Essential grammar

重要基礎文法 03

Contents:

A quick review Dangling and misplaced modifiers Subject Subject-Verb agreement Participial phrases Appositives Helping and Modal Auxiliary Verbs How to read long sentences

A quick review of relative clause

由關係代名詞所引導的子句 基本核心就是在處理如何避免名詞重覆

There are now three options for direct flights between Vancouver and Hong Kong, and the three options mean finding bargain airfares is much easier.

There are now three options for direct flights between Vancouver and Hong Kong, which means finding bargain airfares is much easier.

排列的次序問題

如果說含有關係子句的主要子句是個簡單不複雜的句子，如 “He tore up my photo, which upset me.” 是很容易安排次序。如例句 ，如果主詞出現了 4 個直接、間接的形容詞來修飾，就會產生排序問題。

4 message units ：

There are now three options for direct flights between Vancouver and Hong Kong, which means finding bargain airfares is much easier.

(1) there are now three options (2) for direct flights (3) between Vancouver and Hong Kong (4) which means finding bargain airfares is much easier

Message unit 位置分配原則是：

1. 主要資訊 - 一定是句子核心 (core)

2. 補語 受詞或主要相關資訊 優先於修飾語

3. 修飾語間，有其約定俗成的優先次序 : - 地點 , 時間 - 數量 , 大小 , 顏色其它修飾等

4. 會讓人產生 ambiguity 部份優先

4 message units ： (1) there are now three options

(2) for direct flights

(3) between Vancouver and Hong Kong

(4) which means finding bargain airfares is much easier

1423 : There are now three options, which means finding bargain airfares is much easier, for direct flights between Vancouver and Hong Kong.

1243: There are now three options for direct flights, which means finding bargain airfares is much easier between Vancouver and Hong Kong.

1324 : There are now three options between Vancouver and Hong Kong for direct flights, which means finding bargain airfares is much easier.

1234: There are now three options for direct flights between Vancouver and Hong Kong, which means finding bargain airfares is much easier.

Dangling and misplaced modifiers虛懸和錯置的修飾詞

　A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.

Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.

"Having finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences, the doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill. She seems logically to be the one doing the action ("having finished"), and this sentence therefore does not have a dangling modifier.

The following sentence has an incorrect usage:Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.

"Having finished" is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. The doer of the action expressed in the participle has not been clearly stated.

Confused meaning

Helen is the last student.

She came into the classroom.

Helen is the last student that came into the classroom. (Helen 是進到教室的最後一位學生 )

Helen who/that came into the classroom is the last student . ( 進到教室的 Helen 是最後一位學生 )

錯置的修飾詞會弄擰文句的意思      移動 participle ( 動詞作為形容詞，修飾名詞 ) (X) Bacteria are found in lakes and rivers producing methane.    (O) Bacteria producing methane are found in lakes and rivers .         

改變 participle 成為別的修飾詞 (X) While purifying colonies in sample 3, five isolates died. (O) During purification of colonies in sample 3, five isolates died.         When colonies in sample 3 were purified, five isolates died. (X) Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him. (O) Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

    

改變主詞（ subject ） (X) Testing 128 isolates, five biotypes were identified. (O) Testing 128 isolates, Erikson et al. identified five biotypes. (X) Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed. (O) Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.

Practice

1. After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.

2. Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.

3. The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.

Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.

The team failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

Subject 主詞

Subject1. 名詞 Dogs are human’s best friends.

Food is what I need now.

2. 代名詞 They are good students.We went to the mall yesterday.

3. The + 形容詞 The rich are not always happy.

4. The + 現在分詞 (V+ing)

The living in the world should be not selfish.

5. The + 過去分詞 (P.P)

The wounded should take a good rest at home.

6. 不定詞(To + 原形動詞 )

To study hard is the only way to get high scores.To have a baby is a big responsibility.

7. 動名詞 Dancing is my hobby.Traveling alone is so much fun.

8. 介係詞片語 From this morning to tomorrow night is a long time.

9.

子句What you say makes me disappointed. When he will come is not important. That the earth is square is not true.What I need now is food.

Subject-Verb Agreement主詞動詞一致性

動詞的單數和複數隨主詞的單數或複數而定。

基本原則：單數主詞需要單數動詞；複數主詞需要複數動詞。

When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.

1. 不定代名詞 (indefinite pronouns) anyone, everyone, someone, no  one, nobody

是單數 !

Everyone has done his or her homework. Somebody has left her purse.

若干不定代名詞 ( 如 all, some) 為複數或單數 -- 視其所指的名詞為可數或不可數而定。

Some of the beads are _____ missing. Some of the water ____ gone.

“none” 可為單數或複數 ( 除非句子中有別的人事物來決定它 ) None of you claims responsibility for this incident? None of you claim responsibility for this incident? None of the students have done their homework. (their 這個字告訴你要使用複數動詞，不能使用單數動詞。 )

are

is

2. 不定代名詞 “ everyone” 和 “ everybody” ，像是在談論一個人以上，所以使用複數動詞；

而 each 後面常接複數字，經常困擾我們對動詞的選擇 - each 要用單數動詞　

Everyone has finished his or her homework. Everybody knows Mr. Jones. Each of the students _____ responsible for doin

g his or her work in the  library.is

3. together with, as well as 和 along with 等片語與 and 並不相同　

The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.

The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.

( 由 as well as 或 along with 所引導的片語係修飾前面的字，並未使主詞複數化 )

( 而 and 則有使主詞 1+1=2 的複數化作用 )

4. neither 和 either 是單數，即使就某一方面來說它們似乎是指兩樣事物　

Neither of the two traffic lights is working. Either suit ____ fine with me. Either ____ correct.

is

is

5. 連接詞 or 並沒有結合的作用。 在使用 or 或 nor 的場合，比較接近動詞

的主詞決定了動詞的數。　

Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.

Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.

The boy or his friends run every day. His friends or the boy runs every day.

6. there 和 here 不是主詞　

There are two reasons for this. There is no reason for this. Here are two apples.

( 主詞跟隨在動詞之後 )

7. 有時修飾語是放在主詞和動詞之間，但這些修飾語不應混淆主詞及其動詞之間的一致性。　

The mayor who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various crimes is finally going to jail.

8. glasses, pants, scissors, eyes, gloves, boots, sleeves 等字被視為複數

除非它們的前面有 pair of ( 此時 pair 這個字就變成了主詞 )

　 My glasses were on the bed. My pants were torn. These scissors are dull. A pair of trousers ____ in the closet. is

9. 分數或數字詞如 half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of 或 all, any, more, most, some 有時是單數有時複數，視意思而定

　 Some of the voters ____ still angry. A large percentage of the older population ____ voting a

gainst her. Two-fifths of the troops ____ lost in the battle. Two-fifths of the vineyard ____ destroyed by fire. The woman with all the dogs _____ down my street. Two and two ____ four. Four times four divided by two ____ eight.

數學過程的總和與乘積係以單數來表示

is

isis

are

walkswas

were

10. 有些字以 s 做字尾 但卻是單數

The news from the front ____ bad. Measles ( 麻疹 ) ____ a dangerous disease for pregnant

women.

the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.

Five dollars _____ a lot of money. Dollars ______ often used instead of rubles in Russia.

isis

isare

practice More than two-thirds of all astronauts _____ (suffer) from

motion sickness while traveling in space. More fluid than normal _____(end) up in the face, neck,

and chest. The staff of 41 people ____ (be) extremely grateful for

the supplies. Exposure to radiation ____ (be) another serious hazard. Working under conditions like these _____ (be)

extremely demanding both physically and mentally. The percentage of families with only one child ____ (be)

higher than ever. The number of parents choosing to have only one child

_____ increasing in my parts of the world. Many people agree that; however, some _____ (think)

this may cause problems.

are

is

is

is

ends

suffer

is

think

Participial Phrases

分詞片語

Participle - a word formed from a verb and

used as an adjective to modify nouns.

A participle often appears with additional

words that adds details to it.

Present participle: V - ing

Past participle: V –ed

Verbs Present participles

The custom fascinates me.

The man jogged in the park.

The fascinating custom interests me.

The jogging man ran through the park.

Verbs Past participles

The steak was burned.

The car was just cleaned.

The burned steak tasted terrible.

The cleaned car looks new.

Together, the participle and the additional

words form a “participial phrase”, such as

noisily burping, circled by the hungry sharks, waving at the TV camera…

participles + other modifiers; used to modify nouns and pronouns.

Examples:

In his movie, Arnold Schwarzenegger uses his muscles more readily than his brain.

In his movie, Arnold Schwarzenegger uses his muscles more readily than his brain, chopping off barbarians’ heads with his gigantic sword in another.

Participial phrases not only wake up your sentences but also suggest time or cause-result relationship. Participial phrases suggest such relationship less directly than clauses beginning with terms like “because”, “thus”, “therefore”, and “as a result.”

Example:

Because many actors glared directly at the camera and did not blink for long periods of time, they started to have eye problems several years later.

Glaring directly at the camera and did not blink for long periods of time, many actors started to have eye problems several years later.

Using participial phrases to suggest relationships

More examples: Some Vietnam vets were disillusioned by the American

public’s negative perception of the war. Therefore, they suffered severe mental problems when they returned to civilian life.

We pulled off the interstate. Then we descended the exit ramp to the stadium, a crowd of people came out and waved to us.

Disillusioned by the American public’s negative perception of the war, some Vietnam vets suffered severe mental problems when they returned to civilian life.

We pulled off the interstate, descending the exit ramp to the stadium, a crowd of people came out and waved to us.

Verbs Present participles

The pedestrian, who was bleeding from several wounds, waited for someone to help home.

The ambulance that was summoned by a bystander came quickly.

The pedestrian, bleeding from several wounds, waited for someone to help home.

The ambulance summoned by a bystander came quickly.

Participial phrases formed from relative clauses

(by reducing subject pattern)

Perfect Form Participles: Active (having discovered) & Passive (having been discovered) emphasize the “completed” action.

Verb tense With relative clause with participial phrase

Present perfect

(active)

The secrets of the universe, which have fascinated people for centuries, are slowly being revealed.

The secrets of the universe, having fascinated people for centuries, are slowly being revealed.

Past perfect

(passive)

The film, which had been shown too often in movie theaters, did not attract a large television audience.

The film, having been shown too often in movie theaters, did not attract a large television audience.

Participial Phrases from Adverbial Clauses:(Retain)

Before

Since(time)

Before a student chooses a college, he or she should consider several factors.

Carlos hasn’t been back home since he came to the United States three years ago.

Before choosing a college, a student should consider several factors.

Since coming to the United States three years ago, Carlos hasn’t been back home.

A student should consider several factors before choosing a college.

Carlos hasn’t been back home since coming to the United States three years ago.

(Delete)

Because

Since

As(reason)

As (time)

Because (Since / As) Carlos came from a very conservative family, he was shocked at the American system of coed dormitories.

As he gradually got used to American customs, he became less homesick.

Coming from a very conservative family, Carlos was shocked at the American system of coed dormitories.

Gradually getting used to American customs, he became less homesick.

(Retain or Delete)

After

While

when

After he had passed the TOEFL exam, he became a freshman at the college.

While he was preparing for the TOEFL, he lived with an American family.

When he was asked about his life in the United States, he said that he was enjoying himself.

After passing the TOEFL exam, he became a freshman at the college. Having passed the TOEFL exam, he became a freshman at the college.

(after passing the TOEFL exam. )

While preparing for the TOEFL exam, he lived with an American family. Preparing for the TOEFL exam, he lived with an American family.

(while preparing for the TOEFL exam. )

When asked about his life in the United States, he said that he was enjoying himself.

Asked about his life in the United States, he said that he was enjoying himself.

(when asked... )

Position and Punctuation of Participial Phrases A restrictive participial phrases follows the noun it

modifies. There are twelve students receiving rewards this year.

A nonrestrictive phrase may precede or follow the noun it modifies.

Teresa, hurrying to catch a bus, stumbled and fell. Hurrying to catch a bus, Teresa stumbled and fell.

Sometimes, we can move participial phrases from one position to another in a sentence – before the main clause, after it, in the middle of it.

1. Keeping one eye on his professor, Ross quickly scanned the comic hidden behind his bulky biology textbook.

2. Ross, keeping on eye on his professor, quickly scanned the comic hidden behined his bulky biology textbook.

3. Ross quickly scanned the comic hidden behind his bulky biology textbook, keeping one eye on his professor.

If the participial phrase describes something that happened before the main action of the sentence, the participial phrase will precede that main action.

Introduced twenty years ago as labor-saving devices, computerized cash registers are now installed in about 85 percent of all china stores.

If the participial phrase describes something that happened after the main action of the sentence, the participial phrase will follow that main action.

John opened the brightly wrapped package, discovering

a small wooden box.

Using present participial phrases – two actions are occurring simultaneously, whether the phrases come before or after the main clause.

Carrying the cumbersome bass drum in front of me, I jostled my way through the stubborn crowd to the bandstand.

I jostled my way through the stubborn crowd to the bandstand, carrying the cumbersome bass drum in front of me.

Practice – making participles Piet Van de Mark, who conducts ocean tours off the coa

st of Baja California, claims that animals in the wild like people. He noted that grey whales observe his tour boat from afar, then approach. They touch the craft with their snouts and refuse to leave until the startled tourists pet them. The tour guide thinks all this means that nature is not necessarily hostile.

He noted that grey whales observe his tour boat from afar, then approach, touching the craft with their snouts and refusing to leave until the startled tourists pet them.

Practice:1. They slept in barns and churches. They were assisted by brave and dedicated abolitionists.

2. He decided to help fugitives. He made his house into a station on the Underground Railroad.

3. Cold travelers still stay in the basement. Cold travelers are warmed by the working fireplace.

4. They have kept the basement in good condition. They have kept is as a tribute to the Underground Railroad.

( 不管是現在式或過去式 , 動作若是主動 -Ving. 動作若是被動 ,- V p.p)

They, assisted by brave and dedicated abolitionists, slept in barns and churches.

He, making his house into a station on the Underground Railraod, decided to help fugitives.

Cold travelers, warmed by the working fireplace, still stay in the basement.

They have kept the basement, as a tribute to the Underground Railroad, in good condition.

Appositives 同位語

Constructing appositives Appositives are used principally to expand the

meaning of nouns by supplying defining or identifying details about them.

We can construct an appositive from any sentence in which a noun phrase follows the to be verb (is, are, was, were). Eliminate the subject and the verb, insert commas or dashes.

Generally, we position an appositive next to the noun that it identifies, whether that noun is at the beginning or end of a sentence.

Examples:

Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly by digging up entire fields of infested crops. The poinsettia whitefly is a pesticide-resistant superbug.

(Relative clause)

Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly, which is a pesticide-resistant superbug, by digging up entire fields of infested crops.

Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly, a pesticide-resistant superbug, by digging up entire fields of infested crops.

In 1904, a Saint Louis doctor introduced peanut butter as a health food for the elderly. Peanut butter is the favorite food of American children.

In 1904, a Saint Louis doctor introduced peanut butter- the favorite food of American children - as a health food for the elderly.

Appositives can be just as handy for summarizing or generalizing.

Example:

To avoid bankruptcy, some major national

airlines are joining forces with successful

regional airlines, a trend that is likely to

continue.

Short summarizing appositives - appositives of one or two words - can produce a striking effect, especially at the end of a sentence.

Half an hour later, the second police diver returned with the same report - nothing.

Incorporated into humanistic programs in our schools is one of the most dehumanizing practice in education – standardized testing.

The “sunbelt” states of the South and West – states that remained rural and backward during the industrialization of our country – have come to dominate the U.S. economy during the technological revolution.

Bloodhounds are friendly and gentle creatures, not the vicious beasts their name would lead you to expect.

Longer summarizing appositives can fill in important background information.

When we pack appositives into a series, they summarize by listing characteristics:

In Aesop’s fables, the animals that overcome great odds represent qualities we want for ourselves: power, intelligence, thoughtfulness, and honesty.

Whether positive or negative, appositive are normally nouns. Adjectives can be used as appositives, if we move them from their normal position in front of the noun they modify.

My blind date turned out to be an honest, fun-loving, affectionate, and wonderful person.

My blind date turned out to be a wonderful person – honest, fun-loving, and affectionate.

Practice: 1. ____ Stark, forbidding, awesome, spectacular – Death Valley is a hauntingly

beautiful place to visit.

2. ____Shanghai is different from other Chinese cities – more European and cosmopolitan.

3. ____ a number of U.S. presidents – including Lincoln, Roosevelt, and Kennedy – have died in office.

4. ____ appositives are generally set off by commas, dashes, or colons. The different punctuation marks create different effects.

o

o

o

o

Use a connective (namely, including, especially, particularly, notably, mainly) for providing an example.

Examples: Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs ca

n now register for Medipet, a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.

Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet - a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.

Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet: a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.

(hardly calls attention)

(longer pause, more emphatic)

(formality)

The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband.

More examples:

(essential information)

(essential information)

Helping and Modal Auxiliary Verbs

助動詞與語氣助動詞

用來表達時間和語氣的狀態

Modal V Usages Examples

can

表示能力(= be able to)

The robot can sing.The machine can’t work.

否定推測 It can’t be true.

Permission (polite) Can you please help me?

could

Past abilityPeople couldn’t do that in the past.He could not send a fax until he were trained.

Permission (polite)Could you please help me?Could you come in, please?

possibility The number could be incorrect.

may

possibility It may rain tomorrow.

目的 She works hard so that she may succeed.

Permission (polite) You may go there now.May I smoke here? Yes, you may.

mightmay 的過去式 Sandy worked hard so that she might pass the test.

假設法 If you were lazy, you might fail.

Common Modal Verbs

shall未來將發生之事(instead of “will”)

I shall never forget you.Shall we dance?

should

shall 的過去式 I told him that I should see him the next day.

表示建議 advisability 責任 logical conclusio

n

You should see a doctor.You should brush teeth before you go to bed.

will 未來將發生之事 future

Polite requestPolite refusal

My sister will meet us at the airport.Will you come tomorrow?I will not be able to accept your invitation.

would

will 的過去式 I said I would do it.

polite request and refusal

Would you please open the door?Would you be available for a meeting at 3?

past habitHe would often get up early.He would park in the same location every day.

1. Would that … = I wish that ( 但願 ) Would that I were young again.2. would like to + V ( 想要 ..) I would like to see her.3. would rather + V ( 寧願 ..) I would rather go home.4. would rather + V.. than + V ( 寧願 .. 而不 ..) I’d rather die than suffer.

must

表示必要性NecessityProbability Authority / requirement

You must have a passport.Everyone must register at the door.

have to necessitywe have to pick up the files before the

meeting.

had to 表示過去必要性 I had to study last night.

ought to

應該 必須 obligation (spoken English)

ought to + Vought to + P.P.

We ought to obey the law.They ought to be more positive in their resp

onse. You ought to have told me that. ( 應該 .. 但並沒做 )

How to read long sentences 長句字閱讀

Tips of reading long sentences

1. verb

2. Subject

3. Object

4. Clause

5. Participial phrase

6. Connector / conjunction7. Tense / time8. Place 9. phrase10. author’s attitude (modal verbs / adverbs)

11. Pronoun12. Examples13. Transitional words

"A survey of new stories in 1996 reveals that the anti-science tag has been attached to many other groups as well, from authorities who advocated the elimination of the last remaining stocks of smallpox virus to Republicans who advocated decreased funding for basic research."

「 1996 年對新書所做的一項調查顯示，反科學標籤也被貼在其他許多人群身上，包括提倡根除殘餘的天花病毒的權威機構，以及提倡削減基礎科學研究經費的共和黨人士」。

1. A survey reveals that.2. The anti-science tag has been attached to many other groups.3. They are from authorities to republicans.4. Authorities advocated the elimination of the last remaining

stocks.5. Republicans advocated decreased funding.

Although most astronauts do not spend more than a few months in space, many experience physiological problems when they return to Earth. Some of these ailments are short-lived; others may be long lasting. More than two-thirds of all astronauts suffer from motion sickness while traveling in space.

In the gravity-free environment, the body cannot distinguish up from down. The body’s internal balance system sends confusing signals to the brain, which can result in nausea lasting as long as a few days. A body that is deprived of gravity also experiences changes in the distribution of bodily fluids. More fluid than normal ends up in the face, neck, and chest, resulting in a puffy face, bulging neck veins, and a slightly enlarged.

Throughout the duration of a mission, astronauts’ bodies experience some potentially dangerous disorders. One of the most common is loss of muscle mass and bone density. Another effect of the weightless environment is that astronauts tend not to use the muscles they rely on in a gravity environment, so the muscles gradually atrophy. This, combined with the shift of fluid to the upper body and the resulting loss of essential minerals such as calcium, causes bones to weaken.

In addition to physiological difficulties, astronauts who travel for extended periods may also suffer from psychological stress. Long periods away from family and friends can leave space travelers feeling lonely and depressed.

Web links:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/ (普渡大學寫作中心 ) http://www.chineseowl.idv.tw/html/c_new.htm (The Chinese online writing lab – 柯泰德 Ted Knoy) http://blog.udn.com/trjason (廖柏森 英語與翻譯教學 ) http://www.cybertranslator.idv.tw/grammar/grammar.htm ( 文法寫作指南 )