Empetor Penguin

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Emperor Penguin

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Emperor Penguin

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the bird. For the band, see Emperor Penguin (music).

The Emperor Penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) is the tallest and

heaviest of all living penguin species and is endemic to

Antarctica. The male and female are similar in plumage and size,

reaching 122 cm (48 in) in height and weighing anywhere from 22to 45 kg (49 to 99 lb). The dorsal side and head are black and

sharply delineated from the white belly, pale-yellow breast and

bright-yellow ear patches. Like all penguins it is flightless, with a

streamlined body, and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers

for a marine habitat.

Its diet consists primarily of fish, but can also include

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Adults and a juvenile on Snow Hill Island,

Antarctica

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Aves

Order: Sphenisciformes

Family: Spheniscidae

Genus: Aptenodytes

Species: A. forsteri

Binomial name

Aptenodytes forsteri

crustaceans, such as krill, and cephalopods, such as squid. In

hunting, the species can remain submerged up to 18 minutes,

diving to a depth of 535 m (1,755 ft). It has several adaptations to

facilitate this, including an unusually structured hemoglobin to

allow it to function at low oxygen levels, solid bones to reduce

barotrauma, and the ability to reduce its metabolism and shut

down non-essential organ functions.

The Emperor Penguin is perhaps best known for the sequence of

journeys adults make each year in order to mate and to feed their

offspring. The only penguin species that breeds during the

Antarctic winter, it treks 50120 km (3175 mi) over the ice to

breeding colonies which may include thousands of individuals.

The female lays a single egg, which is incubated by the male

while the female returns to the sea to feed; parents subsequently

take turns foraging at sea and caring for their chick in the colony.The lifespan is typically 20 years in the wild, although

observations suggest that some individuals may live to 50 years

of age.

Contents[hide]

1 Taxonomy

2 Description

2.1 Vocalization2.2 Adaptations to cold

2.3 Adaptations to pres sure and low oxygen

3 Distribution and habitat

3.1 Conservation status

4 Behaviour

4.1 Diet

4.2 Predators

Catal

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Gray, 1844

Emperor Penguin range

(breeding colonies in green)

4.3 Courtship and breeding

5 Relationship with humans

5.1 Cultural references

6 Notes

7 References

8 External links

Taxonomy

The Emperor Penguin was described in 1844 by English

zoologist George Robert Gray, who created its generic name

from Ancient Greek word elements, -- [a-ptno-

dyts], "without-wings-diver". Its specific name is in honour of the

German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster, who accompanied

Captain James Cook on his second Pacific Voyage and officiallynamed five other penguin species.

Together with the similarly coloured but smaller King Penguin (A. patagonicus), the Emperor Penguin is one

of two extant species in the genus Aptenodytes. Fossil evidence of a third speciesRidgen's Penguin (A.

ridgeni)has been found in fossil records from the late Pliocene, about three million years ago, in New

Zealand.[2] Studies of penguin behaviour and genetics have proposed that the genus Aptenodytes is basal;

in other words, that it split off from a branch which led to all other living penguin species.[3]Mitochondrial

and nuclearDNA evidence suggests this split occurred around 40 million years ago.[4]

Description

Slovenina

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Svenska

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Ting Vit
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Adults w ith chicks

.

weight ranges from 22 to 45 kg (49 to 99 lb) and varies by sex,

with males weighing more than females. The weight also varies

by season, as both male and female penguins lose substantial

mass while raising hatchlings and incubating eggs. A male

Emperor penguin must withstand the Antarctic cold for more

than two months to protect his eggs from extreme cold. During

this entire time he doesn't eat a thing. Most male penguins willlose about 12 kg (26 lb) while they wait for their babies to

hatch.[5] The mean weight of males at the start of the breeding

season is 38 kg (84 lb) and that of females is 29.5 kg (65 lb).

After the breeding season this drops to 23 kg (51 lb) for both sexes. [6][7][8]

Like all penguin species, the Emperor has a streamlined body to minimise drag while swimming, and wings

that have become stiff, flat flippers. [9] The tongue is equipped with rear-facing barbs to prevent prey from

escaping when caught.[10] Males and females are similar in size and colouration.[6] The adult has deep

black dorsal feathers, covering the head, chin, throat, back, dorsal part of the flippers, and tail. The black

plumage is sharply delineated from the light-coloured plumage elsewhere. The underparts of the wings and

belly are white, becoming pale yellow in the upper breast, while the ear patches are bright yellow. The upper

mandible of the 8 cm (3 in) long bill is black, and the lower mandible can be pink, orange or lilac. [11] In

juveniles, the auricular patches, chin and throat are white, while its bill is black. [11] The Emperor Penguin

chick is typically covered with silver-grey down and has a black head and white mask.[11] A chick with all-

white plumage was found in 2001, but was not considered to be an albino as it did not have pink eyes.[12]

Chicks weigh around 315 g (11 oz) after hatching, and fledge when they reach about 50% of adultweight.[13]

The Emperor Penguin's dark plumage fades to brown from November until February, before the yearly moult

in January and February.[11] Moulting is rapid in this species compared with other birds, taking only around

34 days. Emperor Penguin feathers emerge from the skin after they have grown to a third of their total

length, and before old feathers are lost, to help reduce heat loss. New feathers then push out the old ones

before finishing their growth.[14]
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An Emperor Penguin can hold its breathfor 20 minutes, and dive to depths of over

550 m (1,800 ft).[19]

The average yearly survival rate of the Emperor Penguin has been measured at 95.1%, with an average life

expectancy of 19.9 years. The same researchers estimated that 1% of Emperor Penguins hatched could

feasibly reach an age of 50 years.[15] In contrast, only 19% of chicks survive their first year of life. [16]

Therefore, 80% of the Emperor Penguin population comprises adults five years and older.[15]

Vocalization

As the species has no fixed nest sites that individuals can use to locate their own partner or chick, the

Emperor Penguin must rely on vocal calls alone for identification. [17] It uses a complex set of calls that are

critical to individual recognition between parents, offspring, and mates,[6] displaying the widest variation in

individual calls of all penguins.[17] Vocalizing Emperor Penguins use two frequency bands

simultaneously.[18] Chicks use a frequency-modulated whistle to beg for food and to contact parents. [6]

Adaptations to cold

The Emperor Penguin breeds in the coldest environment of any

bird species; air temperatures may reach 40 C (40 F), andwind speeds may reach 144 km/h (89 mph). Water temperature

is a frigid 1.8 C (28.8 F), which is much lower than the

Emperor Penguin's average body temperature of 39 C (102 F).

The species has adapted in several ways to counteract heat

loss.[20] Feathers provide 8090% of its insulation, and it has a

layer of sub-dermal fat which may be up to 3 cm (1.2 in) thick

before breeding.[21] This resultant blubber layer impedes the

mobility of the Emperor on land compared to its less well fat-insulated cousin, the Magellanic Penguin.[22] Its s tiff feathers are

short, lanceolate (spear-shaped), and densely packed over the

entire skin surface. With around 100 feathers covering one

square inch (15 feathers per cm2), it has the highest feather density of any bird species.[23] An extra layer

of insulation is formed by separate shafts of downy filaments between feathers and skin. Muscles allow the

feathers to be held erect on land, reducing heat loss by trapping a layer of air next to the skin. Conversely,

the plumage is flattened in water, thus waterproofing the skin and the downy underlayer. [24] Preening is vital
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in facilitating insulation and in keeping the plumage oily and water-repellent.[25]

The Emperor Penguin is able to thermoregulate (maintain its core body temperature) without altering its

metabolism, over a wide range of temperatures. Known as the thermoneutral range, this extends from -10 to

20 C (14 to 68 F). Below this temperature range, its metabolic rate increases significantly, although an

individual can maintain its core temperature from 38.0 C (100.4 F) down to 47 C (53 F).[26] Movement

by swimming, walking, and shivering are three mechanisms for increasing metabolism; a fourth process

involves an increase in the breakdown of fats by enzymes, which is induced by the hormone glucagon.[27]

At temperatures above 20 C (68 F), an Emperor Penguin may become agitated as its body temperature

and metabolic rate rise to increase heat loss. Raising its wings and exposing the undersides increases the

exposure of its body surface to the air by 16%, facilitating further heat loss. [28]

Adaptations to pressure and low oxygen

In addition to the cold, the Emperor Penguin encounters another stressful condition on deep dives

markedly increased pressure of up to 40 times that of the surface, which in most other terrestrial organisms

would cause barotrauma. The bones of the penguin are solid rather than air-filled, which eliminates the riskof mechanical barotrauma. However, it is unknown how the species avoids the effects of nitrogen-induced

decompression sickness.

While diving, the Emperor Penguin's oxygen use is markedly reduced, as its heart rate is reduced to as low

as five beats per minute and non-essential organs are shut down, thus facilitating longer dives.[10] Its

hemoglobin and myoglobin are able to bind and transport oxygen at low blood concentrations; this allows

the bird to function with very low oxygen levels that would otherwise result in loss of consciousness. [29]

Distribution and habitat

The Emperor Penguin has a circumpolar distribution in the Antarctic almost exclusively between the 66

and 77 south latitudes. It almost always breeds on stable pack ice near the coast and up to 18 km (11 mi)

offshore.[6] Breeding colonies are usually located in areas where ice cliffs and icebergs shelter them from

the wind.[6] The total population is estimated at around 400,000450,000 individuals, which are distributed

among as many as 40 independent colonies.[8] Around 80,000 pairs breed in the Ross Sea sector.[30] Major
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Adult

breeding colonies are located at Cape Washington (20,00025,000 pairs), Coulman Island in Victoria Land

(around 22,000 pairs), Halley Bay, Coats Land (14,30031,400 pairs), and Atka Bay in Queen Maud Land

(16,000 pairs).[8] Two land colonies have been reported: one on a shingle spit at Dion Island on the Antarctic

Peninsula,[31] and one on a headland at Taylor Glacier in the Australian Antarctic Territory.[32] Vagrants

have been recorded on Heard Island,[33]South Georgia, and in New Zealand.[8][34]

Conservation status

The Emperor Penguin is listed as a species of "least concern"

by the IUCN. Along with nine other species of penguin, it is

currently under consideration for inclusion under the US

Endangered Species Act. The primary reasons for this are

declining food availability due to the effects of climate change

and industrial fisheries on the crustacean and fish populations.

Other reasons for their potential placement on this list include

disease, habitat destruction, and disturbance at breeding

colonies by humans. Of particular concern is the impact of

tourism.[35] One study has shown Emperor Penguin chicks in a

crche to become more apprehensive following helicopter

approach to 1,000 m (3,281 ft). [36]

Population declines of 50% in the Terre Adlie region have been

observed due to increased adult mortality , especially of males,

during an abnormally prolonged warm period in the late 1970s,

which resulted in reduced sea-ice coverage. On the other hand, egg hatching success rates declined whenthe sea-ice extent increased. The species is therefore considered to be highly sensitive to climatic

changes.[37]

A Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution study in January 2009 found Emperor Penguins could be pushed

to the brink of extinction by the year 2100 due to global climate change. By applying mathematical models

to predict how the loss of sea ice from climate warming would affect a big colony of Emperor Penguins at

Terre Adlie, Antarctica, they forecast a decline of 87% in the colony's population by the end of the century,
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Emperor Penguin colony

from the current 3,000 breeding pairs in the colony to 400 breeding pairs. The decline may be mirrored in

the whole Emperor Penguin population, estimated at about 200,000 breeding pairs. [38]

In 2009, satellite images of areas of excrement-stained ice that are large enough to be visible from space

helped scientists to discover ten previously unknown emperor penguin colonies in Antarctica.[39]

Behaviour

The Emperor Penguin is a social animal in its nesting and itsforaging behaviour; birds hunting together may coordinate their

diving and surfacing.[40] Individuals may be active day or night. A

mature adult travels throughout most of the year between the

nesting area and ocean foraging areas; the species disperses

into the oceans from January to March. [8]

The American physiologist Gerry Kooyman revolutionized the

study of penguin foraging behaviour in 1971 when he publishedhis results from attaching automatic dive-recording devices to

Emperor Penguins. He found that the species reaches depths of

265 m (869 ft), with dive periods of up to 18 minutes. [40] Later

research revealed a small female had dived to a depth of 535 m (1,755 ft) near McMurdo Sound. It is

possible that the Emperor Penguin can dive even deeper, as the accuracy of the recording devices is

diminished at greater depths.[41] Further study of one bird's diving behaviour revealed regular dives to 150 m

(490 ft) in water around 900 m (3,000 ft) deep, and shallow dives of less than 50 m (160 ft), interspersed with

deep dives of more than 400 m (1,300 ft) in depths of 450 to 500 m (1,480 to 1,600 ft).[42]

This wassuggestive of feeding near or at the sea bottom.[43]

Both male and female Emperor Penguins forage for food up to 500 km (311 mi) from colonies while

collecting food to feed chicks, covering 821,454 km (51903 mi) per individual per trip. A male returning to

the sea after incubation heads directly out to areas of permanent open water, known as polynyas, around

100 km (62 mi) from the colony.[42]

An efficient swimmer, the Emperor Penguin exerts pressure with both its upward and downward strokes
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while swimming.[23] The upward stroke works against buoyancy and helps maintain depth.[44] Its average

swimming speed is 69 km/h (46 mph).[45] On land, the Emperor Penguin alternates between walking with

a wobbling gait and tobogganingsliding over the ice on its belly, propelled by its feet and wing-like flippers.

Like all penguins, it is flightless.[9]

As a defence against the cold, a colony of Emperor Penguins forms a compact huddle (also known as the

turtle formation) ranging in size from ten to several hundred birds, with each bird leaning forward on a

neighbour. Those on the outside upwind tend to shuffle slowly around the edge of the formation and addthemselves to its leeward edge, producing a slow churning action, and giving each bird a turn on the inside

and on the outside.[46]

Diet

The Emperor Penguin's diet consists mainly of fish, crustaceans and cephalopods,[47] although its

composition varies from population to population. Fish are usually the most important food source, and the

Antarctic silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum) makes up the bulk of the bird's diet. Other prey commonly

recorded include other fish of the family Nototheniidae, the Glacial Squid (Psychroteuthis glacialis), and thehooked squid species Kondakovia longimana, as well as Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba).[43] The

Emperor Penguin searches for prey in the open water of the Southern Ocean, in either ice-free areas of

open water or tidal cracks in pack ice. [6] One of its feeding strategies is to dive to around 50 m (164 ft),

where it can easily spot sub-ice fish like the Bald notothen (Pagothenia borchgrevinki) swimming against

the bottom surface of the sea-ice; it swims up to the bottom of the ice and catches the fish. It then dives

again and repeats the sequence about half a dozen times before surfacing to breathe.[48]

PredatorsThe Emperor Penguin's predators include birds and aquatic

mammals; the Southern Giant Petrel (Macronectes giganteus) is

the predominant avian predator, responsible for up to 34% of

chick deaths in some colonies. The South Polar Skua

(Stercorarius maccormicki) mainly scavenges for dead chicks,

as the live chicks are too large to be attacked by the time of its
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Skua flying over Emperor Penguin chicks,

Ross Sea, Antarctica

The life-cycle of the Emperor Penguin

annual arrival in the colony.[49]

The primary aquatic predators are both mammals: the Leopard

Seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), which takes some adult birds, as well

as fledglings soon after they enter the water, [25] and the Orca

(Orcinus orca), which takes adult birds.[50]

If one of a breeding pair dies or is killed during the breeding season, the surviving parent must abandon its

egg or young and go back to the sea to feed.

Courtship and breeding

The Emperor Penguin is able to breed at around three years of age, and usually commences breeding

around one to three years later. [13] The yearly reproductive cycle begins at the start of the Antarctic winter,

in March and April, when all mature Emperor Penguins travel to colonial nesting areas, often walking 50 to

120 km (31 to 75 mi) inland from the edge of the pack ice. [51] The start of travel appears to be triggered by

decreasing day lengths; Emperor Penguins in captivity have been induced successfully into breeding by

using lighting systems mimicking seasonal Antarctic day lengths.[52]

The penguins start courtship in March or April, when the

temperature can be as low as 40 C (40 F). A lone male

gives an ecstatic display, where it stands still and places its

head on its chest before inhaling and giving a courtship call for

12 seconds; it then moves around the colony and repeats the

call. A male and female then stand face to face, with one

extending its head and neck up and the other mirroring it; theyboth hold this posture for several minutes. Once in pairs, couples

waddle around the colony together, with the female usually

following the male. Before copulation, one bird bows deeply to its

mate, its bill pointed close to the ground, and its mate then does

the same.[53]

Emperor Penguins are serially monogamous. They have only one mate each year, and stay faithful to that
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The egg of the Emperor Penguin. It is

12 8 cm and vaguely pear-shaped.

mate. However, fidelity between years is only about 15%.[53] The narrow window of opportunity available for

mating appears to be an influence, as there is a priority to mate and breed which often precludes waiting for

the appearance of the previous year's partner.[54]

The female penguin lays one 460470 g (1 lb) egg in May or

early June;[53] it is vaguely pear-shaped, pale greenish-white,

and measures around 12 8 cm (4 x 3 in). [51] It represents

just 2.3% of its mother's body weight, making it one of thesmallest eggs relative to the maternal weight in any bird

species. [55] 15.7% of the weight of an Emperor Penguin egg is

shell; like those of other penguin species, the shell is relatively

thick, which minimises risk of breakage.[56]

After laying, the mother's nutritional reserves are exhausted and

she very carefully transfers the egg to the male, before

immediately returning to the sea for two months to feed.[51] The

transfer of the egg can be awkward and difficult, and manycouples drop the egg in the process. When this happens, the

chick inside is quickly lost, as the egg cannot withstand the freezing temperatures on the icy ground. The

male spends the winter incubating the egg in his brood pouch, balancing it on the tops of his feet, for 64

consecutive days until hatching.[53] The Emperor Penguin is the only species where this behaviour is

observed; in all other penguin species both parents take shifts incubating.[57] By the time the egg hatches,

the male will have fasted for around 115 days since arriving at the colony.[53] To survive the cold and winds

of up to 200 km/h (120 mph), the males huddle together, taking turns in the middle of the huddle. They have

also been observed with their backs to the wind to conserve body heat. In the four months of travel,

courtship, and incubation, the male may lose as much as 20 kg (44 lb), from around 38 kg to just 18 kg

(84 lb to 40 lb).[58][59]

Hatching may take as long as two or three days to complete, as the shell of the egg is thick. Newly

hatched chicks are semi-altricial, covered with only a thin layer of down and entirely dependent on their

parents for food and warmth.[60] If the chick hatches before the mother's return, the father feeds it a curd-like

substance composed of 59% protein and 28% lipid, which is produced by a gland in his esophagus.[61] The
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Emperor Penguin feeding a chick

young chick is brooded in what is called the guard phase, spending time balanced on its parent's feet and

sheltered in the brood pouch.[60]

The female penguin returns at any time from hatching to ten

days afterwards, from mid-July to early August. [51] She finds her

mate among the hundreds of fathers by his vocal call and takes

over caring for the chick, feeding it by regurgitating the food that

she has stored in her stomach. The male then leaves to take histurn at sea, spending around 24 days there before returning. [51]

His trip is slightly shorter than it was originally, because the

melting of ice in the summer gradually decreases the distance

between the breeding site and the open sea. The parents then

take turns, one brooding while the other forages at sea. [53]

About 4550 days after hatching, the chicks form a crche,

huddling together for warmth and protection. During this time, both parents forage at sea and return

periodically to feed their chicks.[60] A crche may comprise up to several thousand birds densely packedtogether and is essential for surviving the low Antarctic temperatures. [62]

From early November, chicks begin moulting into juvenile plumage, which takes up to two months and is

often not completed by the time they leave the colony; adults cease feeding them during this time. All birds

make the considerably shorter trek to the sea in December or January and spend the rest of the summer

feeding there.[25][63]

Relationship with humans
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On Snow Hill Island, Antarctica

Diego; more than 20 individuals have hatched there since

1980.[64][65] Considered a flagship species, 55 individuals were

counted in captivity in North American zoos and aquaria in

1999.[66] The species is kept in captivity in only two places in

the world.[67]

Cultural references

The species' unique life cycle in such a harsh environment has

been described in print and visual media. Apsley Cherry-Garrard,

the Antarctic explorer, said: "Take it all in all, I do not believe

anybody on Earth has a worse time than an Emperor Penguin". [68] Widely distributed in cinemas in 2005,

the French documentary La Marche de l'empereur, which was also released with the English title March of

the Penguins, told the story of the penguins' reproductive cycle.[67][69] The subject has been covered for the

small screen twice by the BBC and presenter David Attenborough, first in episode five of the 1993 series on

the Antarctic Life in the Freezer,[70] and again in the 2006 series Planet Earth.[71]

The computer-animated movie Happy Feet(2006) features Emperor Penguins as its primary characters,

with one in particular that loves to dance; although a comedy, it too depicts their life cycle and promotes an

underlying serious environmental message of threats from global warming and depletion of food sources by

overfishing. [72] The computer-animated movie Surf's Up (2007) features a surfing Emperor Penguin named

Zeke "Big-Z" Topanga.[73] More than 30 countries have depicted the bird on their stamps Australia, Great

Britain, Chile and France have each issued several. [74] It has also been depicted on a 1962 10 franc stamp

as part of an Antarctic expedition series.[75] Canadian band The Tragically Hip included a song 'Emperor

Penguin' on their 1998 album Phantom Power.

Notes

1. ^ BirdLife International (2004). Aptenodytes forsteri. 2006. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN

2006. www.iucnredlist.org . Retrieved on 12 May 2006. Database entry includes justification for why this

species is of least concern

2. ^ Williams, (The Penguins) p. 13

2
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3. ^ Jouventin P (1982). "Visual and vocal s ignals in penguins, their evolution and adaptive characters". Adv.

Ethol.24: 1149.

4. ^ Baker AJ, Pereira SL, Haddrath OP, Edge KA (2006). "Multiple gene evidence for expansion of extant

penguins out of Antarctica due to global cooling" . Proc Biol Sci.273 (1582): 1117.

doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3260 . PMID16519228 . PMC1560011 . Retrieved 2008-03-21.

5. ^http://www2.canada.com/calgaryherald/news/s tory.html?id=59132c88-d1ec-434c-b16f-

d15eb1ceb16b&p=2

6. ^a

b

c

d

e

f

g

University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. "Aptenodytes forsteri" . Retrieved 2008-01-01.7. ^"Emperor Penguin, Aptenodytes forsteri at MarineBio.org" . Marinebio.org. MarchineBio Advertising.

Retrieved 2008-11-03.

8. ^ abcde Marchant, S; Higgins PJ (1990). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds, Vol.

1A. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

9. ^ ab Williams (The Penguins) p. 3

10. ^ ab Owen J (2004-01-30). ""Penguin Ranch" Reveals Hunting, Swimming Secrets" . National Geographic

website. National Geographic. Retrieved 2008-03-26.

11. ^

a

b

c

d

Williams (The Penguins) p. 15212. ^ CDNN (2001-09-08). "Scientists find rare all-white emperor penguin" . CDNN. Cyber Diver News

Network. Retrieved 2008-03-29.

13. ^ abWilliams 1995, p. 159.

14. ^Williams 1995, p. 45.

15. ^ ab(French) Mougin J-L, van Beveren M (1979). "Structure et dynamique de la population de manchots

empereur Aptenodytes forsteride la colonie de l 'archipel de Pointe Gologie, Terre Adlie". Compte Rendus

Academie Science d Paris289D: 15760.

16. ^Williams 1995, p. 47.

17. ^ abWilliams 1995, p. 68.

18. ^ Robisson P. (1992). "Vocalizations in Aptenodytes Penguins: Application of the Two-voice Theory"

(PDF) Auk109(3): 654658

19. ^Antarctic Photo Library of the US Antarctic Program retrieved May 30, 2008

20. ^Williams 1995, p. 107.

21. ^Williams 1995, p. 108.

22. ^ C. Michael Hogan (2008) Magellanic Penguin, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg

a b
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23. ^ ab Hile J (2004-03-29). "Emperor Penguins: Uniquely Armed for Antarctica" . National Geographic


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32. ^ Robertson, G (1992). "Population size and breeding success of Emperor Penguins Aptenodytes forsteriat

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41. ^Williams 1995, p. 89.

42. ^ ab Ancel A, Kooyman GL, Ponganis PJ, Gendner JP, Lignon J, Mestre X (1992). "Foraging behaviour of

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44. ^ Lovvorn, J. R. (2001). "Upstroke thrust, drag effects, and stroke-glide cycles in wing-propelled swimm ing

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56. ^Williams 1995, p. 24

57. ^Williams 1995, p. 27.

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61. ^(French) Prvost J, Vilter V (1963). "Histologie de la scrtion oesophagienne du Manchot empereur".

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69. ^(French)"La Marche de l'empereur, un film de Luc Jacquet" . Official Site. Retrieved 2008-03-19.

70. ^ "The Big Freeze". Presenter David Attenborough. Life in the Freezer. BBC. 1993. No. 5, season 1.

71. ^ "Ice Worlds". Presenter David Attenborough. Planet Earth. BBC. 2006. No. 6, season 1.

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73. ^ Lovgren S (2007). "Behind the Scenes of the New Movie "Surf's Up"" . National Geographic website.

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74. ^ Scharning K (2008). "Penguins Spheniscidae" . Theme Birds on Stamps. sel f. Retrieved 2008-03-29.

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References

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External links

University of Michigan info site with citations for specific

studies
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Categories: IUCN Red List least concern species | Antarctic birds | Aptenodytes | Penguins | Flightless

birds | Megafauna
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Documents

Empetor Penguin