English Grammar English Grammar TeachingTeaching

Class: Class: 碩研英語二甲碩研英語二甲Instructor :Instructor : 王鶴巘王鶴巘

Presenters:Presenters: 李佩樺 李佩樺 M97C0256M97C0256

林亭蓉 林亭蓉 M97C0102M97C0102

蔡文豪 蔡文豪 M97C0103M97C0103

As teachers, we needAs teachers, we need to deal with errorsto deal with errors

The reasons are as follows:The reasons are as follows:．． Language learners make mistakesLanguage learners make mistakes

．． This seems to happen regardless of This seems to happen regardless of the teacherthe teacher’’s skill and perseverances skill and perseverance errors errors

．． Errors play a necessary and important Errors play a necessary and important part in language learningpart in language learning

Having to make a number of on-the-Having to make a number of on-the-spot decisionsspot decisions

Is there an error here?Is there an error here?

What kind of error is it?What kind of error is it?

What caused it?What caused it?

Does it matter?Does it matter?

What should I do about it?What should I do about it?

Take for example:Take for example:

I had a big surprise. (Wrong or I had a big surprise. (Wrong or Correct?)Correct?)

ItIt’’s a grammatically well-formed s a grammatically well-formed sentence.sentence.

The meaning is clear and The meaning is clear and unambiguous.unambiguous.

The answer is The answer is ““ wrong wrong ””

The reasons are as follows:The reasons are as follows:

According to corpus evidenceAccording to corpus evidence

‧‧Something can be a big surpriseSomething can be a big surprise

‧‧A person can be in for a big surpriseA person can be in for a big surprise

‧‧ You can have a big surprise for You can have a big surprise for someonesomeone

To classify the errorTo classify the errorErrors include:Errors include:

‧‧Lexical errorsLexical errors

ex 1:My brother was ex 1:My brother was stoppingstopping in the door instead in the door instead of standing.of standing.

ex 2: ex 2: The Sunday night pastThe Sunday night past instead of last instead of last Sunday night.Sunday night.

．． Grammar errorsGrammar errors

ex 1: the doorbell ex 1: the doorbell rangsrangs→ wrong → wrong verb verb formform

ex 2: we ex 2: we speakedspeaked→ wrong → wrong tensetense

ex 3: ex 3: was the four owas the four o’’clockclock→the →the subjectsubject of the clause has been left of the clause has been left outout

‧‧Discourse errorsDiscourse errors

Definition: Discourse errors relate to Definition: Discourse errors relate to the way sentences are organised and the way sentences are organised and linked in order to make whole textlinked in order to make whole text

ex: at last; eventually (based on the ex: at last; eventually (based on the meaning of words in the context) →meaning of words in the context) →

See page 113See page 113

Transfer or interferenceTransfer or interference

Definition: Influence from the Definition: Influence from the learnerlearner’’s first language on the s first language on the second languagesecond language

ex: The learnerex: The learner’’s pronunciation was s pronunciation was full of sounds from his own language full of sounds from his own language

Positive transferPositive transfer

Definition: No difference or contrast is Definition: No difference or contrast is present between the two languages.present between the two languages.

ex 1: Sex 1: S ＋＋ VV ＋＋ O; SO; S ＋＋ be be ＋＋ SCSC

　　 約翰喜歡瑪莉　　 約翰喜歡瑪莉 ; ; 她是個美麗的小姐她是個美麗的小姐

OvergeneralisingOvergeneralising

Definition: The process of Definition: The process of generalizing a particular rule or item generalizing a particular rule or item in the second language.in the second language.

ex: The doorbell ex: The doorbell rangsrangs

ex: We ex: We speaked (Ved speaked (Ved → played, → played, breaked, goed, speaked, etc)breaked, goed, speaked, etc)

What is a developmental error?What is a developmental error?

Learners are unconsciously working Learners are unconsciously working

out and organising language, but this out and organising language, but this

process is not yet complete. This kindprocess is not yet complete. This kind

of error is called a developmental of error is called a developmental

error. error.

ex: All beginners confuse the tenses in ex: All beginners confuse the tenses in EnglishEnglish

What are systematic errors?What are systematic errors?

These errors seem to show evidence of a These errors seem to show evidence of a rule being fairly systematically appliedrule being fairly systematically applied

ex: My brother was stopping, he was ex: My brother was stopping, he was changing, he was having a long hairchanging, he was having a long hair→ → aa

verb form (past continuous) being verb form (past continuous) being

over-used, but in a systematic way.over-used, but in a systematic way.

How to deal with systematic errorsHow to deal with systematic errors

Correction can provide the feedback Correction can provide the feedback

the learner needs to help confirm the learner needs to help confirm

or reject a hypothesis, or to tighten or reject a hypothesis, or to tighten

the application of a rule that is being the application of a rule that is being

applied fairly loosely.applied fairly loosely.

One way of testing learners failing to One way of testing learners failing to apply the ruleapply the rule

Self-correct: Self-correct:

Could the writer change speaked to Could the writer change speaked to

spoke, for example, if told that speaked spoke, for example, if told that speaked was wrong? If so, this suggests that the was wrong? If so, this suggests that the rule is both systematic and correctly rule is both systematic and correctly formulated in the learnerformulated in the learner’’s mind, but thats mind, but that

it hasnit hasn’’t yet become automatic t yet become automatic

The question of prioritiesThe question of priorities

Which errors really matter, and which Which errors really matter, and which dondon’’t?t?

ex: un banane; une pomme→nouns are ex: un banane; une pomme→nouns are distinguished by genderdistinguished by gender

These errors are likely to distract or These errors are likely to distract or even irritate the reader or listener even irritate the reader or listener

Attitudes to error and correctionAttitudes to error and correction

Attitudes to error run deep and lie at Attitudes to error run deep and lie at

the heart of teachersthe heart of teachers’’ intuitions about intuitions about

language learning. Many people still language learning. Many people still

believe that errors are contagious, and believe that errors are contagious, and

that learners are at risk of catching that learners are at risk of catching

the errors other learners make.the errors other learners make.

It is often this fear of error infectionIt is often this fear of error infection

that underlies many studentsthat underlies many students’’ dislike of dislike of

pair and group work. On the other hand,pair and group work. On the other hand,

many teachers believe that to correctmany teachers believe that to correct

errors is a form of interference, especiallyerrors is a form of interference, especially

in fluency activities.in fluency activities.

Some teachers go further, and argue that Some teachers go further, and argue that

correction of any sort creates a correction of any sort creates a judgmental judgmental –– and therefore stressful- and therefore stressful-

classroom atmosphere, and should beclassroom atmosphere, and should be

avoided altogether.avoided altogether.

Responding to errorsResponding to errors

He has a long hair.He has a long hair.

Possible responses:Possible responses:

““NoNo”: negative feedback, no clue for what is ”: negative feedback, no clue for what is wrong.wrong.

Without saying No: facial expression, shake of Without saying No: facial expression, shake of the head etc.the head etc.

Soften the negative force of No: making a Soften the negative force of No: making a mmmmmmmm noise to indicate “ noise to indicate “Well, that’s not Well, that’s not entirely correct but thanks anyway.entirely correct but thanks anyway.” results ” results in students wonder whether he is right or in students wonder whether he is right or wrong.wrong.

““He has long hair.He has long hair.”: strict correction. ”: strict correction. Teachers should remind students not to Teachers should remind students not to focus only meaning at the expense of focus only meaning at the expense of form.form.

““No articleNo article”: the application of ”: the application of metalanguage (grammatical terminology); metalanguage (grammatical terminology); pinpoint the error to promote self-pinpoint the error to promote self-correction or peer-correction.correction or peer-correction.

““No. AnyoneNo. Anyone?”: unambiguous feedback ?”: unambiguous feedback and invitation for peer-correction, but and invitation for peer-correction, but risking humiliating the original student.risking humiliating the original student.

““He hasHe has”: replay the student’s ”: replay the student’s utterance up to the point where the utterance up to the point where the error occurred to isolate the error as error occurred to isolate the error as a clue for self-correction. Technique: a clue for self-correction. Technique: finger-coding.finger-coding.

““He has a long hairHe has a long hair.”: echo the .”: echo the mistake with a quizzical intonation. mistake with a quizzical intonation. Less threatening than saying No, but Less threatening than saying No, but students often fail to self-correct and students often fail to self-correct and think the teacher merely questions think the teacher merely questions the truth they said.the truth they said.

““I am sorry. I didn’t understand.I am sorry. I didn’t understand.” ” Variations: Variations: Sorry? He what? Sorry? He what? Excuse me?Excuse me? etc. clarification etc. clarification requests; friendly signal students the requests; friendly signal students the meaning of their message is unclear, meaning of their message is unclear, and suggest it might have been and suggest it might have been distorted by the form.distorted by the form.

““Just one? Like this Just one? Like this ?”: [ draw bald ?”: [ draw bald man with one long hair] literally man with one long hair] literally interpret the student’s utterance to interpret the student’s utterance to show his unintended error.show his unintended error.

““A long hair is just one single A long hair is just one single hair, like you find in your soup. hair, like you find in your soup. For the hair on your head you For the hair on your head you wouldn’t use an article: He has wouldn’t use an article: He has long hairlong hair..”: impromptu teaching ”: impromptu teaching point; reactive teaching in respond point; reactive teaching in respond students’ error, not trying to preempt students’ error, not trying to preempt them. Teacher-centered and passive them. Teacher-centered and passive students.students.

““Oh, he has long hair, has heOh, he has long hair, has he?”: ?”: covert feedback (reformulation)covert feedback (reformulation) 重製重製 ,, 重重組組 ,, 再形成再形成 ; expansion and reformulation ; expansion and reformulation provide a temporary scaffold for provide a temporary scaffold for children’s developing language children’s developing language competence. Drawback: students might competence. Drawback: students might not notice the differences between the not notice the differences between the utterance from theirs and teachers’. utterance from theirs and teachers’.

E.g.: child: Teddy hat.E.g.: child: Teddy hat.

Mother: Yes, Teddy’s got a hat Mother: Yes, Teddy’s got a hat on, hasn’t he? on, hasn’t he?

““Good.”: ( OK) intention is to Good.”: ( OK) intention is to acknowledge students’ contribution, acknowledge students’ contribution, irrespective of either accuracy or irrespective of either accuracy or meaning; lull them into a false sense meaning; lull them into a false sense of security, and fossilization.of security, and fossilization.

Teacher says nothing but writes Teacher says nothing but writes down error for future reference. down error for future reference. Intention is to postpone the feedback Intention is to postpone the feedback so as not to disrupt the talk. (Real so as not to disrupt the talk. (Real operating conditions)operating conditions)

The choice of feedback strategy will The choice of feedback strategy will depend on factors as the following:depend on factors as the following:

The type of The type of errorerror: major effect on : major effect on communication? Learners can self-communication? Learners can self-repair?repair?

The type of The type of activityactivity: focus on form or : focus on form or on meaning? on meaning?

The type ofThe type of learner learner: discourage or : discourage or humiliate learners? Learners feel short-humiliate learners? Learners feel short-changed if no correction?changed if no correction?

Sample lessonSample lesson

Lesson one: using learners’ errors to Lesson one: using learners’ errors to review cohesive devices review cohesive devices (intermediate)(intermediate)

Participant: a class of mixed Participant: a class of mixed nationalities in Australianationalities in Australia

Goal: sentences and parts of Goal: sentences and parts of sentences are connected by words sentences are connected by words like like and, but, however, soand, but, however, so etc. etc.

Step 1: the teacher hands out a Step 1: the teacher hands out a worksheet which consist of worksheet which consist of sentences collected from students’ sentences collected from students’ previous written work, and he asks previous written work, and he asks them to attempt to correct in pairs them to attempt to correct in pairs and identify one feature in common.and identify one feature in common.

Step 2: the teacher helps them to pick Step 2: the teacher helps them to pick out some peripheral problems (out some peripheral problems (wentwent substitute for substitute for has dropped intohas dropped into) and ) and avoids dealing with avoids dealing with despitedespite and and neverthelessnevertheless. .

  

Step 3: the teacher distributes a handout Step 3: the teacher distributes a handout about grammar and ask them to study about grammar and ask them to study before returning to the sentence before returning to the sentence correction task.correction task.

Step 4: the teacher elicits corrected Step 4: the teacher elicits corrected versions of sentence and writes on versions of sentence and writes on the board, underlining the linking the board, underlining the linking devices and ask individuals to devices and ask individuals to explain the usage.explain the usage.

  

Step 5: the teacher has out the Step 5: the teacher has out the exercise about linking devices.exercise about linking devices.

Discussion: fluency practice can be Discussion: fluency practice can be targeted at latter stage, but accuracy targeted at latter stage, but accuracy may be best dealt with a reactive may be best dealt with a reactive and reflective approach. Using and reflective approach. Using students’ errors for consciousness- students’ errors for consciousness- raising purpose is suitable for the raising purpose is suitable for the specific problems of the students.specific problems of the students.

Evaluation:Evaluation:

The E-factor: collecting learners’ errors from The E-factor: collecting learners’ errors from written work is easy by computers while written work is easy by computers while capturing spoken errors. Self-study grammars capturing spoken errors. Self-study grammars books or reference notes are available, so books or reference notes are available, so making grammar handout is unnecessary.making grammar handout is unnecessary.

Error-analysis is effective for L1 transfer Error-analysis is effective for L1 transfer mistake.mistake.

Grammar lessons should be taught around Grammar lessons should be taught around errors the learners actually made, but not errors the learners actually made, but not taught to preempt the errors might make.taught to preempt the errors might make. Error-driven approachError-driven approach: focus instruction : focus instruction on what really matters, in favour ofon what really matters, in favour of effectivenesseffectiveness..

The A-factor: a focus on errors may The A-factor: a focus on errors may discourage learners. However, most students discourage learners. However, most students accept explicit feedback on error between accept explicit feedback on error between focused instruction and random acquisition.focused instruction and random acquisition.

Sample lesson 2Teaching grammar through reformulation (Elementary)

Participant: a group of Japanese students

Goal: the impetus underlying reformulation is more: This is how I would say it.

Reformulation

It is the process by which the teacher takes the meanings the learners are attempting to express in English and “translates” these into an acceptable form.

Step 1

Teacher introduces the theme; such as “disaster”, and without giving explicit prompts, but indicating that students should say anything with the topic.Teacher encourages the production of isolated words, phrases and sentences.

Step 2

When students are starting to run out of idea or start departing to widely from the topic, the teacher stops the activity and draws a line down the centre of the board.Asks one student as the class scribe, collate the ideas that students have produced about the topic, write up on to the board.

Step 3

Teacher read the students’ text aloud, without commentary, but asking any questions where the meaning is unclear. Teacher reformulates this text on to the other half of the board while he always insisting that this is the way I would say it.

Step 4

Students then, working individually, write their own texts about similar topic.They compare these in pairs, suggesting changes and improvements, before submitting their texts to the teacher for correction.

DiscussionIn step 1, the focus at this stage is simply on brainstorming ideas.

In step 2, the teacher renounces any active role in the construction of the text.

In step 3, the students are involved in the text reformulation process.

In step4, using students’ original text (erase or cover up) as a prompt. It will force attention of form, as well as encouraging greater attentiveness during the reformulation stage.

EvaluationThe E-factor:

1. It requires no materials preparation since the texts are created entirely by the students.

2. This process requires only a board, although

overhead projectors are very useful for this purpose.

3. The greatest demand is on the teachers’ skill at on-the-spot reformulation.

The A-factor: 1. The reformulation of learners’ texts is likely to

have greater relevance to learners than the study of “imported” texts.

2. It has to be handled sensitively, so that learners see it as an empowering activity rather than an exercise in humiliation.

3. Any activity that allows the teacher prolonged control of the blackboard runs the risk of becoming perilously “chalky-talky”.

Conclusions

Not all errors are caused by L1 interference.

Not all errors are grammar errors, and not all grammar errors are simply tense mistakes.

Not all errors matter equally: nor do they all respond to the same kind of treatment.

Correction is not the only form of feedback that teachers can provide. Other options include positive feedback, clarification requests, and reformulation.

Failure to provide some negative feedback may have a damaging effect on the learner’s language development in the long run; on the other hand , providing only negative feedback may be ultimately demotivating.

Learners’ errors offer a rich source of material for language focus and consciousness-raising.