ship because of the Thirty Years’ War. In 1644, the European countries sent representatives to a peace conference. The Catholic and Protestant delegates met separately in two different cities of West phalia (now western Germany). The negotiations dragged on for four years, until the Peace of Westphalia was signed in 1648. By this treaty, France acquired Alsace and Lorraine; and Sweden got control of the mouths of the Oder, Elbe, and Weser rivers. Also as a result of the treaty, Calvinism was put on an equal footing with Catholicism and Lutheranism.

Results of the war. The empire was in a pitiable condition by the time the war ended. Many people had been killed. Whole cities, villages, and farms had disappeared, and much property had been destroyed. Art, science, trade, and industry declined. It took almost 200 years for the German territories to recover from the effects of the war.

World Book on the Development of Prussia 1During the 1600’s, the Hohenzollern family began to expand its power in eastern Germany. The Hohenzollerns

ruled the state of Brandenburg. Berlin was their capital. In 1618, the ruler of Brandenburg inherited the duchy of Prus-sia. The Peace of Westphalia added part of Pomerania and some territories on the lower Rhine River to the Hohen-zollern holdings.

The Hohenzollerns’ rise to power began with Frederick William (the Great Elector), who became ruler of Bran-denburg in 1640. Frederick William was born on Feb. 16, 1620. During his rule, Frederick William laid the founda-

1 Excerpted from World Book articles entitled Germany, Thirty Years’ War, and Frederick William. Contributors: James J. Sheehan, Ph.D., Dickason Professor of Humanities, Stanford University; Phillip N. Bebb, Ph.D., Professor of History, Ohio University; Charles W. Ingrao, Ph.D., Professor of History, Purdue University.

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tions for the future military greatness of Prussia. He was only 20 years old when he succeeded his father as elector (ruler). He ruled Brandenburg during the last eight years of the Thirty Years’ War, which brought great ruin to Bran-denburg. After the war ended in 1648, Frederick William began to send people to towns that had been deserted. He also won the power to raise and collect taxes and used money to build a standing army. Frederick William fought against both King Louis XIV of France and King Charles XI of Sweden. He defeated Swedish troops in an important battle at Fehrbellin, Germany, in 1675.

Throughout his reign, he devoted much of his time to improving his territory. He encouraged industries, opened canals, and established a postal system. He reorganized the universities of Frankfurt and Konigsberg and founded the Royal Library in Berlin. At his death on May 9, 1688, Frederick William left to his son Frederick III of Brandenburg (later King Frederick I of Prussia) a prosperous state and an enlarged army. In 1701, Frederick I, was given the title king of Prussia. [We will continue the story of Prussia and Frederick I’s two successors, Frederick William I and Fred-erick II (the Great) in Week 25.]

New Views of the Universe World Book on Galileo 1

Galileo, pronounced gal uh LAY oh or gal uh LEE oh (1564-1642), an Italian astronomer and physicist, has been called the founder of modern experimental science. Galileo made the first effective use of the refracting telescope to discover important new facts about astronomy. He also discovered the law of falling bodies as well as the law of the pendulum. Galileo designed a variety of scientific instruments. He also developed and improved the refracting tele-scope, though he did not invent it.

Early life. Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa on Feb. 15, 1564. In the early 1570’s, his family moved to Florence, and Galileo began his formal education at a school in a nearby monastery. Galileo’s father, determined that his son should

1 From a World Book article entitled Galileo. Contributor: A. Mark Smith, Ph.D., Professor of History, University of Missouri, Columbia.

Background map for the Thirty Years’ War

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be a doctor, sent him to the University of Pisa in 1581. Galileo studied medicine and the philosophy of Aristotle for the next four years.

Early scientific interests. Galileo’s years as a student at Pisa marked a turning point for him. Never really interested in medicine, he discovered he had a talent for mathematics. In 1585, he persuaded his father to let him leave the university. Back in Florence with his family, Galileo spent the next four years as a tutor in mathematics. During this time, he began to question Aristotelian philosophy and scientific thought. At the same time, he gained his first public notice with his new hydro-static balance, an instrument used to find the specific gravity of objects by weighing them in water.

In 1589, Galileo was appointed professor of mathematics at the University of Pisa. This position required him to teach courses in astronomy on the basis of the Greek astronomer Ptolemy’s theory that the sun and all the planets revolve around the earth. Preparing for these courses deepened Galileo’s understanding of astronomical theory. In 1592, he took up duties as professor of mathematics at the University of Padua, where he spent the next 18 years. During this time, he became convinced of the truth of the theory, proposed by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, that all planets, including the earth, revolve around the sun.

Mature scientific career. In 1609, while still at Padua, Galileo built his first telescope. Turning it to the sky, he saw clear evidence that many of Aristotle’s and Ptolemy’s claims about the heavens were false. Galileo’s first discovery was that, far from being perfectly smooth, as Aristotle and Ptolemy had thought, the moon was mountainous and pitted, much like the earth. He made his most sensational discovery in 1610, when he discovered four moons circling Jupiter. He named these moons the “Medicean Planets,” in the hope of winning the favor of the Medicis, the ruling family of Florence.

In 1610, Cosimo de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, named Galileo his personal mathematician. This position brought Galileo back to Florence, where he continued his studies of the heavens. He made observations of sunspots and of Venus, not-ing that the planet progresses through phases similar to those of the moon. This fact confirmed his doubts about Ptolemaic astronomy and deepened his conviction of the truth of Coper-nicus’s theory that the earth and planets revolve around the sun. Publication of these findings, starting in 1610, brought him wide renown.

Galileo also pursued research on motion—especially the motion of freely falling bodies. The problem, as he saw it, was that the Aristotelian theory of motion, which referred all mo-tion to a stationary earth at the center of the universe, made it impossible to believe the earth actually moves. Galileo went to work to develop a theory of motion consistent with a moving earth.

History of Science: Scriptures and Commentary

Psalm 19:1-4The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim

the work of his hands. Day after day they pour forth speech; night after night they display knowledge. There is no speech or language where their voice is not heard. Their voice goes out into all the earth, their words to the ends of the world.

Romans 1:20-21For since the creation of the world God’s invisible quali-

ties—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that men are without excuse. For although they knew God, they neither glorified him as God nor gave thanks to him, but their thinking became futile and their foolish hearts were darkened.

Ancients had no foundation without God. ☐ They couldn’t have understood the origin of the universe. ☐ They chose not to glorify the Creator, and their minds

were darkened. ☐ As a result, they became prey to idolatry, polytheism,

and superstition, which is false belief based on igno-rance and fear. Without the belief in an orderly universe created by an orderly God who is distinct from and rul-ing over His creation, they had no basis for the develop-ment of modern science.

Why weren’t ancient and modern sciences the same in content and development?

☐ From time to time, scattered cultures accomplished some amazing feats of engineering and invention. The Chinese were particularly noteworthy in this regard.

☐ However, most of these cultures embraced astrology, choosing to believe that the stars directed the destinies of men, rather than calling on the Creator of the stars for wisdom and guidance. Superstition and polytheism similarly taught them to fear conflicting petty deities in all the powers of nature.

☐ Thus, they never understood that natural forces con-trolled the world, and that there were rational laws of nature that were established by God and could be under-stood and harnessed for the good of mankind.

Continued in sidebar, next page…

Galileo’s observations of sunspots were important because they proved that the sun had “blemishes” on its face. Aristo-tle taught that there were four terrestrial ele ments (earth, air, fire, and water), plus quintessence (literally “fifth ele ment”) called ether. Ether was sup posed to be an incorruptible element that had the un usual property of moving in perfect cir cles around the center of the Earth. The dis covery of sunspots cast doubt on wheth er the sun was really made of ether, which, in turn, cast doubt on whether it really moved in perfect circles around the Earth.

Galileo’s observations of the pendulum showed him that the time of a pendulum’s swing depends on the length of the pen dulum, not on the weight of the pendulum or the distance it swings. (This fact makes it possible to build accurate clocks using a pendulum, like the familiar grandfather clock.) Aristotle’s theory of falling bodies could not explain this fact. Aristotle had taught that heavier bodies fall faster than light bodies, but a heavy pendulum takes just as long to swing as a lighter pendulum of the same length.

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Among the most important results of this search were the law of the pendulum and the law of freely falling bodies. Galileo observed that pendulums of equal length swing at the same rate whether their arcs are large or small. Modern mea-suring instruments show that the rate is actually somewhat greater if the arc is large. Galileo’s law of falling bodies states that all objects fall at the same speed, regardless of their mass; and that, as they fall, the speed of their descent increases uniformly.

Galileo and the Roman Catholic Church. Galileo’s quick wit, which he often used to ridicule his opponents, earned him a number of enemies. In 1613, Galileo wrote a letter in which he tried to show that the Copernican theory was consistent with both Catholic doctrine and proper Biblical interpretation. Some of his enemies sent a copy of this letter to the inquisitors in Rome, who sought out and punished heretics—people who op-posed church teachings. In early 1616, Galileo was summoned to Rome for a determination on the orthodoxy of his views. Al-though he was cleared of charges of heresy, he was ordered not “to hold or defend” the Copernican theory. That is, he could treat the theory hypothetically but not treat it as if it were true.

In 1632, Galileo published his first scientific masterpiece, the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. In this work, he compared the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian theory to the Coper-nican theory to show that the Copernican system was logically superior. Once again Galileo was summoned to Rome, this time to answer to the charge of willfully disobeying the order not “to hold or defend” Copernicus’s theory. In 1633, the Inquisition found Galileo guilty of the charge, forced him to recant (publicly withdraw his statement), and sentenced him to life imprison-ment.

Because of Galileo’s advanced age and poor health, the church allowed him to serve his imprisonment under house ar-rest in a villa outside Florence. There, he passed the remainder of his years in relative isolation, eventually becoming blind. But he managed to complete his second scientific masterpiece, the Discourse on Two New Sciences, published in 1638. In this work, Galileo provided both a mathematical proof of his new theory of motion and an original study of the tensile strength of materials. He died on Jan. 8, 1642. In 1979, Pope John Paul II declared that the Roman Catholic Church may have been mistaken in con-demning Galileo. He instructed a church commission to study Galileo’s case. In 1983, the commission concluded that Galileo should not have been condemned. In 1984, at the commission’s recommendation, the church published all documents related to Galileo’s trial. In 1992, Pope John Paul II publicly endorsed the commission’s finding that the church had made a mistake in condemning Galileo.

Galileo’s scientific contribution. Historians disagree about Galileo’s role as the “founder of modern experimental science.” In fact, some of them doubt that experiment, in the mod-ern sense, played an important part at all in Galileo’s scientific development. These historians maintain that Galileo’s real originality lay in the way he approached scientific problems. First, Galileo reduced those problems to very simple terms

☐ Similarly, the cultures of the Far East stressed the oneness of man and nature and, while advancing in isolated technologies, never developed modern scientific techniques.

Greek ContributionsDuring the Golden Age of Classical Greece, many impor-

tant and impressive advances were made in both mathemat-ics and science. However, these were not the foundations of modern science.

Aristotle was the chief authority in almost all academic areas. The basic problem with Aristotle’s scientific ideas stemmed from his confusion of the Crea tor with His creation. As long as Aristotle stuck to observation of the physical world, he was reasonably accurate and a prede cessor of mod-ern scientists. But, living before the time of Christ, and not choos ing to acknowledge the one true God as Creator, he gave to the creation the attri butes of God.

☐ He believed that matter was eternal and had always existed.

☐ He taught that material things had their own conscious purposes, goals, and ends, rather than they were di-rected by the pur poses and plea sure of God.

☐ He so emphasized the purposes of matter that he failed to investigate what matter was or how it worked.

Because his presuppositions provided a faulty starting point, they yielded a faulty explana tion of the uni verse. Yet, for centuries, Aristotle’s theories and writings were ac cepted and incorporated into medieval theology.

Saint Thomas Aquinas synthesized Aris totle’s phi lo sophy with Scripture and Catho lic doctrine. By creating this synthe-sis, he made it in the church’s interest to defend the philoso-pher. When experimental sci entists such as Galileo proved Aristotle wrong, the Roman Catholic Church leaders consid-ered the findings to be at tacks on the church and sought to deny and repress them. Thus, faithful Roman Catholics were hampered in any pursuits of the modern scientific method.

The Reformation taught people to search for truth them-selves rather than rely on pagan authorities or church officials. Protestants did not face the same crisis of con science that Roman Catholics felt. Prot estant countries provided a haven from Roman Catholic suppression of scientific advancements. Most of the early scientists were either Protestants or Roman Catholics who dared to question official church dogma on scientific issues.

Many early scientists were also de vout Christians seek-ing to glori fy their Cre ator by under stand ing His cre a tion bet ter. Scripture teaches that God cre ated the universe, from which He is sep a rate. God established rea sonable, or derly, and discernible laws to gov ern nature. Ref or mation scientists had con fi dence to search for these laws in order to understand and sub due nature, as commanded in Gene sis 1:28. Be cause they believed the Bible, they un derstood both their role as ex plorers of a preconceived order and the principles they were exploring.

Finally, many people who studied the Bible, es pe cially those who followed Zwingli and Calvin, felt a responsi bility to use their gifts, talents, and interests to serve God. Science gave them a very important avenue for bene fiting mankind and glorifying God.

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on the basis of everyday experience and common-sense logic. Then he analyzed and resolved the problems according to simple mathematical descriptions. The success with which Galileo applied this technique to the analysis of physics, espe-cially the physics of motion, opened the way for the development of modern mathematical physics.

One of the major threads for the rest of our study of world history is the development of secular theories in the realms of government and philosophy. Many date the Age of Reason (also called the Enlightenment) from Galileo’s un-veiling of his telescope in front of Venetian lawmakers in 1609. As the scientific method of experimentation emerged, and as advanced mathematical proofs gave far more satisfying explanations for natural phenomena than traditional views based on Aristotle and Ptolemy, the intellectual world was rocked. New ideas about the nature of creation, man-kind, and God Himself emerged all through the 1600’s and 1700’s. Below is an article that surveys these developments.

Note: Rhetoric History students will follow the thread of the Age of Reason in leapfrog fashion (in Weeks 20, 24, and 26 only, and then in Unit 4 as well). For those who wish to study the theories of government or the philosophi-cal ideas of the Age of Reason in more detail, please see each week’s Government track and our Pageant of Philosophy background information, scripts, and discussions.

World Book on Continued Developments in Science 1The Age of Reason, also called the Enlightenment, was a philosophical move ment that greatly affected the devel-

opment of science during the late 1600’s and the 1700’s. Great efforts were made during the Age of Reason to circulate the results of the scientific research of the times.

Many scholars gathered, organized, and published this knowledge. The most famous reference work was the 28-vol-ume Encyclopedie (1751-1772) edited by two French authors, Denis Diderot and Jean d’Alembert. The Encyclopedie contained reports on much of the science and technology of the day.

One of the major scientific achievements of the 1700’s was the creation of mod ern chemistry. Scientists devel-oped the techniques necessary for isolating and studying gases in their pure forms. They discovered many chemi-cal substances, in clud ing chlorine, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. Oxygen was discovered by the Swedish chemist Carl Scheele in the early 1770’s and independently by the English chemist Joseph Priestley in 1774. By 1777, Antoine Lavoisier of France had discov ered the nature of combus tion (burning). He showed that combustion results from the rapid union of the burning material with oxygen. Lavoisier also developed the law of the conservation of matter. This law stated that matter cannot be created or destroyed but only chemically changed in form. Lavoisier also helped work out the present-day system of chemical names.

Major advances occurred in biology during the 1700’s. A Swedish nat uralist and botanist named Carolus Linnaeus devised a systematic method for naming and classifying plants and animals in the mid-1700’s. His method, with many alterations, is still used. Two French naturalists, Comte de Buffon and Georges Cuvier, made great advances in the study of fossils and of comparative anatomy and did much to prepare the way for the scientific investigation of evolution.

In 1776, the Scottish economist Adam Smith published An Inquiry into the Na ture and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, the earliest formulation of classical economics [which older students will study in de tail in Unit 4]. The first systematic studies of electricity were conduct ed during the 1700’s. In the American colonies, Benjamin Franklin proved in 1752 that light ning is electricity when he performed his famous ex periment with a flying kite during a thun-derstorm. In the late 1700’s, two Italian scien tists, Luigi Galvani and Count Ales san dro Volta, made some of the first experiments with electric current.

1 Excerpted from a World Book article entitled Science. Contributor: Joseph W. Dauben, Ph.D., Professor of History and the History of Science, City University of New York.

Before beginning your discussion, please read the following: � History Background Information � Geography Background Information

Note: These discussion outlines assume that you have been studying with Tapestry for previous units of Year 2. However, we recognize that many parents who discover this program after having studied the Middle Ages with other curricula naturally take up Tapestry studies with this unit as the beginning of the colonization of America. Please be advised that we have covered significant topics in the first two units of Year 2. Knowledge of these topics is assumed in the discussion outlines in this unit. You may want to review or lecture on such topics (some of which are listed in the Unit Introduc-tion) using alternate resources.

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hisTOry: DialecTic DiscussiOn OuTline

1. Ask, “Who was the first champion of the English colonies in Virginia?” Sir Walter Raleigh, who had been a favorite of Queen Elizabeth, but who disappointed James I’s great expectations and was subsequently executed.

2. Ask, “Which two companies were founded by the authority of King James? Who founded them, and for what pur-poses? What were some of the results of these two charters in the history of English colonies in America?”

� The London and Plymouth Companies were formed by merchants for the purpose of making money, even though no men had made money off of efforts to colonize (or explore) American lands before. Indeed, some had lost fortunes or lives in the attempt.

� Note with students the novelty of private citizens banding together in a new invention called a “joint-stock company.” This shows the rise and increasing importance of the middle class, as well as clearly signaling the move from a land-based to a money-based economy, as we discussed in Unit 1. Rhetoric students’ readings in Week 21 will give them a wealth of detail about the European psychology of limited wealth, but for students at this level, it is enough to explain that a joint-stock company was made up of a group of individuals who could, collectively, finance risky ventures that individuals (or monarchs) would not be able to make. When a ven-ture was successful, all realized significant (if not fabulous) profits on their relatively small investment. If the venture failed, no one investor was devastated, for each could diversify when only a small amount was given to each venture. This was how early colonization was financed.

3. Ask students to name some of the problems and difficulties that Jamestown colonists faced in their early years. Answers will vary, but here are some representative ones:

� Colonists needed to build or establish all kinds of basic amenities: houses, protection from Native Americans, food, and farmland.

� Colonists quarrelled among themselves from the onset of their voyage. � Over half of the colonists were “gentlemen adventurers” who did not know how to labor and had no basic skills

in farming, carpentry, or food preservation. Their motives for joining the colonizing venture were the pursuit of quick wealth or the thrill of adventure, not the more serious aims of planting a lasting colony via hard work.

� When men arrived, they were often useless as laborers and ate the precious food that the ships also brought, meaning that the overall benefit of such ship loads was effectively canceled out.

� Sickness, Indian attacks, and malnutrition plagued the colony for years, as did internal divisions.4. Ask students to name key people and events that saved the Jamestown colony from utter failure.

� John Smith provided leadership and courage for the colony as it teetered on the brink of decimation in the first few years, due to the gentlemen adventurers’ lack of skills and humility. Smith had plenty of character issues himself, however, and unfortunately, he introduced many dissensions and quarrels.

� Pocahontas’s intervention, saving the life of John Smith, was a gift from God that allowed the colony to survive. This act restored to the colony their only strong leader and, because of the Smith’s favor with the Indians, the colony was given the gift of food when they most needed it.

� Lord De La Warr (Delaware) arrived in the nick of time. Because the Starving Time had reduced the colony from five hundred men to sixty in the eight months following John Smith’s injury and voyage back to England, the colonists were relieved to have Lord De La Warr installed as the first royal governor of Virginia. He restored health to the colony with his stores and discipline.

� Sir Thomas Dale also exerted good leadership as the succeeding governor. He brought both women and owner-ship of private property to the colony, strengthening the colonists’ motivation to succeed and to remain in the New World.

5. Ask, “What three significant events occurred in Virginia in 1619?” � In 1619, Virginia’s House of Burgesses held the first English parliament meeting on American soil. � 1619 was also the year that the first slaves were shipped to the colony. � The first significant population of women was introduced to the colony in this year as well. A few wives and

daughters were already in residence, but the colony was overwhelmingly male. In 1619, a ship with ninety mar-riageable women arrived.

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6. Ask, “What kind of men colonized Jamestown during its first years, and what connection did their social status and vocational skills have to the success or failure of the colony?” As previously mentioned, most of the colonists were merely looking for quick wealth or stories to tell when they returned home—they came for adventure, not to colonize. They were not workers, nor men of sterling character or practical use. Many early colonial leaders left records that bemoan the difficulty of getting such men to work, to save food against future privations, and to submit to authority for the greater good of the colony.

7. Ask, “Given John Smith’s character, do you think he was qualified to lead Jamestown? If not, why do you think God allowed him to do so?” Answers will vary. Your goal is not to arrive at a definitive answer, but to draw your students out about how they formed their opinion. Ask them to tell you about:

� Smith’s character: Brash, bold, contentious, quarrelsome, brave, and (in many ways) noble � Smith’s life: He travelled a lot and had much practical knowledge for helping the colony survive. � Smith’s leadership style: He seemed to have been a charismatic leader whom men either loved or hated for his

strong personality. Certainly, he had the ability to lead men, whether they would follow him by choice or not. � Smith’s courage: This is unquestionable, given the situations that he found himself in among the Native Americans. � What happened when Smith left? The discipline in the colony dissolved; in eight months, their number was

reduced from five hundred to sixty. � After summarizing these points with students, ask, “Given these realities, was Smith qualified to lead? Why or

why not?”8. Discuss the character of King James I, based on what students read.

� H.E. Marshall, the author of both This Country of Ours and Our Island Story, does not have a high opinion of James I. Below are important details from her books.

� James did not deal well or wisely with Sir Walter Raleigh. His fear of the King of Spain and his lack of insight led him to execute this “ first great colonizer” (This Country of Ours 100).

� James commanded that gifts be given in his name and a coronation be held to crown Powhatan as the “em-peror” of the Powhatan Indians.

� James attempted to dictate the election of the President of the London Company, against the clear parameters of its legal charter.

� James was Scottish born, the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and he became king when he was a young boy. “James had been carefully taught, but unfortunately his teachers thought more of making him clever, than of teaching him things which would have made him a great ruler. Some people called him the ‘British Solomon,’ but because he was such a mixture of wisdom and foolishness, he has also been called the ‘Wisest Fool in Christendom’” (Our Island Story 445).

� James hated smoking and wrote a pamphlet against it when the habit became fashionable in England, after it had been imported from Native American culture.

� James was a Protestant, and his harsh treatment of Roman Catholics tempted them to rebellion. The most famous attempt on James’s life was a conspiracy to wipe out both king and advisors with a gunpowder explo-sion, deposited by Guy Fawkes under Parliament. To this day, fireworks are set off in Britain to commemo-rate James’s narrow escape on November 5.

� Here are a few facts that your students may not know: � James united under one person the kingdoms of Scotland, Ireland, England, and Wales. His rule encour-

aged the beginnings of Great Britain’s development into one united kingdom (the UK). � James commissioned a new translation of the Holy Scriptures, commonly known as the King James Bible. � James was a bit of a glutton, and very fond of steak. Legend has it that he even went so far as to knight the

flank of a cow, dubbing it “Sir Loin.” From this, we get the modern term “sirloin” steak.9. The Native Americans and the English colonists came to be bitter enemies.

� Ask, “What were the factors that contributed to their enmity?” There were misunderstandings on both sides resulting from the proximity of two alien cultures. The inability to communicate due to language barriers, the Native Americans’ anxiety regarding the encroachment on their land, and the colonists’ harsh treatment of the natives all contributed to the general fear and hatred between the two peoples. Both groups included people of both noble and reprehensible character, and we cannot say that either the English or the Native Americans were “all good” or “all bad.”

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� Ask, “In what ways do you feel each side was right?” Answers will vary. Students will probably mention that the Native Americans were in residence first (conversely, there was plenty of land and game to go around) and that the Englishmen displayed ethnocentricity (as we dis-cussed in Unit 2). The English would have said that they only wanted to gather gold and other riches and depart, leaving the Native Americans in peace. Of course, they did not do this.

� Ask, “In what ways do you feel each side was wrong?” There are records of lying and deceit on both sides. The Englishmen used their weapons to both attack and defend at different times, and (given their cultural views) were often brutal by modern standards in their fight for survival. Both sides grew increasingly distrustful of each other, and hatred was bred as a result of various incidents and the colonists’ desperate need for food.

� Ask, “If you had been the ruler of the land, how would you have mediated between these two peoples?” This is one of those questions that has no one right answer. We ask it in order to observe how our children are processing the factors involved. What values would have determined your student’s decision-making paradigm? By what standards would he have judged, determined, and enforced his decisions?

10. Discuss the life and work of Galileo, and the effects he had on church and society in the early 1600’s. � Ask students about the three famous astronomers who influenced Galileo’s thinking. What did each of them

believe about the universe? � Nicholas Copernicus: He believed that the sun was the center of the universe rather than the earth. � Tycho Brahe: He believed that the earth did not move and that the sun circled the earth once each year. He

also believed that the other visible planets orbited around the sun. � Johannes Kepler: He proved that the planets’ orbits were in the shape of an ellipse rather than that of a circle.

He also figured out that the closer planets are to the sun, the faster their movement. Additionally, he ex-plained that a planet’s distance from the sun is related to the time it takes to complete a full orbit around it.

� Ask students, “Before Galileo’s discoveries, how did educated Europeans view the universe?”Educated people believed that the earth was the center of the universe and that the sun, moon, and planets all revolved around the earth. Though Copernicus and Kepler had writ-ten contrary views, there was no hard evidence to support them and therefore they were dismissed.

� Many Roman Catholic leaders were threatened by Galileo’s theories, especially those that were supported by his obser-vations using the telescope. Use the Scriptures in the sidebar on page 44 and the information below to discuss whether or not a Christian should be threatened by Galileo’s findings.

� Whose glory do they declare, according to Psalms? They speak of God’s glory and authority.

� What does the Bible say God’s purposes are for the stars and moon? See Genesis 1:16-18 in the sidebar, right.

� Given these things, why would a telescope have been threatening in Galileo’s day?

� The heliocentric (sun at the center of the universe) theo-ries seemed to conflict with specific Bible texts. There are several places where people command the sun to “stand still” or “move backwards,” and the sun is said to “rise and set.” (See Joshua 10:12-13; 2 Kings 20:9-10; Psalm 19:4-6; 50:1; and Malachi 1:11 for examples.) All these texts seem to say that the sun does move.

� Conversely, the earth is never described as moving in the Bible.

Deuteronomy 10:14To the Lord your God belong the heavens, even the

highest heavens, the earth and everything in it.

Psalm 8:3-4 When I consider your heavens, the work of your fingers, the moon and the stars, which you have set in place, what is man that you are mindful of him, the son of man that you care for him?

Psalm 19:1For the director of music. A psalm of David. The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim the work of his hands.

Psalm 50:6And the heavens proclaim his righteousness, for God himself is judge.

Psalm 89:5 The heavens praise your wonders, O Lord, your faithfulness too, in the assembly of the holy ones.

Psalm 97:6The heavens proclaim his righteousness, and all the peoples see his glory.

Genesis 1:16-18 God made two great lights—the greater light to

govern the day and the lesser light to govern the night. He also made the stars. God set them in the expanse of the sky to give light on the earth, to govern the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw that it was good.

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� Galileo countered this challenge by saying that the Bible described the motion of heavenly bodies in one “lan-guage”—that of everyday speech. He claimed that we could rightly use more precise language when describ-ing the same truth in scientific terms without contradicting the Bible. People in his day did not agree.

� Ask students, “Are Galileo’s observations of sunspots and the irregularities of the moon and stars threat-ening to your faith? Why or why not?” Students may adopt Galileo’s view that the Bible references relate to the sun’s movement from a position of the everyday appearance of the truth and are not a precise scientific description. They may also say that they have seen pictures of the relative positions of the actual heavenly bodies and therefore do not doubt either God or science; in other words, they may see no contradiction between the two. Be sure to discuss this care-fully and slowly, noting the steps by which students arrive at their answers. For instance, we would not want them to be quick to dismiss Bible passages in favor of the evidence of their senses.

� Though this is not specifically highlighted in the dialectic resource, you should share with them that anoth-er reason that the work of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo seemed to threaten Roman Catholic Church lead-ers was that important theologians had endorsed the theories of the ancients, and even combined church teachings with the scientific theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy. For example, they had added to Ptolemy’s theory of the earth being the heaviest and therefore at the center of the universe the idea that the earth was heavy because of sin. They also took Ptolemy’s idea of the stars being fixed in a perfect, unchanging, outer-most crystalline sphere which God alone moved and made this sphere into the dwelling place of the angels.

hisTOry: rheTOric DiscussiOn OuTline 1st Hour: Use the dialectic outline if you wish to reinforce the facts of this week’s study.

Note: The following discussion outline reflects our dual focus on concurrent European and American events. This week’s reading on the European scene focuses on eastern Europe and encompasses dates up to 1715 in some cases, but the time period we will be concentrating on is 1600-1650. The students’ reading therefore provides background for both European and American events discussed in Weeks 20-22. Events relating to the settlement of Jamestown oc-curred from 1607-1620. Next week, we’ll be covering 1620-1648. Because the Thirty Years’ War concluded in 1648, it spans the colonial events discussed in both Weeks 20 and 21. 1. Create a framework for discussion using a relative time line. We suggest that students divide the allotted space

horizontally with the time line in the middle of it. Then, using their notes, students can put European events above the line, and North American events below the line. Below are events they should be sure to include:

� Elizabeth I dies in 1603; James I begins to rule. � James I allows settlers to go to America under the sponsorship of the London Company in 1607. � Also in 1607, the Pilgrims flee to Amsterdam. (Go ahead and place this date since students will be familiar

with the Pilgrims, but note that technically, this date is more pertinent to next week’s study.) � John Smith takes control of and saves the sickly colony of Jamestown from 1608-1609. � Pocahontas marries John Rolfe in 1614 and dies in England in 1616. � Ironically, 1619 holds both the first meeting of the House of Burgesses (the first freely elected assembly in Amer-

ica) and the importation of twenty black slaves (who had no freedoms of any kind). Also, the first unmarried women arrive—ninety of them on one ship—to become wives and mothers in the predominantly-male colony.

� The Thirty Years’ War begins in 1618 and continues until 1648. (Again, this date applies to both this week’s and next week’s studies.)

2. Student readings in The Age of Religious Wars, 1559-1715, by Richard Dunn, summarize conditions in eastern Eu-rope during 1559-1715. We suggest that students keep details straight by filling in the chart on page 22 (or expand a copy of the chart in their notebooks and then fill it in) with key aspects of life in eastern Europe in the second half of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Here is the chart filled in with sample answers:

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eThnic/sOcial makeuP POliTical sTrucTures religiOus cOnDiTiOns majOr evenTs/facTOrs

hOly

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☐ Czechs (Slavs) ☐ Germans ☐ Others

Hundreds of sovereign states collected in name only under the emperor, who during this period was ruled by the House of Habsburg. The real power was resident in the electors of seven princes of the empire.

The Peace of Augsburg established that each sovereign would decide his independent state’s religion: Lutheran or Roman Catho-lic. In the late 1500’s, Cal-vinist (German Reformed) subjects multiplied.

The Peace of Augsburg slowly decayed through twin pressures of the growth of German Re-formed subjects and the Catholic Reformation. These contributed to the Thirty Years’ War, settled by the Peace of Westphalia, which accounted for Calvinists in the agreement.

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☐ Greeks ☐ Albanians ☐ Bulgarians ☐ Serbo-Croatians ☐ Rumanians ☐ Magyars

The sultan was a strong mili-tary leader and the undisputed ruler. After 1566, a series of weak sultans meant the decline of the empire.

Turks were Muslims, but subjects were encouraged to embrace Greek Ortho-doxy as a buffer to Latin Christian Europe. The church leaders cooperated by preaching submission to the Turks.

☐ Suleiman the Magnificent ruled from 1520-1566.

☐ In 1571, the Spaniards smashed the Turkish fleet at Lepanto.

☐ After their defeat by Austria in 1699, the empire perma-nently declined.

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☐ Poles ☐ Lithuanians ☐ White Russians ☐ Ruthenians ☐ Germans ☐ Jews

Weak “republican monarchy,” with real power held by a powerful landed gentry. The people were mainly downtrod-den peasant serfs. Only Poles and Lithuanian landowners were admitted to diets.

Divided and subdivided: ☐ Roman Catholic ☐ Protestant: Further

divided into Calvinist and Lutheran

☐ Greek Orthodox

☐ Poland became isolated from western Europe during this period: oriented north and east in trade and foreign rela-tions.

☐ Due to efforts of Jesuits and Roman Catholic missionaries, Roman Catholicism emerged as the dominant religion.

russ

ia

☐ Muscovites ☐ Tartars ☐ Slavs ☐ Mongols ☐ Jews ☐ Others

From Ivan the Terrible on, tsars held absolute rule, with a bureaucratic nobility who served the tsar at his plea-sure, and a virtually enslaved peasantry.

Russian Orthodoxy pre-dominated; at first, clergy were bullied by tsars into supporting their auto-cratic rule. Later, during the Time of Troubles, the church was the one stable institution and gained power.

☐ Ivan the Terrible ruled from 1533-1584.

☐ In the “Time of Troubles” (1584-1613) the nobles re-belled against the tsars.

☐ From 1667-1671, Russia saw the largest popular uprising of the century.

sWeD

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☐ Fins ☐ Estonians ☐ Latvians ☐ Russians ☐ Poles ☐ Germans

Peasant farmers were strong and independent. They owned half of the land and had significant civil liberties and political power. Nobles were correspondingly less rich and powerful.

People became solid Lu-theran Protestants through struggles with Catholic Po-land and Orthodox Russia.

Gustavus Adolphus (who ruled from 1611-1632) became the Prot-estant hero of the Thirty Years’ War. In 1632, his army defeated the Imperial army at Breitenfeld, the most decisive battle of the war.

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☐ Germans ☐ Slavs ☐ Jews

A collection of thirteen sepa-rate provinces (amounting to small states) governed and administrated separately. The Habsburgs had no desire to unite them; rather they played them off against one another.

There were eight religious creeds distributed among the thirteen provinces. Over this period, the pre-dominant religion became Roman Catholicism.

Austria developed vigorously during this period. One major event was the defeat of the Turks in 1699, when they surrendered lands in Hungary, Transylvania, Slavonia, and Croatia to Austria.

Chart continues on the next page …

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eThnic/sOcial makeuP POliTical sTrucTures religiOus cOnDiTiOns majOr evenTs/facTOrsbr

an

Den

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Predominantly Germanic people

The original holdings of Fred-erick William, the Great Elec-tor, were spread out in three remote regions. His standing army yielded the unexpected benefits of a strong bureaucra-cy, development of industries, and centralized government.

People were staunchly Lutheran, though the Great Elector was Calvinist.

Frederick William (the Great Elector) ruled from 1640-1688. He was a creative and energetic leader who laid the foundation of the modern, united German state of Prussia, which eventually united all of Germany in 1871.

3. Ask students to summarize the Thirty Years’ War by answering these questions: � When did it occur?

It was a series of conflicts that raged from 1618-1648. � Who were the main combatants, and why were they fighting?

Protestants in Bohemia, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, and some German states fought (mostly) Roman Catho-lic potentates (and their agents) for a variety of reasons. Often the reasons were religious; sometimes, the conflicts were wars of aggression or territorial disputes. (This is a messy war; there was no one, unified reason for the fighting.) As you can see from the background notes, this war progressed in stages which saw differing combat-ants and differing motives. If you feel it is necessary, you can use the World Book article on pages 38-39 to go through the details with students.

� In what regions was this war waged? The majority of battles took place on German soil, even though in most cases the German peoples were not the major combatants.

� How severe were casualties during this war? Amazingly costly. Whole cities, villages, and farms had disappeared, and much property had been destroyed. Art, science, trade, and industry declined. It took almost 200 years for the German territories to recover from the effects of the war.

� What treaty resolved it, and what were the conditions of settlement? The Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, ended this series of conflicts on much the same terms as the Peace of Augsburg had decided it years before. Each prince could decide the religion for his own territory. New features were that France acquired Alsace and Lorraine; and Sweden got control of the mouths of the Oder, Elbe, and Weser rivers. Also as a result of the treaty, Calvinism was put on an equal footing with Catholicism and Lutheranism.

4. The Age of Reason is a major thread that begins in this unit. It started with the advent of the Scientific Revolu-tion. In The Age of Religious Wars, 1559-1715, Dunn explains in a clear way the “before and after” ideas about the cosmos, the nature of substances, and the physics between the medieval mindset and the post-Galileo mindset (see pages 199-208). Draw students out to see if they can compare and contrast these two worldviews.

� Aristotle and Ptolemy, both ancient thinkers and “scientists,” were the chief ancient authorities for the medi-eval view of the world and how it worked.

� Aristotle was the undisputed authority on mechanics. His Physics taught that all heavenly bodies natu-rally fell toward the center of the universe.

� Additionally, all earthly substances had one of four natures: earth, air, fire, and water. Each of these ele-ments could exist singly or in compounds, and each lent specific natures to those substances they made up. For example, we can know that tree leaves have fire as part of their makeup because they turn red in the fall, which is consistent with the nature of fire.

� Corresponding to these four elements were four humors (or fluids): melancholy, phlegm, blood, and cho-ler. The goal of medieval medical practices was to keep these humors in proper balance.

� Ptolemy supplied the authoritative cosmology: earth was the unmoving center of the universe. It was heavy and at rest, having fallen as far as it could. All of the heavenly bodies (sun, moon, and stars) were embedded in concentric, clear spheres made of ether. These were interconnected, and moved in perfect, circular motion around the earth, powered by the outermost sphere, the primum mobile.

� In the late Middle Ages, when these ancient writers were rediscovered and popularized, they had posed a serious threat to the authority of Christian teachings. As we learned in Week 8, Thomas Aquinas was one of

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the chief (but not only) men who syncretized (joined together, enmeshed) Aristotle’s physics and Ptolemy’s cosmology with Christian teachings. Thus, for instance, medieval men saw the earth as being heavy with sin. Because of this fact, the earth stood unmoving at the lowest place of the universe. The primum mobile turned for the love of God, and because it was the highest and most remote place next to heaven it was therefore the abode of the most powerful angels. After this synchronization, to strike at Aristotelian or Ptolemaic theories was to hit at the authority of the Roman Catholic Church.

5. Ask students to explain how Galileo’s discoveries powerfully changed men’s minds about the world and challenged the authority of the Roman Catholic Church.

� Galileo’s observations of the heavenly bodies directly challenged Ptolemy’s assertion that the heavenly bodies were perfect and perfectly regular. Such observations as moon mountains, sun spots, and the rings of Jupiter were incontrovertible proof (convincing people) and intolerable threats to Roman Catholic Church leaders, who forced Galileo to recant.

� Kepler’s mathematical formulas, based on the theories of Copernicus and observations of Tycho Brahe, ele-gantly explained the elliptical orbits of heavenly bodies and also disagreed with Ptolemy’s assertion of perfect-ly circular planetary motion. The mounting evidence of Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler finally led people to accept the assertion that the earth went around the sun. This view threw off the whole medieval and Roman Catholic complex hierarchy of a universe that displayed the glory of God by being centered on the corrupted, heavy, fallen dwelling place of sinful mankind.

� Note the fact that scientific activities were much better tolerated and even supported in Protestant states than in Roman Catholic ones.

2nd Hour: Analyze various aspects of the first permanent English settlement in America. 1. Ask students to summarize the settlement of Jamestown by answering these questions:

� When was Jamestown founded, and by whom? 1607 by adventurers sponsored by the Virginia Company of London

� What were the main obstacles the Englishmen had to overcome in colonizing Jamestown? Starvation due to a combination of sloth, conflicts, and lack of local farming crops or conditions. Hostility from Native Americans. Unwise focus on quick riches from finding gold, silver, and precious stones. Lack of unity and industry among the colonists.

� Who were the key leaders of the colony, and what did they each contribute? � John Smith was the first to really help the colonists to shape up. He showed great courage and resourceful-

ness, and imposed strict (if unpopular) discipline. He also recruited new colonists and support from England by writing a book about Jamestown.

� Lord De La Warr was a sincere Christian who governed wisely and in the fear of God. However, his tenure was short.

� John Rolfe was at first a colonist, then a publicist, and is credited for introducing tobacco as a cash crop to Jamestown settlers.

� When were slaves introduced into Jamestown? How were they treated? In 1619, the first slaves came to Virginia. They were treated as bondsmen, not as chattel slaves, meaning they were allowed to earn their freedom after a set period of labor.

� What key crop brought prosperity and longevity to Jamestown? Tobacco

2. Discuss the goals of those who sent the Jamestown colonists and the goals of the colonists themselves in moving to the New World.

� Student resources stressed the fact that these colonists were sent by a joint-stock company (the London Company) and that the hopes of both the senders and the travelers was for quick profit. The company and the colonists ex-pected to realize profits through either the collection of precious metals and stones or the discovery of a northwest passage to Asia.

� Read Proverbs 16:9: “In his heart a man plans his course, but the Lord determines his steps.” The colonists and the London Company thought they were going to get rich quick when they em barked on the business of coloniz-ing the New World. Instead, they ended up furthering God’s purposes for popu lating America with Englishmen

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(and their religious heritage). What was deemed an utter failure by 1624 (and abandoned by the London Com-pany when Virginia became a royal colony) was part of God’s good plan for His purposes and His glory.

3. Discuss the relationship between the character of the colonists and the course of events in Jamestown using the points below.

� Ask, “How did the colonists’ character affect the success or failure of Jamestown as a whole during its first ten years?” More than half of the colonists who went to Jamestown were “gentlemen adventurers” who were looking for riches or adventure (or both). They were quick to quarrel and slow to work, and they did not possess the skills or self-discipline equal to the tasks of survival and self-government. As a result, many of the colonists perished under horrible circumstances.

� Discuss John Smith’s character. Do students think he was qualified to lead Jamestown? (A follow-up question might be, “If not, why do you think God allowed him to do so?”) Answers will vary; see page 45, question 7 of the dialectic-level outline for details on this point.

� Today, many want to divorce the fruits of personal character (such as adultery or drug use) and public leadership roles (such as President and congressman). Ask, “What lessons from Jamestown speak to this issue?”

� Students may answer that John Smith’s character was not admirable but that God nevertheless used him as a strong and able leader. Point out that though God did use Smith despite Smith’s faults, it was John Smith’s strength of character that made him capa ble of leading selfish, indolent men to work and persevere.

� Students might similarly note the complexity of the settlement situation. Lord De La Warr, whom World Book labels as “harsh and strict but [successful] in bringing order,” also “arrived in 1610 as the colony teetered on the brink of collapse, [and] his first action was to organize a worship service in order to issue a biblical call for sacr i fice and industry.” 1 He went on to succeed as the first governor of the colony.

� Alternately, students may focus on the connection between the weak and ruinous condition of Jamestown before the intervention of Smith that resulted from the self-centered, indolent behavior of the colonists. If this point is brought up, focus on the treasure-seeking attitudes (of both the senders and those sent) and the colonists’ refusal to do manual labor that was “beneath” them. In 2 Thessalonians 3:10, Paul says, “For even when we were with you, we gave you this rule: ‘If a man will not work, he shall not eat.’”

Note: Next week, we will contrast the colonists in Jamestown with the colonists in Plymouth in terms of personal integrity, goals, motives for colonizing, and overall results of their efforts. Therefore, you may want to make points that will be reviewed during or tied into next week’s study. Alternately, focus on Jamestown issues this week and make broader spiritual applications next week.

4. Define the term, “Providence.” � Ask students, “Should we only use this term when God is doing things that we like? What is the scriptural

support for the word?” Providence (literally to “see before”) is that “guiding hand” or “supportive sovereignty” that quietly orders all things for God’s glory and our good. People often say that an unexpected, good event is “providential,” but stu-dents should realize that all events (pleasant or unpleas ant) are the outworking of Providence. Romans 8:28 says that “in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose.” Also reference James 1:2-4.

� Ask, “What specific events in the story of Jamestown obviously show God’s Providence at work?” Answers will vary. Students might mention:

� The ironic fact that although the company and colonists only desired to search for riches in the New World, they ended up building a new nation instead.

� The times when Native Americans saved colonists from starvation � Events from John Smith’s adventurous life, including the incident with Pocahontas and his leadership role in

saving Jamestown from ruin. � The arrival of Lord De La Warr just as the colonists had finally given up and were ready to set sail for home.

5. We should not become too moralistic in our discussion times. We can easily relate to the feelings of both the com-pany leaders and the colonists. Surely these people were disappointed at their “failure” to achieve temporal goals. You may want to take this opportunity to discuss an eternal evaluation of success or failure in biblical terms.

1 Mark A. Noll. A Christian History of the United States and Canada (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdman’s Publishing, 2000) 36-37.

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� Proverbs 16:3 says, “Commit to the Lord whatever you do, and your plans will succeed.” Did all “disappointed” colonists commit their way to God, or were they lean ing on their own understanding?

� God was bringing His purposes about through them; they might have been encouraged by Scriptures like Isa-iah 46:10-11 (below) if their hearts had been truly set on things besides personal gain or status.

I make known the end from the beginning,from ancient times, what is still to come.I say: My purpose will stand,and I will do all that I please.From the east I summon a bird of prey;from a far-off land, a man to fulfill my purpose.What I have said, that will I bring about;what I have planned, that will I do.

� Most “adventurers” probably considered themselves Christians. If they were, they should not have been truly dis ap pointed, as 2 Corinthians 4:16-18 reminds us:

Therefore we do not lose heart. Though outwardly we are wasting away, yet inwardly we are being renewed day by day. For our light and momentary troubles are achieving for us an eternal glory that far outweighs them all. So we fix our eyes not on what is seen, but on what is unseen. For what is seen is temporary, but what is unseen is eternal.

� We must admit that it isn’t pleasant to go through trials, and often we can’t see God’s purposes as we are walk-ing through them. But God does not promise to enlighten us; He simply asks that we trust Him, even in the midst of pain and trouble. (See Job 38-40; 1 Peter 1:6-7 and 4:12-13; and James 1:2-4.)

liTeraTure: lOWer level QuesTiOns anD ansWers

Answers to Lower Grammar Worksheet on Pocahontas

You may need to help your young student define some terms before completing the worksheet.1. Nonfiction2. BiographyAnswers can vary slightly for the student’s sentences describing his pictures. Just make sure that your stu-dent’s sentences match his illustrations.Beginning: Pocahontas is very young and pretty. She spends her days mostly playing.Middle: Pocahontas takes John Smith’s head in her arms and saves him from death.End: Pocahontas is known as Lady Rebecca and is invited to the palace.

Answers to Upper Grammar Worksheet for William Bradford, Pilgrim BoyNote to your student that when and where the chapter (or story) takes place is called the “setting.” The events that

happen in a chapter (or story) are called its “plot.” Answers can vary slightly.

Chapter “William Gets a Gift”Who are the main characters in this chapter?The main characters are William Bradford, the grandfather, and his grandson, also named William Bradford.Where and when does this chapter take place?The chapter opens in Austerfield, England in 1596.Give a short summary of what happens in this chapter.A new lamb is born and young William names her Mercy. Grandfather explains to William what a “will” and a “yeo-man” are. Note: Read and discuss Psalm 23 with your student.

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Chapter “Grandfather Bradford”Who are the main characters in this chapter?William, his mother, and his grandfather are the initial characters in this chapter. As the chapter progresses, other characters introduced are William’s sister (Alice), Mrs. Witherbee, Uncle Thomas, Uncle Robert, Aunt Alice, and cous-ins, Tom and Jane.Where and when does this chapter take place?This chapter opens in the middle of a summer night, three months after the first chapter. The chapter itself takes place over the course of a number of days, in several different homes.Give a short summary of what happens in this chapter.In the middle of a storm, William goes outside to check on Mercy. The next morning, Grandfather awakens with a cough, and eventually he dies. William moves to his mother’s house, but then she dies as well. William then moves back into Grandfather’s house, where Uncle Robert and Aunt Alice now live.

Chapter “Mercy Loses Her Coat”Who are the main characters in this chapter?Uncle Robert, Aunt Alice, William, Alice, Tom, Jane, and John Bidwell all play a role in this chapter.Where and when does this chapter take place?Most of this chapter’s events take place in the spring during lambing time at the farm.Give a short summary of what happens in this chapter.Your student may list one or more accounts of how William is treated unfairly by his aunt and uncle. Additionally, William and Tom play “Robin Hood.” Later, sheep are sheared, and William holds Mercy during her shearing. Note: If you wish to review the story of Robin Hood, look at assignments from Weeks 6 and 7.

Chapter “The Fair at Doncaster”Who are the main characters in this chapter?Uncle Robert, Aunt Alice, William, Alice, Tom, and Jane are the main characters in this chapter. Minor characters include the thief, the officer, and various people working at the fair.Where and when does this chapter take place?This chapter takes place at Doncaster at the fair, which lasts for three days.Give a short summary of what happens in this chapter.The family travels to the fair. Once there, they need to have their wool weighed before it is sold. A thief steals the wool, but is apprehended, and the wool is then sold. Because William shows responsibility, his uncle gives him a couple of pen-nies to spend. William takes in many of the interesting sights, but ends up spending his money on a doll for Alice.

Chapter “Lost Sheep”Who are the main characters in this chapter?The primary characters in this chapter are William and Uncle Robert. The schoolmaster, Mr. Johnson, is introduced.Where and when does this chapter take place?The story takes place when William is eight years old, although no specific date is given. About half of the chapter takes place in the moor, and the other half takes place in the school in Rossington.Give a short summary of what happens in this chapter.William is supposed to be watching the sheep in the moor, but he ends up focusing more on reading his grandfather’s Bible. After William gets pneumonia, Uncle Robert decides to let him attend school. While at school, William quickly learns the purpose of the stick that Mr. Johnson keeps under his arm. Walking three miles each way to school isn’t a deterrent to William because he is learning to read.

To complete orally: Chapter “A New Friend”Who are the main characters in this chapter?Main characters include those previously introduced, as well as William’s new friends: Samuel White and Timothy Small.

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Where and when does this chapter take place?Primarily, the chapter takes place at school when William is ten years old, but a small segment does take place at the farmhouse.Give a short summary of what happens in this chapter.William begins to help Samuel learn how to read and the two become friends. Tom begins to attend school, much to his dismay. One student, Timothy, runs out of ink and William shares with him.

To complete orally: Chapter “Robin Hood’s Forest”Who are the main characters in this chapter?William, Sam White, and Tom interact with Richard Clyfton and William Brewster. A minor character is the beggar, whom the boys encounter in the forest.Where and when does this chapter take place?The reader is clued in as to the amount of time that has passed by the fact that William is now twelve years old. The chapter opens on a warm spring day, and takes place over the course of a couple of days, at the church in Babworth and in a nearby forest.Give a short summary of what happens in this chapter.William and Sam plan a trip to the forest after church on a Sunday. Tom finds out and goes along with the boys. Wil-liam enjoys hearing about God from Mr. Clyfton and is introduced to William Brewster. The boys have a fun adven-ture in the forest until they are approached by a beggar, who wants their food and some clothing.

Answers to Dialectic Worksheet for Almost HomeYour student has been asked to journal responses to four different phrases given on his worksheet.

Check his answers and listen to any further explanation he may give you. Any answer is acceptable, pro-vided he has done a thorough job.

liTeraTure: rheTOric DiscussiOn OuTline

If you have completed Unit 2 and are assigning the literary analysis paper on drama this year, then we recommend that your student begin it this week. See Writing Aids or another composition handbook for details on the form of the paper. Your student might choose to write about any of the following plays: Everyman (Week 14), the York Play of the Crucifixion (Week 14), the Tragical History of Doctor Faustus (Week 15), Much Ado About Nothing (Week 16), Henry V (Week 17), King Lear (Week 18), or The Tempest (Week 19). For a topic, one suggestion is that your student might focus on an experiment in living in any of these, describing it and explaining what the author communicates through it, then evaluating it from a biblical perspective. Below are some other topic suggestions:

� Explain a main theme of a play, relate it to the author’s worldview, and give a biblical evaluation of it. � Write an essay about Doctor Faustus in The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus as a tragic hero, explaining what a

tragic hero is, why Faustus fits that description, and how Faustus’s tragedy uniquely fits the description of a “Chris-tian” tragedy.

� Examine the genre of one of these plays (morality play, mystery play, tragedy, comedy, history play, or romance play). First explain the genre, then tell why the play is a worthy example of it, then comment on the excellence of the play as an example of that genre, or speculate about why the author might have chosen that genre to convey his themes.

� Your student might write a paper on a particular device used one of these plays, such as the use of irony in the York Play of the Crucifixion, or the differing dictions and prose vs. poetry in Henry V, or how Shakespeare contrasts Benedick and Beatrice with Claudio and Hero in Much Ado About Nothing.

Summary of Don QuixoteIn Part I of Don Quixote we meet the hero, a somewhat elderly and impoverished Spanish gentleman from the

region of La Mancha. He is “bordering on fifty [years old]; he was of a hardy habit, spare, gaunt-featured, a very early

We recommend that all teachers read the Literary Introduction in the Student Activity Pages and look over the assign-ment in Poetics for this week’s literary background reading.

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riser and a great sportsman,” and his surname is either Quijada or Quesada. Cervantes, after the usual manner of medieval authors, promises to tell the absolutely true and accurate history of this “ingenious” gentleman (who is com-pletely fictional, so far as anyone has been able to discover).

Quijada lives with his housekeeper, his niece, and an errand boy. His great passion is for books of chivalrous romance, and as the story opens we learn that he has sold many acres of his estate in order to purchase these books. He pores over his volumes night and day until they at last drive him mad and he comes to believe that their stories are literally true. Quijada then decides to become a knight-errant and go throughout the world righting wrongs, serving damsels, redressing grievances, and removing abuses. He chooses a new name for himself, “Don Quixote de la Man-cha” (“Quixote” based on “Quijada,” “Don” meaning “Lord,” a title of respect, and “de la Mancha” meaning “from La Mancha”), and renames his broken-down barn nag “Rocinante” (which means “once a hack,” a hack being an ordinary riding horse). Having thus glorified himself and his horse, Quixote chooses a pretty farm girl whom he has long ad-mired, changes her name from Aldonza Lorenzo to “Dulcinea del Toboso,” and calls her his lady.

Quixote gets out his great-grandfather’s ancient suit of armor, fashions a new part for his visorless helmet out of cardboard, mounts his broken-down horse, and rides out into the world without telling anybody where he is going. After riding all day without adventure, he is further depressed by the realization that he has not been formally knight-ed, and so has no right to challenge other knights to single combat. In the evening he comes upon an inn. After a few hilarious adventures occasioned by his mad mistakes, such as taking the inn for a castle and the innkeeper for its lord, he is knighted in a barnyard by the innkeeper. Quixote then goes home to fetch money and clean shirts.

What follows are various adventures involving Quixote and his “squire,” a poor and witless neighbor named San-cho Panza, whom Quixote persuades to join him by promising Sancho the governorship of an island (as soon as Quix-ote has won an island from the enemy knight whom they are sure to meet). The most famous episode is that of the windmills, wherein Quixote mistakes a group of windmills for giants and sets off to joust with them, getting knocked off his horse and badly battered in the process. After many more adventures that span the rest of Part I and all of Part II, Quixote finally arrives home for the last time.

At the end of his life, Quixote miraculously recovers from his lunacy and repudiates the tales of chivalry that drove him mad in the beginning of the story. Ironically, his entire household now so prefers his madness that they try to make him believe it was all true. Quixote, however, will have nothing of it and dies as a sane man in his own bed.

Recitation or Reading Aloud 1We encourage you to let your student pick his own selection for recitation or reading aloud, or assign him one of

the following selections: � For One Student: “The Golden Age Monologue” (Year 2 Shorter Works Anthology, Chapter 11), beginning with

“Happy the age” and ending with “I should thank you for yours”. This selection can be read aloud or recited at any time that suits you, but we do recommend it with topic 5 since it exemplifies Don Quixote’s romantic ideals.

� For Two: 2 the conversation between Don Quixote and Sancho Panza concerning Fierabrás’s balm (Year 2 Shorter Works Anthology, Chapter 10), beginning with Sancho’s statement that he has never read any history, and ending with Don Quixote’s admission that his ear is hurting “more than I could wish.” We recommend this with topic 4 since it is an example of Cervantes mocking the all-healing elixirs of romances.

Defining Terms 3This week your student has been asked to make cards for some literary vocabulary terms, which have been given to

him with definitions. Please check his cards.

Class-Opening Question: 4 As you learned a long time ago in Unit 1, poetry differs from prose in that poetic language is more heightened and compressed, and relies to a much greater extent on images, as well as (for metrical poetry) on metrical sound patterns. Poetry also differs from prose in that its basic unit is the line, whereas the basic unit of prose is the sentence or paragraph. Was it easier for you to read Don Quixote because it is written in prose, or did you miss the imagery and metrical sound patterns of poetry that we have seen in most of our studies from Units 1-2?

1 Please see Teaching Rhetoric Literature on the Loom for explanations and recommendations concerning recitations and reading aloud. 2 Whenever a suggestion is made for two students, the recitation might also be done with a student and a teacher.3 Each week you also have the option of giving your student an oral or written vocabulary quiz. Doing a few such quizzes is one good way to get a participation grade for your student. See Teaching Rhetoric Literature for more on vocabulary quizzes as a means of grading.4 The class-opening question or comment is meant to provide a fun or thought-provoking way for you to open your class, if you choose to use it. Please see Teaching Rhetoric Literature for further information.

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Answers will vary. The goal of this question is not to say whether prose or poetry is better (we think that each is good in its own way), but rather that your student should notice the difference between poetry and prose, and notice his own response to these two different kinds of artistic forms.

Class Topics 11. Introduce characterization and apply this literary concept to Don Quixote.

� What is characterization and what are two important kinds of characterization?2 � Characterization is the selection, arrangement, and presentation of information by an author about characters. � Two important kinds are direct and indirect characterization. � Sometimes an author will use imagery to achieve characterization. By placing a character in a particular

setting, or by likening or contrasting him to something (a snake, say, or a summer morning), the author can achieve a transfer of certain qualities from image to character.

� How does direct characterization work? � In direct characterization, the author uses his own direct comments, or those of a narrator or character, to

explain to the audience how to understand, interpret, and value one or more characters. � An example of direct characterization in Don Quixote is the opening passage in which we are frankly told

about Don Quixote’s personality and how his long attention to books of chivlary has driven him mad. � Notice how Cervantes has selected this description of Quixote, has arranged for it to be told from the au-

thor’s point of view so that we understand that it is an accurate picture, and has used it to present Cervantes as a sort of lovable madman.

� How does indirect characterization work? � In indirect characterization, the author indirectly guides the reader’s understanding, interpretation, and eval-

uation of characters through his presentation of their appearance, behavior, and various details about them. � An example of indirect characterization occurs in Don Quixote when a character named Don Antonio says

to another character who has found a way to make Don Quixote give up knight-errantry for awhile: “O Señor . . . . may God forgive you the wrong you have done the whole world in trying to bring the most amus-ing madman in it back to his senses” (Part II, Chapter LXV). This shows indirectly that we should interpret Quixote as a character whose madness may be worth more than his sanity.

� What is one key difference between direct and indirect characterization? Both methods guide the audience to a certain interpretation of a character, but a key difference is that one does so subtly, allowing more room for audience members to have the pleasure of putting together their own interpre-tation, and even demanding that they exercise their minds and imaginations to do so.

� Obviously both these types give information about characters, but in different ways. We might speak of the difference between them as a difference between “telling” (direct) and “showing” (indirect). Do you think that both of these techniques are valuable? Is either one better than the other? Are they complementary?

� Both telling and showing can be valuable in a story. An author may want to make his characters clear and vivid to the audience using direct characterization, or he may choose to let the audience enjoy puzzling out those characters’ personalities by giving only indirect characterization. Or he may do each at different times.

� Neither technique is intrinsically better than the other. They are simply different artistic methods. 3 � Direct (telling) and indirect (showing) characterization are highly complementary methods, and many great

authors use both of them in a given story.

2. Introduce the farcical mode and discuss Don Quixote as an example of its elements. (Student Question #???) � A “double act” is a term for a scenario involving two partners who are similar in everything but personality

1 Continuing teachers, please note and remember throughout this year that whenever we teach or review a literary tool, term, concept, movement, etc., with which your Continuing student is already well acquainted, you are welcome to skip or only briefly review that section! 2 Whenever you see that part of an answer to a question is italicized and part of it is not, you should know that the italicized part is the answer that your student might be expected to give (though Beginning students may not yet be able to answer them well). Non-italicized parts are further comments or examples that you may choose to mention. Sometimes we will ask an opinion or discussion question that has no single short answer; in such cases, we invite you to share some of the comments listed below it after hearing your student’s thoughts.3 During Modernism it was commonly argued that showing is better than telling (a view frequently summed up in the literary mandate “show, don’t tell”), but as influential literary critic Wayne C. Booth has persuasively argued in The Rhetoric of Fiction, this argument is unbalanced and even goes against some fundamental storytelling principles. See Poetics for more on this subject.

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and whose dialogue is made up of jokes that play partly on the contrast between their personalities. From Poetics, explain what a “straight man” and “funny man” are.

� The funny man is the more silly and buffoonish of two characters in a double act. � The straight man is the more serious and reasonable of two characters in a double act. � Typically the straight man is the “responsible one” who acts as a sort of big brother to his less wise friend,

trying to take care of the funny man and keep him out of trouble. This sort of relationship can create a number of very funny scenes.

� Who is the straight man and who is the funny man in Don Quixote?Quixote’s neighbor and “squire,” Sancho Panza, most often plays the “straight man.” He is the one who takes care of Don Quixote, seems to be more knowledgeable about serious matters, and understands what Quixote’s actions mean. Quixote is the “ funny man” who is continually misunderstanding and becoming confused.

� Some of what we see in Don Quixote tends to rely on the farcical mode and the genre of farce for their enter-tainment value. What is the farcical mode? Can you see this mode at work in Don Quixote?

� The farcical mode is a mode emphasizing buffoonery, characterized by horseplay or even violence, crude physical trickery or crude verbal wit, ludicrous situations, and overbearing or impudent characters.

� This story emphasizes buffoonery, horseplay, and ludicrous situations. Don Quixote himself is often the most overbearing character, as he upsets other people’s lives in his madness and (or) mistaken attempts to help them. Don Quixote does seem to have a good deal of the farcical mode about it.

� Two kinds of humor are very common in farce: crude physical humor and crude verbal humor. From Poetics, what is meant by each of these terms?

� Crude physical humor is a kind of humor in which the actor seeks to arouse laughter through nonverbal ac-tions that are violent or crudely reference bodily functions.

� Crude verbal humor is a kind of humor that is dependent on crude verbal references, especially to violence and physical functions.

� What we mean by “violence” is the kind of pushing, hitting, tussling, kicking, tripping, etc., that is usually referred to as “slapstick.” We see it, for instance, when one clown hits another clown over the head with a bat, or squirts water at him out of a fake flower in his buttonhole.

� You may or may not wish to clarify to your student that what we have delicately referred to as “bodily functions” includes such things as passing gas, defecating and urinating, sexual activity, etc.

� We have not asked your student to look for examples of these two forms of humor in Don Quixote, be-cause to do so would not necessarily be edifying. However, if you wish, you may point out Don Quixote’s frequent physical scuffles, which result from his attempts to do battle with supposed villains, are examples of crude physical humor.

� Farce and farcical humor were standard fare in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, just as they are now. If you think back over your Unit 2 studies in Renaissance drama, do you notice examples of straight men and funny men, as well as the farcical mode and crude physical or verbal humor? If so, what are they? Answers may vary slightly. The behavior of Doctor Faustus’ servant, Wagner, is often farcical and crudely hu-morous (Week 15). Similarly, the lower-class soldiers in Henry V (Week 17), as well as Caliban and the lower courtiers in The Tempest (Week 19), behave in farcical and crudely humorous ways. Dogberry and Verges, from Much Ado About Nothing (Week 16) are a funny man/straight man pair.

3. Discuss Don Quixote as a romance. (Student Questions #2-3) � Don Quixote is clearly farcical in mode, but is that the only mode at work here? This week you reviewed two of

the basic modes of imaginative literature: realistic and romantic. From your Poetics reading, define and de-scribe these two.1

� Realistic Mode � The realistic mode might be described as horizontal, dealing with people on earth and their relationships. � The realistic mode tends to describe the natural earthly realm as it usually seems to our earthly senses, in

concrete, vivid, specific detail. � Since the realistic concentrates on the horizontal and the earthly, it does not tend to focus on the reality,

1 We are indebted for a few of the following observations to Leland Ryken in Words of Delight (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992) 36-37.

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power, influence, and (or) significance of the supernatural realm as it touches life (including human life) on earth.

� It also tends to portray people from the middle or lower classes and shows them as they ordinarily are, with typical strengths and weaknesses.

� It emphasizes history, community (especially social issues), and human thoughts, feelings, and motivations. � Romantic Mode

� The romantic mode is called vertical in that it emphasizes man’s interactions with the supernatural. � It tends to use a lavish, emotionally intense, and lyrical descriptive style, often rich with imagery � It tends to focus on supernatural beings and events and on their effects on earthly people and events. � It tends to portray people from the upper classes and shows them with extraordinary strengths and (or)

weaknesses. � It tends to emphasize heroism, redemption, clear presentations of good and evil, and romantic love.

� Do you think Don Quixote is written more in the realistic mode or in the romantic mode? Why? The realistic mode is primary in Don Quixote, because although Quixote imagines many supernatural beings and thinks of himself and others as heroes and villains, Cervantes makes it clear that he is not portraying these as real. Nothing that savors of the supernatural actually occurs, and Quixote is presented as an ordinary human being with strengths and weaknesses.

� In Unit 1 you learned that a romance is a story, written in prose or poetry, that strongly expresses the charac-teristics of the romantic mode. What are some of its characteristic traits of content and form? Based on these, do you think Don Quixote is a romance? It is difficult to say whether Don Quixote is a romance. In the mind of the hero, all of the typical elements of a romance—the magical, the supernatural, etc.—are real. But he is mad, and therefore none of them are real. So we have a story with all the trappings of a romance, which nevertheless denies their reality. Content

� A romance is chiefly marked by its content; it is usually a work involving at least some of the following: the supernatural (or magical), adventure, quests, hero(ine)s, redemption, happy endings, poetic justice, romantic love, and (or) a sense of the tragicomic mode. All of these exist in Don Quixote’s maddened imagination, but they are not portrayed in his world as real, so Don Quixote is not a romance in that sense.

� In a romance there are usually enchanted weapons, magic of all kinds, monsters, talking animals, witches, ogres, and talismans are common. Again, all these exist in Don Quixote’s mind, but not in the story’s reality.

� The subjects for most early romances were drawn from one of three great cycles of stories: the siege of Troy; the Arthurian legends; and romances of Charlemagne and his knights. Don Quixote’s adventures seem to be borrowed from any and all of these, but none of them actually happen as he imagines, so it is not a romance.

Form � Most early romances were written in verse, but from about the sixteenth century they also began to be writ-

ten in prose, and by the end of the seventeenth century, prose had become more common than verse. Don Quixote is written in prose, which is appropriate, since it was first published in the early seventeenth century.

� Romances are generally quite long, and tend to grow as they are retold, often reaching well over 10,000 lines of poetry or hundreds of pages of prose. Don Quixote is long, extending to several hundred pages of prose.

� For review, from your Poetics reading, how is a mode different from a genre? How can this distinction help us to understand the concept of a “realistic romance”? One things Poetics says about genres and modes is that “a genre is a bundle of characteristics of content and form, whereas a mode is more a tone or mood, or an emphasis on a certain way of looking at things, that pervades an entire story.” This can help us to keep the idea of a “romance in the realistic mode” from becoming too confusing, since it shows that a work may include characteristics (such as magic or giants) which are nevertheless portrayed from a realistic perspective, as nonsensical madness.

4. Discuss Cervantes’s reasons for writing Don Quixote as a “realistic romance.” (Student Question #4) � Trying to understand why Cervantes might wish to write a story with the trappings of romance, in the realistic

mode, can make your head spin! But the author himself tells us why: Cervantes, speaking to himself through the character of “a friend,” advised himself in his Preface to Don Quixote “keep your aim fixed on the destruc-

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tion of that ill-founded edifice of the books of chivalry.” Does this quote help to explain why Cervantes would choose the genre of the romance even though his mode is realistic?

� Yes it does. This quote shows that, by using the elements of romance but also portraying them as a funny madness rather than as real, grand, and heroic, Cervantes is seeking to undermine them.

� In the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the romance genre had begun to grow stale, with increas-ingly improbable characters and adventures. This explains why Cervantes called it an “ill-founded edi-fice,” ripe for mockery.

� From your readings on Cervantes in Appendix B of Poetics, what else in his own life might have caused Cer-vantes to write Don Quixote in the clothing of a romance, but really as a mockery of romances? Answers will vary slightly. Your student may make any of the following points:

� Cervantes himself experienced battle, prison, and travel, and was accounted a brave fighter. This wide experience of the world and of battle probably helped him to invent various episodes in Don Quixote, and it also suggests that perhaps Quixote’s courage and ferocity in battle is an autobiographical touch.

� Cervantes likely wrote Don Quixote in his fifties, after his own “glory days,” and wrote in relative poverty, so that his situation was closely parallel to that of Quixote himself. He understood the mind of an aging man with little money and much imagination, who was looking back on an adventurous past with perhaps nostalgic remembrances and towards the future with possibly a desire for one last chance at immortal fame.

� Cervantes himself attempted to write romances (such as Galatea), but met with poor public reception. One can almost imagine him saying to himself one day, in amused disgust, “Well, if I cannot write ro-mances that anybody will read, I can at least mock them. That would be something new!”

� Does the fact that Cervantes is actually ridiculing romances through Don Quixote suggest to you that he is also using another mode besides the realistic and the farcical? If so, what might that other mode be?

� The other mode is the satirical, which your student learned about this week. It is “a mode emphasizing the exposure, through ridicule or rebuke, of human vice or folly” (based on Ryken, Words of Delight 517).

� In order to “undermine” the “books of chivalry,” Cervantes uses the romance form of those same chivalrous books. His purpose and attitude, however, are satirical.

� According to Ryken, a satirical work must have an object of attack (in this case the overblown romances of Cervantes’s time) and a “satiric norm” or standard of correct values (here the “real world” that exists around Don Quixote, which he—in his madness—ignores).1

� We might most fully describe Don Quixote as a romance (or novel) in the satirical, farcical, and realistic modes. Can you think of examples of episodes in Don Quixote where Cervantes seems to be deliberately satirizing the common elements of romances? Which were some of your favorite funny episodes from this story? We encourage you to linger over this question and take time just to enjoy with your student the various episodes that he liked best. Below are a few examples:

� Don Quixote explains to a fellow traveler that it is absolutely unheard-of for any knight to be lacking a lady-love, or even to be a knight without one. In this conversation Don Quixote is perfectly serious, but Cervantes is poking fun at a convention of romance whereby it seems that every knight has his lady, just as nowadays we cannot imagine a superhero who has no girlfriend to rescue.

� Cervantes continuously parodies and mocks common elements of chivalric romances such as dwarfs, elixirs which can heal any wound, enchantments, knights who stay up all night thinking of their ladies yet never seem to need to sleep, and on and on.

� The most famous episode in the story, in which Quixote mistakes windmills for giants and tries to joust against them, is one more instance of Cervantes’s satiric wit, ridiculing the grandiose exploits of knights-errant.

5. Discuss whether Cervantes is really satirizing romantic ideals in Don Quixote. (Student Questions #5-7) � What is Don Quixote’s experiment in living and its result in Part I? Does the example of Don Quixote’s life up

to this point seem to support Cervantes’s goal of undermining romances? � Quixote’s experiment is one of living as if the chivalric ideals and world of the romances were real. His ex-

periment ends only in humiliation and in his being brought home, battered, to recover from mental illness.

1 These characteristics of satire are taken from Words of Delight 329-330.

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� Quixote’s experiment in Part I ends badly, thus undermining any desire that the reader might have to follow his example of belief in romantic and chivalric ideals.

� What seem to be Cervantes’s views of reality, morality, and values, as expressed in Part I of Don Quixote? � Reality: Reality has nothing to do with the giants and magicians of Quixote’s madness, but consists instead of

everyday life in the Spanish countryside. � Morality: Right and wrong are determined according to a Christian worldview (in theory), but in practice also

according to the everyday (frequently sinful) pressures of life “in the real world.” � Values: Cervantes’s values are largely the same as those of the sane people surrounding Don Quixote. Real

money, real relationships, and a prudent awareness of “how to get on in life” are the things that are valued. � Part I was written and published first, and was a great success. Cervantes followed up this success with Part

II, which is a little different in tone. What is Don Quixote’s experiment in living and its result in Part II? Has anything changed?

� Quixote’s experiment is the same, except that towards the end of his life he is temporarily cured of his mad-ness and becomes sane for a little while before relapsing into madness on his deathbed.

� Quixote’s experiment in Part II has not changed, but the reactions of other characters have. As Don Antonio says to the Knight of the White Moon, Quixote is now that “most amusing madman” (Part II, Chapter LXV) who must on no account be brought to his senses. So Quixote’s experiment is now perceived as no less unre-alistic, but nevertheless as more valuable, than in Part I.

� Don Quixote may drive a reader as crazy as its hero, because no sooner does one see that Cervantes is mocking the romance, than one begins to wonder “Is Cervantes really making fun of chivalric ideals, or does he seem to be subtly supporting them by making Don Quixote so lovable?” What do you think? Can you see any places where Cervantes seems to be actually upholding Quixote’s views? This has been a point of much dispute for decades, and answers will vary. We think that, overall, Cervantes shows in Part II how there can be a value for a lovable madman, because he is so entertaining. But we also believe that the basic portrayal of reality, morality, and values has not changed: Quixote’s ideals are still unrealistic and, if more valuable for their charm, are still not effective or able to produce good. After hearing from your student you may wish to make some of these points:

� Arguably, Cervantes is not supporting chivalric ideals so much as he is supporting a sympathetic charac-ter, namely Don Quixote. Because Cervantes mocks the conventions of romances and consistently shows chivalric ideals to be ineffective, we can still say that this story is satirical.

� However, in various places, Cervantes seems to wistfully suggest that a world ruled by selfish ambition and vain conceit might be better off if a few more people were totally committed to righting wrongs, establish-ing justice, practicing courtesy, and serving their neighbors. We see this for example of Don Quixote’s “Golden Age” soliloquy in Part I.

� However, it is quite possible that Cervantes is not supporting the ideals of chivalric romance so much as he is promoting the pleasure of reading about them in the life of Don Quixote the madman. As Don Antonio puts it, “Do you not see, señor, that the gain by Don Quixote’s sanity can never equal the enjoyment his crazes give?” (Part II, Chapter LXV)

� Perhaps it would do most justice to the complexity of Don Quixote to say that, though Cervantes satirically attacks the abuses of the chivalric romance genre—the improbabilities, exaggerations, and unnecessary nonsense of poorly-written chivalric stories—he heartily affirms the pleasure afforded by the sight of a man who tries to live “in the here and now” according to them, and emphasizes that these are wonderful, if unreachable, ideals.

� In Don Quixote the chivalric ideals of perfect kindness and faithfulness are mocked and ridiculed, portrayed as ineffective and unrealistic. However, from Don Quixote’s behavior and experiences, do you think Cer-vantes is saying that such virtues are unrealistic, or only that the overblown chivalric ideals of them are? Answers will vary. We would say that the kindness shown to Don Quixote by his friends and servants, especially the faithfulness of his servant Sancho, seem to indicate that Cervantes does not consider such virtues unrealistic at all, but instead portrays them as effective for good in the “real world.” We think that Cervantes is mocking overblown chivalric ideals, but does portray love, forbearance, protection, and kindness as real and valuable.

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� Readers love the hilarious and moving acts of the madman, Quixote, and so when he becomes sane again for a little while just before his death we may regret his madness. However, if you could imitate his experiment in living, would you? Answers will vary. You may wish to make some of the following points after hearing your student’s thoughts:

� This experiment in living is a result of madness, leads nowhere, and accomplishes nothing but entertain-ment. Quixote’s example, therefore, would not seem to be a good model for life. We may mourn the sweet, senile old fellow whose many books drove him to such amusing excesses, but in many ways his example is not attractive, for is it not pointless to live a lie (however lovely) and act contrary to reality?

� Yet, some of Don Quixote’s ideals are ours. James 1:27 says “Religion that is pure and undefiled before God, the Father, is this: to visit orphans and widows in their affliction, and to keep oneself unstained from the world.” Aren’t we also to pursue impossible but beautiful ideals in the face of an ugly and evil reality?

� “Quixotic” is how many people would describe the teachings of Christ and actions of Christians. But the difference between a Quixote and a Christian lies less in either person than in the nature of reality. Whereas in Don Quixote the full extent of the “real world” is the natural, ugly, sinful, unideal one, we know that reality runs much deeper, down into Hell and up into Heaven, where God is enthroned.

� Thus, alive and real and perfect beyond the ideals of any chivalric tale, there is a King named Christ who truly rescues the maiden called the Church. So our madness is not madness at all. Through Christ we have the Holy Spirit, who transforms us in a way more magical than any enchantment, so that we are able to live out, in full realistic detail, the spiritual romance of the Christian life.

geOgraPhy: backgrOunD infOrmaTiOn

World Book on Geographic Features of the East Coast of America 1 [The] Piedmont Region, pronounced PEED mahnt, is an area of gently rolling to hilly land lying between the Ap-

palachian Moun tains and the Atlantic Coastal Plain of the United States. It is some times called the Piedmont Pla-teau. It was named for the Piedmont region in Italy. It varies in width from about 50 miles in the north to more than 125 miles in the south.

The division between the Piedmont Re gion and the Coastal Plain is marked by the Fall Line for the rivers flowing toward the Atlantic Ocean. Along this line, streams from the west drop from the harder, rocky ground near the moun-tains to the softer Coastal Plain.

Many large cities have developed along the Fall Line, partly because of the access to water power and tidewater. They include Newark, N.J.; Philadelphia; Wash ington, D.C.; Richmond, Va.; and Colum bia, S.C.

The Piedmont Region covers about 80,000 square miles. It ranges in eleva tion from 300 feet above sea level on the east to 1,200 feet on the west.

[Today,] tobacco is widely grown in the Piedmont Region. The Piedmont section of Virginia and Pennsylvania is fine apple-growing country. The dairy indus try is im portant in the northern Piedmont. Fur ni ture manufacturing is a major in dus try in the central Piedmont. The southern Pied mont is the leading U.S. cotton-textile pro duc ing area.

World Book on the Atlantic Coastal Plain 2The Atlantic Coastal Plain extends eastward from the Piedmont to the Atlan tic Ocean. It ranges from a nar-

row strip of land in New England to a broad belt that covers much of North and South Caro lina, Georgia, and Florida. In coloni al times, the broad southern part of the plain en cour aged the development of huge plan tations for growing cotton. Cotton is still grown there. Other farm products in clude vegetables, citrus fruits, peanuts, and to bacco. In New England, where the plain narrows to a width of about 10 miles in some places, crop farming has always been less important. Many New Englanders turned to manu facturing, fishing, or shipping in stead of farming.

Numerous rivers cross the plain and flow into the Atlantic Ocean. They in clude the Delaware, Hudson, James, Potomac, Roanoke, Savannah, and Susquehan na. Bays cut deeply into the plain in some areas, creating excellent natural harbors. They include Cape Cod Bay, Boston Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, and Long Island Sound.

1 From a World Book article entitled United States. Contributor: Teresa A. Sullivan, Ph.D., Vice President and Dean of Graduate Studies and Professor of Sociology and Law, University of Texas, Austin.2 From a World Book article entitled Piedmont Region. Contributor: Stephen S. Birdsall, Ph.D., Professor of Geography, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

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World Book on the Appalachian Mountains 1Appalachian Mountains, pro nounced ap uh LAY chuhn or ap uh LACH uhn, are the second largest moun tain sys-

tem of North America. On ly the Rocky Mountain system is larger. The Appalachians extend about 1,500 miles between the Gaspe Pen insula in the Ca na dian province of Quebec and Birming ham, in central Alabama. The valleys of these mountains include impor tant ag ricultural and recreational regions. The Appala chians are also a major source of min-eral deposits.

The Appalachian Mountains [are be lieved to be] the oldest mountains in North Amer ica. The name Appalachian comes from the Apalachee Indians.

Physical features. The chief ranges of the northern Appalachians include the Notre Dame Mountains in Quebec, the White Mountains in New Hamp shire, the Green Mountains in Ver mont, and the Catskill Mountains in New York.

Southwest of the Hudson River, the Ap palachians are divided into three main sections—the Blue Ridge, the Great Val ley, and the Ridge-and-Valley Prov ince. The Blue Ridge has most of the Appa la chi ans’ tallest mountains, in clud ing the tall est, Mount Mitchell. This peak rises 6,684 feet near Asheville, N.C.

North of Virginia, the Blue Ridge Moun tains are separated into small sections by major valleys called water gaps and wind gaps. A water gap, such as the Dela ware Water Gap in Pennsylvania and New Jer sey, is a val-ley that has a river flowing through it. A wind gap is a dry valley. An ex-ample of a wind gap is the Cumber land Gap on the borders of Kentucky, Tennes see, and Virginia.

Immediately west of the Blue Ridge is the Great Valley, which extends from the Hudson River Valley to Alabama. The Great Valley includes the Cumberland, Lebanon, and Lehigh valleys in Penn sylvania; the Cum-berland Valley in Mary land; the Shen an doah Valley and the Valley of Virginia in Virginia; the Valley of East Tennessee; and the Coosa River Valley in Alabama.

West of the Great Valley is the Ridge-and-Valley Province, which consists of long, sharp ridges separated by narrow valleys. It is bordered on the west by the Cumber land and Allegheny mountains. North of central Virginia, the Alleghenies in the north and the Blue Ridge and Great Smoky moun tains in the south make the Appa lachians one of the great divides of North America. This region separates rivers that empty into the Atlantic Ocean from those flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. [Note: From central New York south ward, the Appalachian Highlands has three main subdivisions. They are, from east to west: the Blue Ridge Mountains Area, the Ridge and Valley Region, and the Appa lachian Plateau.]

Economic importance. Thousands of people in the Appalachians make their living in farming or mining. Farmers in the south ern sections grow corn and tobacco and raise poultry. In the northern part of the Appalachians, the chief valley products are apples, barley, dairy foods, hay, pota toes, and wheat. Trees from the region, in cluding hickories, maples, and oaks, are shipped to furniture makers in Hickory and High Point, N.C. Coal deposits cover about 50,000 square miles in the Appalachians in Alabama, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Vir ginia, and West Virginia.

Recreation and wildlife. Rivers, lakes, and state and national parks provide a wide range of recreational opportu-nities in the Appalachians. During the winter, skiers from many states come to the northern Ap pa lachi ans. Through-out the summer and fall, hikers walk along the Appalachian National Scenic Trail, the na tion’s longest marked foot-path. This trail extends about 2,000 miles between Mount Katahdin in Maine and Springer Mountain in Georgia.

Many large mammals, including bears, bobcats, and deer, live in the Appalachi ans. Smaller mammals, such as rac coons and skunks, and reptiles are also plentiful.

fine arTs anD acTiviTies: backgrOunD infOrmaTiOn

If you are new to Tapestry with this week-plan, please note that in Unit 2, we briefly covered the Baroque period in both music and visual arts. For newcomers especially, we have assigned rhetoric students an optional reading in The Age of Religious Wars, 1559-1715 this week that summarizes and analyzes this artistic movement during that period. In subsequent weeks, we list additional assignments that allow your students to study the Baroque period in more depth.

1 From a World Book article entitled Appalachian Mountains. Contributor: John Edwin Coffman, Ph.D., Former Associate Professor of Geography, University of Houston.

Details on the Land and Climate of Vir giniaLand regions. Virginia has five main land

regions: (1) the Appalachian Plateau, (2) the Appalachian Ridge and Valley Re gion, (3) the Blue Ridge, (4) the Piedmont, and (5) the Atlantic Coast al Plain.

Virginia is represent ative of most of the geo graphi cal land forms of the Eastern Sea-board. The detailed de scrip tions below are meant to give you an idea of the details you might want to include in a general study of the entire region (over which the thir teen co lo nies eventually extended—from New Eng land to Georgia). Key terms for map labels are bolded.

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church hisTOry: backgrOunD infOrmaTiOn

World Book on the King James Bible 1In 1604, King James I of England authorized a committee of about 50 schol ars to prepare a revision of earlier Eng-

lish translations of the Bible. The new ver sion ap peared in 1611 and became known as the King James, or Authorized, Ver sion. The beauty and grace of the translation established the King James Ver sion as one of the great treasures of the English language. No important English trans lations of the Bible appeared for more than 200 years after the pub-lication of the King James Version. Dur ing this time, the King James Version was the most wide ly used translation in the Eng lish-speaking world.

gOvernmenT: backgrOunD infOrmaTiOn

World Book on the House of Burgesses 2The House of Burgesses, pronounced BUR jehs ehs, was the first repre sen ta tive legislative body in Colonial

America. The House of Burgesses first met at James town, then the capital of Virginia, on July 30, 1619. Governor Sir George Yeardley called the meeting. The session included two citizens, or burgesses, from each of the 11 boroughs (subdivisions) of Virginia.

The first act of the body was to approve an official great seal for the col ony. The House also claimed the right to act on all tax laws. In 1621, the House received the authority to make all legislation, but the governor and his council had the right of veto. The House conformed to English law and used the same proce dure as the English Parliament.

After the death of King James I in 1625, the English government became oc cupied with its internal affairs. From then on, the House of Bur gesses managed the af fairs of the colony. The failure of Governor Sir William Berkeley to call a new elec tion to the House was one of the many grievances that led to Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676.

The House of Burgesses was not completely democratic. But it contributed to the development of representative government in Colonial America. When it was temporarily dissolved in 1774, its members met in the first revolutionary con ven tion of Virginia. There they elected delegates to the First Continental Congress. Some members of the House of Burgesses became leaders of the Revolutionary War in Amer ica (1775-1783).

The First Charter of Virginia was established by King James I. It set up three councils of thirteen men each to manage the new colonies in America. These councilmen were not representatives of the inhabitants; they were more like the stockholders of a corporation.

The council established by the Charter of Virginia then wrote up the Ordinances for Virginia. This created a much more representative form of government, which included a general assembly made up of burgesses chosen from each town. The laws enacted by this general assembly still had to be ratified by the council of thirteen established under the Charter, however.

The legislative body created by the Ordinances for Virginia in 1621 still exists today. Even though it revolted against King George III in 1776 and seceded from the United States in 1861, Virginia’s General Assembly is still in operation.

gOvernmenT: rheTOric DiscussiOn OuTline

First Charter of Virginia1. The first paragraph of the charter describes the boundaries of Virginia. Find these lines of latitude on a map or

globe. Which states lie at least partly within the boundaries described in the first paragraph of the charter? The charter claims all the land in North America between 34º and 45º North. Forty-four states lie at least partially within the boundaries of this original charter. The ones that don’t are Florida, Louisiana, North Dakota, Washing-ton, Hawaii and Alaska.

2. The charter authorizes two separate colonies. What are they called, and where were they to be located? (Use your map to find the states each colony could have chosen for its first settlement.)

1 Excerpted from a World Book article entitled Bible. Contributors: B. Barry Levy, Ph.D., Professor of Biblical Studies, Chair man of Jewish Studies Department, and Director of Jewish Teacher Training Program, McGill University; Terrance D. Callan, Ph.D., Dean of the Ath-enaeum, Professor of Biblical Studies, Athenaeum of Ohio.2 From a World Book article entitled House of Burgesses. Contributor: Donna J. Spindel, Ph.D., Prof. Emeritus of English History, North-western Univ.

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� The “ first colony,” made up of adventurers from London, was authorized to settle anywhere on the American coast between 34º and 41º North. This would be somewhere in North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, or New York.

� The “second colony,” made up of adventurers from Plymouth, could settle on the coast between 38º and 45º North. This includes Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine.

� Each colony was allowed fifty miles of territory north and south, and a hundred miles inland. Neither colony was allowed to settle within one hundred miles of the other.

3. What three councils of thirteen men were established by the charter? � The charter set up one council of thirteen men in each of the two colonies, as well as one other in England. � Each of the councils on American soil was to govern its own colony, according to laws signed and sealed by the

King. The council back in England dealt with matters involving territory outside the colonies.4. What was the king’s share of any gold or other precious metals mined in the new colonies?

The king was entitled to one fifth of all gold or silver, and one fifteenth of any copper.5. What right did the colonies have to protect their borders?

The colonists were specifically authorized to repel and resist any person who tried to inhabit the territory allotted to the colonies. They were allowed to impose a tax of 2.5% on every British vessel that tried to trade within their territo-ries, and 5% on every foreign vessel, and they could keep the profits from such taxes for their first twenty-one years as a colony. (After that time, the crown received the money.)

6. Did the colonists give up any of their rights as English citizens? No. The charter specifically bound King James and all of his heirs to respect the rights of any person born to British parents on any of the lands claimed by the charter.

Ordinances for Virginia7. Read the greeting in the first sentence of this document carefully, remembering what you just read in the First

Charter of Virginia. Who wrote the Ordinances for Virginia? The Ordinances for Virginia were written by the council of thirteen for the first colony, which was established by the First Charter of Virginia.

8. What specific purposes for these ordinances are listed in the rest of the first paragraph? � To provide benefit and comfort for the people � To prevent as much injustice, grievances, and oppression as possible � To remedy inconveniences by vigilant care and prudence � To advance the strength, stability, and prosperity of the colony

9. Describe the nature and function of the two councils established by the ordinances. � The Council of State is made up of named individuals chosen by the council of thirteen. The councilors must

reside near the colonial Governor and have the primary duty of advising and serving the Governor. � The General Assembly is to be called by the Governor one time each year. The members of this council consist of

the Council of State plus two representatives from each town or settlement. These representatives are elected by the inhabitants of those towns. The General Assembly has the authority to enact laws by majority vote, except that the Governor may veto any such law.

10. What law governed the new colony? � The colony remained under English law, so the new government was bound by the same laws that limited govern-

ments in England. � All laws enacted by the General Assembly had to be ratified by the council of thirteen back in England.

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PhilOsOPhy: rheTOric DiscussiOn OuTline

There have been tensions between faith and philosophy for thousands of years. Pagan philosophers like Plato and Aristotle often contradicted Scripture, forcing Christian thinkers to look for ways to reconcile them. It was like putting together a jigsaw puzzle made up of two very different kinds of pieces. The medieval method of scholasticism helped scholars accomplish this task; they put the pieces together by making ever-finer distinctions between concepts. Philosophy became the friend of faith. To be more precise, one philosophical method (scholasticism) supported one interpretation of the faith (medieval Catholicism).

In the 1600’s, a new kind of science threatened both faith and philosophy. Copernicus said the sun stood still and the earth went around it. This conflicted with both the scholastic understanding of astronomy and the most obvious reading of Scripture. Joshua told the sun to stand still in Joshua 10:12, not the earth!

This tension came into focus with the case of Galileo. Galileo argued that true science could never conflict with true religion. He urged the Roman Catholic Church to reconsider its commitment to one particular theory of astron-omy. When the church told him to stop teaching the new Copernican theory, he complied—sort of. He claimed his Dialogues Concerning the Two Chief World Systems didn’t really teach Copernicanism, it just explained it. The problem was that it explained it so well that it made any other theory look absurd—including the theory that had the full sup-port of the church. Galileo was tried, convicted, and placed under house arrest for his teaching.

Note: As explained in the Unit Introduction, each man profiled in this unit (and in Unit 4) was either a contributor to or spokesman against the broad intellectual movement called the Age of Reason (or Enlightenment). This age was immediately preceded by (and connected to) the Age of Science, in which Galileo was the first major figure. History students will be taught about the Age of Science and the Age of Reason as a broad movement in Week 24, which is half-way through this unit. Students who are following the Pageant of Philosophy may want to refer to this overview sooner.

The intention of the Holy Ghost is to teach us how one goes to Heaven, not how heaven goes.

1. What does this mean, and how does it help Galileo’s cause? According to this notion, the Bible is about ethics, not physics. It teaches the way things should be, while science stud-ies the way things are. If this statement is true, then it eliminates much of the tension between Nature and Scripture by eliminating the overlap between their subject matter.

2. To what degree is this a true statement? According to 2 Timothy 3:16, “All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and train-ing in righteousness … .” It does teach us how to go to Heaven by revealing God and Jesus Christ whom He has sent (see John 17:2).

3. How might this statement be misused? If one can eliminate some of the tension between Nature and Scripture by eliminating some of the overlap, it would seem one could eliminate all of the tension by eliminating all of the overlap. One could argue that anything the Bible says about Creation or other scientific matters is merely “symbolic” or “poetic.” We will see “liberal Protestant” theo-logians do just this in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

The holy Bible can never speak untruth—whenever its true meaning is understood.

4. Does Galileo think there is any real conflict between Nature and Scripture? No. He thought any apparent conflict between Scripture and the actual evidence of Nature was due to misunder-standing what the Bible really meant, or to a false hypothesis about Nature.

5. What does Galileo mean by “accommodating” certain passages to the “capacities of the common people”? He argues that the Bible describes things in language that makes sense to ordinary people. Thus, we talk about “God’s hand” even though nobody believes the Heavenly Father really has fingers and thumbs.

6. Do you think there is any real conflict between a moving earth and the passage where Joshua told the sun to stand still? Why or why not? Most modern Christians would agree that there is no real conflict here. Joshua commanded the sun to “stand still” so that he would have time to fight his enemies, and it did what he wanted it to do. The God who is powerful enough to stop the sun in the sky is wise enough to know what we mean when we pray.

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Wise expositors should produce the true senses of such passages, together with the special reasons for which they were set down in these words.

7. In Galileo’s approach, who should decide the “true meaning” of Scripture? Galileo was trying to be a faithful Catholic. He believed the pope and other teachers of the Roman Catholic Church should decide what the true meaning of Scripture was. He also believed they should agree with him that the Bible doesn’t really teach that the earth stands still.

8. Could the Roman Catholic Church decide to interpret Scripture to be consistent with Darwinian evolution? Why or why not? In theory, it could. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that lay people cannot reliably interpret Scripture for themselves. Under Catholic doctrine, the pope and other teachers are supposed to determine the meaning of difficult passages of Scripture and then teach that meaning to the lay people. For instance, if the pope announced that Genesis 1 should be understood to be consistent with millions of years of evolution, faithful Catholics should accept that.

9. The Southern Baptist Convention believes that every Christian must interpret Scripture for himself. They hold to “no creed but the Bible.” Given this fact, could the Southern Baptist Convention put a Baptist under house arrest for disagreeing with them? No. Even if 99.9% of Southern Baptists agree on a particular matter, each Baptist is expected to interpret the issue for himself, in light of Scripture.

glance inTO nexT Week … Week 21: PuriTans in neW englanD

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There are no special concerns for this level this week.

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� On p. 45-46 of Making Thirteen Colonies, one of our core selections for this week, there are statements that can possibly be construed as tying Christianity with racism. Violent illustrations are found on p. 45 and 49.

� Death by burning is part of the story in this week’s assignment in Trial and Triumph. Preread p. 168-169 if this is a concern.

Dia

lect

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Although some of the topic matter this week is familiar, the History reading assignments are fairly hefty this week. Consider assigning some as weekend homework.

Rhet

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� The Age of Religious Wars has topics of sex, abortion, and fertility on p. 105-106, and 108. Extreme punish-ments and wife-beating are discussed on p. 125 and 129. You’ll find information about witchcraft beliefs on p. 134 and a curse word on p. 211.

� Chapter 3 of Worldly Saints, assigned for Church History, is a frank look at the Puritan’s views on sex and marriage. Be advised that, while there is nothing objectionable, this is the topic. The chapter is optional, and each family needs to decide whether it is appropriate for its students. Note that there is also mention of sex on p. 2.

� If you assigned your student a literary analysis paper on drama for Weeks 20-22, he should continue that paper in Week 21.

Teac

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For Fine Arts, dialectic students are assigned to read about Heinrich Schütz. However, all students will benefit from listening to his music. Check your library to see what is available.