Gary Prevost

8/13/2019 Gary Prevost

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;emocracy. The primary ar$ument o! the authors is that while the recent social movements are

$rounded in centuries#lon$ stru$$le o! Latin Americans a$ainst colonialism, neo#colonialism and

elite domination, they have "rou$ht new !orms o! stru$$le into play o!ten with somewhat

di!!erent political o"6ectives than their predecessors. Other 7ey scholars providin$ a re!erence

point to the analysis o! the authors include the wor7 o! /onia >:.

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coloni%ation !ollowed "y ritish, 4rench and 3orth American neocolonialism and the ever more

intense internationali%ation o! capitalism. Earlier centuries had witnessed primarily rural, peasant

"ased movements "ut the twentieth century also saw the $rowth o! la"or#"ased movements

$rounded in the re$ion5s e2tractive industries and nascent manu!acturin$ sectors. The twentieth

century movements were o!ten in!luenced "y -ar2ist and in a !ew cases anarchist ideas. 4or the

-ar2ist#in!luenced movements this meant that the o"6ectives o! a wor7ers5 or peasants5

movement were !re'uently channeled throu$h the e!!orts o! political parties, "oth re!ormist and

revolutionary.) The movements were $rounded in the livin$ conditions o! their mem"ers "ut

ultimately su"ordinated to party structures. n all o! these cases, the parties o! the Le!t did not

$enerally $ain state power, so these movements remained outside o! $overnment as an

oppositional !orce. However, Latin America did have two uni'ue models o! the role o! social

movements in the political process. n "oth -e2ico and Ar$entina traditional wor7ers

movements were co#opted "y $overnment leaders L%aro Crdenas +>I#+>*0 and ?uan PerJn

+>I#+>BB0 to play a 7ey role in the maintenance o! political power "y these leaders in return !or

an improvement in the standard o! livin$ !or the wor7in$ people. This arran$ement, du""ed

corporatism "y political scientists, "ecame deeply im"edded in -e2ico providin$ the party o!

Crdenas, the nstitutional 8evolutionary Party P80, un"ro7en rule until )***. n the case o!

Ar$entina, the party PerJn "uilt has sustained itsel! success!ully over almost seventy years to

a$ain "e the dominant !orce in Ar$entine politics.I

24or an overview o! the role o! -ar2ism in Latin American politics see /heldon Liss, -ar2ist Thou$ht inLatin America. er7eley Fniversity o! Cali!ornia Press, +>: and ;onald Hod$es. Latin American8evolution Politics and /trate$y !rom Apro#-ar2ism to Guevarism. 3ew @or7 Dilliam -orrow, +>K.I

/ee also Harry E. Vanden, Latin American -ar2ism A i"lio$raphy, 3ew @or7 Garland, +>>+,especially the introduction, and, in re$ard to peasant mo"ili%ation, Harry E. Vanden, -ar2ism and thePeasant in Latin America -ar$inali%ation or -o"ili%ation, Latin American Perspectives M, 3o. ,4all,+>:), pp. K#>:.4or $ood overviews !or corporatism see, Howard Diarda. Corporatism and Comparative Politics The

Other Great sm. Armon7, 3@ -.E. /harpe, +>>K and Peter Dilliamson. Corporatism in Perspective Anntroductory Guide to Corporatist Theory. London and 3ew"ury Par7, CA /a$e, +>:>. Also !or theapplication o! corporatist theory and two newly democrati%ed countries, Geor$ia and /outh A!rica, seerian Grods7y. &4rom 3eo#Corporatism N ;ele$ative Corportism The Empowerment o! 3GOs durin$Early ;emocrati%ation( ;emocrati%ation Vol. +, 3o.B, Octo"er )**>, p. :>:#>)+.

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e!ore proceedin$ to an analysis o! the relationship "etween contemporary Latin

American social movements and the re$ion5s pro$ressive $overnments it is also necessary to

provide some "ac7$round to the contemporary social movements and the political conte2t in

which they have emer$ed over the last twenty years. The !all o! the East European socialist camp,

which "e$an in +>:> with the political revolutions in Eastern Europe and culminated with the

collapse o! the /oviet Fnion at the end o! +>>+ opened a new era o! international relationships

7nown as the Post Cold Dar. President Geor$e H.D. ush declared that there would "e a 3ew

Dorld Order dominated "y democracy and !ree enterprise i.e. capitalism0, !reed !rom the

presence o! the socialist countries and their dra$ on the world economy. t was ar$ued that the

mechanisms o! the !ree mar7et i! adhered to "y all $overnments, includin$ those o! the less

developed world, would lead to a world o! $reater prosperity !or all, includin$ those in the poorer

countries who had "een mar$inali%ed traditionally. These views were operationali%ed in what

"ecame 7nown as the Dashin$ton Consensus which was to "e implemented worldwide throu$h

the policies o! the Dorld an7 and the nternational -onetary 4und. The 7ey ideas were reduced

$overnment spendin$ and downsi%in$, privati%ation o! state run utilities and industries, and trade

li"erali%ation carried out throu$h re$ional trade a$reements and the launchin$ o! the Dorld Trade

Or$ani%ation as the third and !inal le$ o! the nternational 4inancial nstitution 45s0 !irst

envisioned at the retton Doods con!erence in +>. n the early nineties these ideas resonated

well with the political elites in Latin America as well as all o! the re$ion5s $overnments, with the

e2ception o! Cu"a. This even included the traditionally nationalistic $overnment o! Ar$entina,

which also em"raced the neoli"eral Dashin$ton Consensus model. The hi$h water mar7 o! this

political consensus occurred at the 4irst /ummit o! The Americas meetin$ convened "y F./.

President Dilliam Clinton in -iami in ;ecem"er +>>. The summit o! heads o! state, to which

4idel Castro was not invited, enthusiastically endorsed the idea o! a 4ree Trade Area o! the

Americas 4TAA0, a hemispheric wide customs union that would "e !ully implemented "y )**B

alon$ stron$ly neoli"eral lines.


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traditional and others that were new. The +>:> uprisin$ in Caracas and other Vene%uelan cities

the Caraca%o0 is here representative o! the $rowin$ an$er o! the masses when con!ronted with

structural ad6ustment and neoli"eral policies.

A$ainst this historical "ac7drop it is important to analy%e the new dimensions that

emer$ed !ull "lown in the last twenty years, the phenomenon that has "een called the &new social

movements.( These movements have come to !ull !ruition durin$ the era when Latin American

countries have returned to $reater political democracy !ollowin$ the era o! the +>*s to the +>:*s

when 7ey Latin American countries li7e ra%il, Ar$entina, Chile, and Fru$uay were under the

rule o! "rutal military dictatorships. n reality many o! these &new social movements(

representin$ women, the indi$enous, human ri$hts concerns, Latin Americans o! A!rican

herita$e, and reli$ious re!ormers emer$ed durin$ the era o! the military dictators. /ome new

social movements li7e the -others o! the ;isappeared in Chile and the -others o! the Pla%a de

-ayo in Ar$entina arose directly in response to the military repression "ut most o! the others

emer$ed !irst durin$ the military era as the result o! deterioratin$ economic condition !or wide

sectors o! the population and wider international !actors emanatin$ !rom di!!erent corners o! the

world. The winds o! chan$e in the 8oman Catholic Church, em"odied in the movements o!

Li"eration Theolo$y, were initiated "y the /econd Vatican Council +>+#+>B0, and the meetin$

o! the Latin American "ishops in -edellin in +>:. The rise o! women5s movements is part o! a

second wave o! !eminism that derived !rom the push !or women5s e'uality in late +>*s in the

Fnited /tates and elsewhere.BThe consciousness o! A!rican herita$e was $rounded in the civil

ri$hts and lac7 Power movements o! the +>*s in the Fnited /tates and the Cari""ean. Greater

consciousness on the pli$ht o! the !irst citi%ens o! the hemisphere came in part !rom Fnited /tates

44or an overview o! li"eration theolo$y and the Latin American movements it spawned see Philiperryman. /tu""orn Hope 8eli$ion, Politics and 8evolution in Central America. -ary 9noll, 3@ Or"isoo7s, +>:.54or an overview o! women5s movements in Latin America see Lynn /tephen, Domen and /ocial-ovements in Latin America. Austin Fniversity o! Te2as Press, +>>K.64or an overview o! race and race#"ased social movements in contemporary Latin America, see Geor$e8eid Andrews. A!ro#Latin America +:**#)***. 3ew @or7 O2!ord Fniversity Press, )**.


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and Canadian "ased movements, Hemispheric $atherin$s o! indi$enous peoples and then $ained

resonance in the wider world throu$h the awardin$ o! the +>>) 3o"el Peace Pri%e to Guatemalan

indi$enous leader 8i$o"erta -enchQ on the B**thanniversary o! the Colum"us voya$e.K

These international !actors, united with the local conditions and new dimensions o!

$lo"ali%ation on the $round in Latin America, resulted in the emer$ence o! these movements

across the continent "e$innin$ in the +>:*s "ut !lowerin$ in the +>>*s. The +>>*s in Latin

America was a time when conservative, neoli"eral $overnments pursued a political a$enda that

ran counter to the needs and issues o! masses o! Latin Americans and the social movements

descri"ed a"ove and !ormed in previous years. The chan$ed situation was that these new social

movements could or$ani%e openly with !ull le$al status, !reed !rom the previous li7elihood that

their political or$ani%in$ and street demonstrations would "e crushed "y harsh military

repression. Authorities mi$ht use the police to "rea7 up certain 7inds o! more militant actions,

such as stri7es and land occupations, "ut their or$ani%ations were no lon$er "anned, nor were

their leaders 7illed or placed in 6ail !or lon$ periods o! time. ndeed, they !ound that they had an

increasin$ num"er o! spaces in civil society in which they could operate and or$ani%e

The social movements that have arisen in recent years in Latin America have "een

mar7ed "y several 7ey attri"utes. They have tended to see7 autonomy !rom the traditional

political parties, to practice hori%ontal and participatory processes in decision ma7in$ and to see7

social 6ustice "ased on raceRethnicity, $ender andRor traditional mar$inali%ation !rom the political

process or economic "ene!its. These principles have en$endered some rethin7in$ o! traditional

concepts o! revolution in the conte2t o! see7in$ !undamental social chan$e. 4or decades the

concept o! social chan$e was lin7ed to armed revolution in Latin America and a commitment to

construct socialism with the Cu"an e2perience as the $uide. O!ten connected to the paradi$m

74or an overview o! Latin American indi$enous movements see Hector ;=a% Polanco. ndi$enous Peoplesin Latin America. oulder, CO Destview Press, +>>K. /ee also, ;onna VanCott, 4rom -ovements to Parties in Latin America the Evolution o! Ethnic Politics. 3ew @or7Cam"rid$e Fniversity Press, )**B and Van Cott, 8adical ;emocracy in the Andes. 3ew @or7 Cam"rid$e,)**>.

K
http://usf.catalog.fcla.edu/?st=Donna+Lee+Van+Cott&ix=Keyword&x=9&y=12&V=D&S=2001297541525444&I=2#tophttp://usf.catalog.fcla.edu/?st=Donna+Lee+Van+Cott&ix=Keyword&x=9&y=12&V=D&S=2001297541525444&I=2#top


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unemployed o! Ar$entina5s cities was a new phenomenon discussed in detail in the Ar$entina

chapter. The issues raised "y ra%il5s landless movement, the -/T, was raisin$ a time honored

issue, land re!orm, "ut usin$ a myriad o! tactics includin$ actual provision o! services !or those

en$a$in$ in the traditional tactic o! land ta7e#over and occupation.

Another area o! interest in the new social movements is in the arena o! tactics and how

they contested power. -any o! the tactics and political actions that were employed were not

unprecedented "ut some were, 'uite novel, !or e2ample, cortar ruas closin$ streets0 and other

actions were employed "y the pi'ueteros in Ar$entina. The indi$enous movements and their

supporters in olivia and Ecuador utili%ed the tactic o! "loc7in$ $round access to the capital city

and transit on other ma6or thorou$h!ares "y "arricadin$ roads with material at hand and in the

process stallin$ much o! the transit and commercial activity o! their countries. Twice in each

country within the last decade this tactic succeeded in !orcin$ the resi$nation o! elected

$overnments. -assive mo"ili%ation and occupation o! central spaces in the capital and other

ma6or cities was also employed. n "oth countries the dominant issues were that the indi$enous

ma6orities were "ein$ mar$inali%ed economically and politically and that the esta"lished

$overnment was sellin$ o!! the country5s assets and soverei$nty to !orei$n interests. The issue

was not new "ut their articulation and the swi!tness o! the movements5 success was startlin$. n

"oth cases new elections eventually "rou$ht to power the pro$ressive $overnments o! Evo

-orales and 8a!ael Correa. The success o! the movement5s tactics in olivia and Ecuador must

"e credited in part to their creative actions and the chan$ed political climate. n an earlier era o!

military rule such non#violent acts o! political protest would li7ely have "een "ro7en up "y the

army and the disruptions to the commercial li!e o! the country prevented.

The new social movements have also "een seen as adoptin$ a di!!erent stance toward the

political parties, lar$ely re!usin$ to interact with them and remainin$ in a more independent

stance, less availa"le to "e co#opted. This o"servation is reasona"ly accurate, especially in

comparison to movements o! the twentieth century that were wedded to traditional parties o! the

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le!t. /uch an independent position was natural, "ecause the movements o!ten arose outside o! the

political party structures which i$nored their issues. This phenomenon is not uni'ue to Latin

America. Dhen similar movements arose in Europe and the Fnited /tates, their issues were not

$enerally championed "y the mainstream parties, even those on the le!t. However, in the 3orth,

eventually their issues were adopted and the independence o! these movements came to "e

si$ni!icantly compromised. This can especially "e seen with women5s and environmental

movements in Europe and the Fnited /tates where, !ollowin$ adoption o! their ideas "y

mainstream parties, the $oals o! these movements were either !ully or partly reached,

demonstratin$ that cooptation is not necessarily a ne$ative result !or the social movement. That

level o! cooptation has not !ully arrived in Latin America "ut with pro$ressive $overnments in

power across the re$ion, the possi"ilities !or cooptation "ecome $reater. t is si$ni!icant that the

$reatest amount o! cooptation in the re$ion occurred in the country with the lon$est time period

o! pro$ressive $overnments, Chile. Another 7ey !actor in cooptation may "e the a"ility o! the

pro$ressive $overnment in power to co#opt social movements and some o! their leaders, and may

turn on their a"ility or willin$ness to ma7e ma6or $ains on "ehal! o! the movement5s $oals. 4or

e2ample, in the Fnited /tates the civil ri$hts movement "ecame wedded to the ;emocratic Party

"ecause leaders o! that party in the Con$ress and Dhite House delivered on ma6or re!orms o!

civil ri$hts laws in the Fnited /tates in the mid +>*s. n contrast, the $overnment o! Luis ncio

da /ilva Lula0 in ra%il was unwillin$ to ma7e any si$ni!icant concession in the area o! land

re!orm. As a result, the landless movement does not have much to show !or its "ac7in$ o! Lula in

the )**) and )** elections and has remained politically independent and critical o! $overnment

policy in this area.

[A] Electoral Victories of the Left

The past decade has also witnessed the electoral triumph o! a num"er o! political parties

and coalitions o! the le!t and center#le!t. The trend started with the election o! populist challen$er

Hu$o Chve% in Vene%uela in +>>:. Chve% has revised the constitution, created mechanisms o!

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political participation and access to services !or hither#to#!ore mar$inali%ed nei$h"orhood

residents, has "een reelected twice and he and his supporters "een a"le to mo"ili%e popular

support to de!eat a coup and a re!erendum desi$ned to remove him !rom power and stop his

re!orms. 4urther, he has moved si$ni!icantly to the le!t, committed to what he has la"eled

&twenty#!irst century socialism( and launched several re$ion#wide anti#neoli"eral pro6ects, most

importantly the olivarian Alliance !or the Peoples o! Our America ALA0.( n )**) the

Chve% victory was !ollowed "y the election o! socialist Ta"arS Vs'ue% in Fru$uay, populist

LQcio GutiSrre% in Ecuador, and most importantly, Dor7er5s Party leader, Lui% ncio da /ilva

Lula0 in ra%il in his !ourth run !or the presidency. Lula reelected !or a second term in )** and

his anointed successor, ;ilma 8ousse! e2tended Dor7ers Party control o! the ra%ilian

presidency until )*+B with her Octo"er )*+* landslide victory. Also, in Fru$uay e2#Tupamaro

$uerrilla and socialist ?osS -u6ica triumphed in )**: to continue the domination o! the le!tist

4rente Amplio. n )**I 3estor 9irchner was elected president in Ar$entina on a political

plat!orm that returned the Peronist ?ustice Party to its traditional center#le!t stance !ollowin$ a

lon$ detour to center#ri$ht neoli"eralism under Carlos -enem this le!tward tilt was validated "y

the election o! Christina 9irchner in )**K. The momentum o! pro$ressive electoral victories was

also mani!ested with the )**B election o! socialist Evo -orales to the presidency o! olivia as

the country5s !irst indi$enous leader. He was reelected in )**> with o! the vote and has

carried out "road constitutional re!orm that has moved the country in a pro$ressive direction

a$ainst the wishes o! the lon$ rulin$ traditional oli$archs. The last !ive years also have seen the

election o! center#le!t candidates 8a!ael Correa and 4ernando Lu$o in Ecuador and Para$uay.

Lu$o5s election in Para$uay in )**: on a le!t plat!orm ended the lon$ hold o! the country5s

oli$archy on the o!!ice o! the presidency. Correa was !irst elected in )** !ollowin$ the removal

o! previous president LQcio GutiSrre% "y social movement led massive street demonstrations.

Correa was reelected in )**>, validatin$ pro$ressive constitutional re!orms enacted durin$ his

!irst term. Central America was also not immune to the le!tward trend. n )** ;aniel Orte$a,

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power,( and which operated at the mar$in o! !ormal democracy.+*Another approach is seen in

en6amin Arditi5s )**: article, which proposes a sli$htly di!!erent conceptual !ramewor7 to

discuss the le!t and le!t turns in Latin American Politics.++

t is, then, entirely appropriate to spea7 o! the political trend to the le!t in Latin America

that "e$an with the Chve% victory in Vene%uela in +>>:, "ut it is necessary to analy%e the variety

o! pro$ressive politics that are practiced "y the various parties o! the le!t that have come to power

durin$ the past decade. As a result, scholars o! Latin American politics have "e$un to create

typolo$ies to help us de!ine this process and analy%e what their pro$ressive $overnments have

accomplished. /ome o! these, li7e CastaUeda and Pet7o!!, pro6ect the type o! le!tist parties that

$ained election as indicators o! the type o! $overnment and thus carry their cate$ori%ation o! a

moderate le!t and a radical le!t into their characteri%ation o! the le!tist $overnments now in

power. n re$ard to the actual $overnments in power, the a!orementioned edited volume o! 9urt

Deyland, et.al. is the most comprehensive to date. +) Deyland ar$ues that the attempts to

cate$ori%e the various presidents have met with controversy and disa$reement. He as7s i! some

o! them are Populists, and i! so, "ased on what de!inition o! Populism /imilarly, he wonders

whether others are social democratic and, i! so, what would that notion mean in contemporary

Latin America Can one even spea7 o! social democracy, he 'ueries, in a settin$ in which the10Pet7o!!, Tedoro.&Las dos i%'uierdas( 3ueva /ociedad +>K -ay#?une )**B0 ++#):11en6amin Arditi. &Ar$uments a"out the Le!t Turns in Latin America A Post#Li"eral Politics( LatinAmerican 8esearch 8eview.)**:,II0, B>#:+.12Deyland et.al. 4or related literature see Teodor Pet7o!!, )**B. ?or$e CastaUeda, )**. Cleary,-atthew. &E2plainin$ the Le!t5s 8esur$ence( ?ournal o! ;emocracy +K, no. Octo"er )**0 IB#>.Arnson, Cynthia. ed. )**K. The &3ew Le!t( and ;emocratic Governance in Latin America. Dashin$ton,;C Doodrow Dilson Center Press. oec7h, Andreas. ed. &;ie lateinameri7anische Lin7e und dieGlo"alisierun$( Lateinameri7a Analysen +K ?uly)**K0 >#+>K. Hunter, Dendy. &The 3ormali%ation o! an

Anomaly The Dor7er5s Party in ra%il( Dorld PoliticsB>, no. I April)**K0 *#KB. 8o"erts, 9enneth..&Latin America5s Populist 8evival( /A/ 8eview )K, no. + Dinter#/prin$ )**K0 I#+B. Castaneda, ?or$e,and -arco -orales. eds. Le!tovers Tales o! the Latin American Le!t.3ew @or7 8outled$e, )**:. ;e laTorre, Carlos, and Enri'ue Peru%%otti, eds. El 8etorno del Pue"lo Populismo y 3uevas ;emocracias enAmerica Latina. uito 4LA/CO N -inisterio de Cultura, )**:. -adrid, 8aQl. &The 8ise o!Ethnopopulism in Latin America( Dorld Politics*, no. I April )**:0 KB#B*:. Cameron, -a2well and/ilva, Eduardo. Challen$in$ 3eoli"eralism in Latin America.Cam"rid$e, F.9. Cam"rid$e FniversityPress, )**>. Deyland, 9urt. &The 8ise o! Latin America5s Two Le!ts nsi$hts !rom 8entier /tate Theory(Comparative Politics+, no. ) ?anuary )**>.0 +B#. Levits7y, /teven, and 9enneth 8o"erts, eds. LatinAmerica5s Le!t Turn.3ew @or7 Cam"rid$e Fniversity Press, !orthcomin$.

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&wor7in$ class( strictly de!ined0 is small and shrin7in$, trade unions are wea7, and e2ternal

economic constraints are o!ten ti$ht+I

The main di!!erences over cate$ori%ation revolve around multi#dimensional vs. more

simplistic, less theoretically sophisticated cate$ori%ations.+ The multi#dimensional approach is

epitimi%ed "y Livits7y and 8o"erts in their !orthcomin$ "oo7, Chan$in$ Course Parties,

Populism, and Political 8epresentation in Latin America5s 3eoli"eral Era. +B The authors are

more sympathetic to the approach o! Deyland that emphasi%es primarily the di!!erences in

strate$y and tactics o! Latin America5s le!t $overnments, distin$uishin$ a moderate $roup !rom a

more radical one alon$ a continuum. The approach o! 8o"erts may "e especially use!ul in

helpin$ to understand the diverse ori$ins o! the le!tist parties "ut the authors, li7e Deyland, are

more interested in comparin$ the pro$rams and policies these movements have pursued once they

have achieved power. This approach !acilitates our !undamental tas7 o! understandin$ the

contention "etween le!t $overnments and social movements in the current moment o! le!tist state

power.

The authors adopt the term Contestatory Le!t to descri"e the $overnments on the most

pro$ressive side o! the continuum. This term avoids the cate$ori%ation o! &radical,( or $ood, "ad,

or permitido to ac7nowled$e that none o! the current parties in power are pursuin$ policies in the

manner o! the revolutionary $overnments o! the )*th century, most nota"ly the Cu"an

communists and the /andinistas o! the +>K*s. Dhile virtually all o! the le!t $overnments under

study em"race the concept o! socialism, all o! them are operatin$ within the !ramewor7 o! a

capitalist system in each o! their countries. There is $eneral a$reement that Hu$o Chve% and his

139urt Deyland, &The Per!ormance o! Le!tist Governments in Latin America( in Deyland et.al.144or a sli$htly di!!erent "i!urcated classi!ication o! the le!t as &permitido( permitted "y or accepta"le to

"our$eois democracy and the empire and thus not capa"le o! ma7in$ the radical structural chan$ed needed0and a le!t &no permitido( not allowed "y Destern style li"eral "our$eoisie democracy or the empire, andthus truly radical and capa"le o! ma7in$ necessary chan$e0, see ?e!!rey 8. De""er and arry Carr, eds.,The 8esur$ence o! Latin American 8adicalism etween Crac7s in the Empire and an %'uierda Permitido.Latham, -aryland 8oman and Little!ield, !orthcomin$.15Livits7y, /teve, and 9enneth 8o"erts. Chan$in$ Course Parties, Populism, and Political 8epresentationin Latin America5s 3eoli"eral Era. 3ew @or7 Cam"rid$e Fniversity Press, !orthcomin$.

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olivarian revolution in Vene%uela is "oth in rhetoric and action the most radical o! the si2

countries that will "e studied in detail in this volume. Chve% !irst won the presidency without

re!erence to socialism, "ut over thirteen years in power has de!initely moved to the le!t and !or

nearly a decade has spo7en o! constructin$ &)+st Century /ocialism( in his country and does so

throu$h the e2plicitly socialist, Fnited /ocialist Party o! Vene%uela P/FV0. His close alliance

with the revolutionary $overnment in Cu"a and his use o! e2plicitly anti#imperialist lan$ua$e to

evaluate the international scene underscore his rhetorical position on le!t end o! our spectrum. n

reality his pro$rams are not as radical "ecause he operates in the !ramewor7 o! the Vene%uelan

capitalist system which controls the ma6ority o! the country5s economic activity outside o! the oil

sector. However, Chve% has pursued limited nationali%ations o! land and !actories as a strate$y

!or lon$ term e2pansion o! the state sector. The pro6ect that trac7s closest to that o! Vene%uela is

that o! Evo -orales5 olivia. /ince assumin$ power in )**B -orales and his -ovement Toward

/ocialism -A/0 party have pursued a policy o! radical re!orm centered around the

nationali%ation o! the country5s hydrocar"on industry and the empowerment o! the ma6ority

indi$enous population !or the !irst time in the country5s history. Another si$n o! olivia5s radical

stance is its mem"ership in ALA and its willin$ness to ma7e close ties with Cu"a. 3ot too !ar

"ehind olivia on the scale would "e Ecuador where 8a!ael Correa identi!ies himsel! as a

socialist and pursues policies o! wealth redistri"ution and nationali%ation o! natural resources.

Thou$h not initially a mem"er o! ALA, Ecuador has now 6oined and has moved closer in its ties

to olivia, Cu"a, and Vene%uela. However, li7e his counterparts in olivia and Vene%uela,

Correa operates in the !ramewor7 o! the dominance o! the Ecuadoran economy "y private

interests. On the other end o! the political spectrum is the ra%ilian model o! President Lula and

now ;ilma 8ousse!! and the now out o! power $overnments o! the Chilean /ocialist, La$os and

achelet. Dhile some mi$ht see the Chilean case much !urther to the ri$ht end o! the spectrum

than ra%il, in reality "oth pursued a similar strate$y o! almost completely acceptin$ the

neoli"eral !ramewor7s o! their predecessors "ut pursuin$ $overnment pro$rams aimed s'uarely at

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reducin$ the level o! a"solute poverty in their countries. 4or the Dor7ers Party led $overnments

this has meant !ood and income su"sidies and e2panded educational opportunities. The most

di!!icult $overnment to cate$ori%e is that o! the revived Peronist Party in Ar$entina and its late

leader 3estor 9irchner and current president Christina 9irchner. ecause o! its amorphous and

o!ten chan$in$ character many analysts, includin$ Deyland, are reluctant to place the Peronists

de!initively on the le!t "ut others "elieve that the policies pursued "y the 9irchners are in reality

very close to that o! Chile and ra%il and place them in that part o! the political spectrum !or the

purposes o! this volume. n the views o! the author the Peronists have returned much closer to a

pro$ressive orientation, distancin$ themselves almost completely !rom the decade lon$ neoli"eral

detour under Carlos -enem.

[A] Ho Social Movements Have !rou"ht the Left to #oer

The electoral victories o! the pro$ressive $overnments have o!ten "een directly tied to the

wor7 o! the social movements. n the cases o! Ar$entina, olivia, and Ecuador the victories o! the

le!t came a"out a!ter massive street demonstrations had removed a previous $overnment !rom

power and le!t a careta7er administration responsi"le !or conductin$ new elections. n olivia

street demonstrations in )**I !orced the neoli"eral /nche% de Lo%ada !rom power and when his

successor and Vice President Carlos -esa !ailed to deliver on promised re!orms he was driven

!rom power "y a massive mo"ili%ation and $eneral stri7e in )**B. These actions paved the way

!or elections or$ani%ed "y a careta7er $overnment that were won in a landslide "y Evo -orales in

;ecem"er )**B, and a$ain with o! the vote in a second election in )*+*. n Ecuador the

social movements !irst e2ercised their muscle in +>>K with the removal o! A"dala ucaram "ut

they were not a"le to shape the re$ime o! ?amil -ahaud that !ollowed. However, in )**+ they

!orced -ahuad !rom o!!ice and threw their support "ehind Lucio GutiSrre% and his anti#neoli"eral

plat!orm in the elections that !ollowed in )**). GutiSrre% won the election "ut once in o!!ice

moved to the ri$ht and carried out a pro#F./. a$enda. As a result, he was driven !rom o!!ice in

)**B "y street demonstrators !rom the same social movements that had supported him in the )**)

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elections. The departure o! GutiSrre% and esta"lishment o! a careta7er $overnment led to the

)** election o! socialist 8a!ael Correa. Correa was not or$anically a candidate o! the social

movements "ut his victory was !acilitated "y their de!eat o! the discredited GutiSrre%. n many

ways the developments in Ar$entina were the most dramatic. n +>>> the Ar$entine people had

elected a center#le!t $overnment headed "y 4ernando de la 8ua as a repudiation o! the ten year

presidency o! neoli"eral apostle, Carlos -enem. However, once in o!!ice de la 8ua carried out

policies that were essentially a continuation o! -enem. n ;ecem"er )**+, de la 8ua tried to

carry out a series o! currency re!orms that were particularly unpopular and resulted in massive

stri7es and street demonstrations that !orced his resi$nation. ;e la 8ua5s chosen successor and a

su"se'uent appointee !ailed to 'uiet the demonstrations resultin$ in !our di!!erent Ar$entine

presidents in one month. The political crisis ended only when the man who de la 8ua had

de!eated two years earlier, Peronist Eduardo ;uhalde, assumed the presidency pled$in$ to reverse

the neoli"eral policies o! his Peronist predecessor -enem and call new elections in early )**I.

;uhalde carried out his promises and the -arch )**I elections "rou$ht to power Peronist 3estor

9richner, who pled$ed to carry out a pro$ressive a$enda. n the case o! ra%il the social

movements li7e the power!ul landless movement, the -/T, has not !acilitated the removal o! a

neoli"eral $overnment as in the a"ove descri"ed cases "ut nonetheless it was instrumental in

helpin$ Lui% ncio da /ilva Lula0 win the presidency in )**), !ollowin$ twelve years o!

neoli"eral rule in that country. They also supported his reelection in )**, despite some

reservations.

[A] Social Movements and #ro"ressive Governments

The position o! the social movements once these pro$ressive $overnments ta7e power

"ecomes an interestin$ 'uestion that up until now has received relatively little scholarly attention.

t is necessary to close that si$ni!icant $ap and o!!er insi$ht into one o! the most important

'uestions o! contemporary Latin American politics and its !ull transition to democratic

!unctionin$. The !ollowin$ 'uestions are as7ed once in power does the pro$ressive $overnment

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view the country5s social movements as partners in $overnment to "e consulted or as is !re'uently

the case co#opted in support o! $overnment policies or, conversely, to "e held at arm5s len$th as

continuin$ opponents ;oes the $overnment in power reach out to the social movements and

see7 to "rin$ 7ey leaders into posts in the new $overnments ! the social movements continue

their street mo"ili%ations a$ainst the $overnment, how does that $overnment respond to such

challen$es Are the police and military used in the same manner as a 8i$htist $overnment would

li7ely have done 4rom the social movements5 side, how do they view the new $overnment that

they may have helped to put in power ;o they initially $ive that $overnment the "ene!it o! the

dou"t and suspend their street protests or do they continue the pressure ! the incomin$

$overnment o!!ers positions to social movement leaders, do they accept such posts ! such posts

are accepted, how lon$ do social movement leaders remain in $overnment i! the demands o! the

movements are not si$ni!icantly met n a $eneral sense, do the social movements act as actors

independent o! the $overnment or do they "ecome merely cheerleaders !or the implantation o!

$overnment policies And, ultimately, can the social movements achieve their demands without a

political movement or party that can ta7e the $overnment and implement their demands. The

answers to these 'uestions vary widely !rom country to country where the le!t has achieved

power.

olivia !ollowin$ the election Evo -orales in )**B is one o! the most interestin$ and

pro"a"ly the country where the social movements, especially the ones $rounded in the indi$enous

community have had the $reatest success in havin$ their demands articulated "y the le!tist

$overnment in power. n the wa7e o! -orales5 initial victory and his su"se'uent reelection in

)**> hundreds o! local, re$ional, and national social movements have emer$ed to !ill the void

created "y the collapse o! the traditional political party system. n the process they have

stren$thened civil society and ener$i%ed and consolidated a more democratic society in olivia

that spea7s to the needs o! the country5s lon$ su!!erin$ ma6ority poor throu$h $overnment

pro$rams !inanced "y the newly nationali%ed ener$y sector, a 7ey demand o! the social

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movements that "rou$ht -orales to power. These social movements have also contri"uted to a

ree2amination and rede!inition o! citi%enship, the "asis and content o! olivian national identity,

and the intimate relationship "etween culture and power in a multi#ethnic and multi#cultural state.

As the -orales $overnment has !aced a hard "ac7lash !rom the traditional landownin$ elites o!

the olivian lowlands, the support o! the social movements have "een central to the

implementation o! the -orales re!orms, especially the wholesale constitutional chan$es that

validated the multiethnic character o! the state and the state control o! the country5s natural

resources. The on$oin$ challen$e !or the olivian social movements is to provide important

tactical support to the -A/#led $overnment in its con!rontation with the traditional elites while

maintainin$ enou$h independence to critici%e the $overnment when it does not move !orthri$htly

to tac7le the country5s deep seated poverty and underdevelopment. /ustained demonstrations in

-arch )*++ a$ainst perceived unreasona"le $overnment#"ac7ed price increases indicated a

willin$ness to display such independence.

Ar$entina "ears some resem"lance to olivia in that the $overnment in power since the

"e$innin$ o! )**) has wor7ed hard to "oth meet the needs o! the power!ul social movements that

arose in the years "e!ore )**) while also see7in$ to "rin$ these movements under the control o!

the dominant Peronist Party a!ter its political trans!ormation !rom )**) onward. Dhen Peronist

Eduardo ;uhalde too7 power at the start o! )**), a!ter a month o! turmoil that saw three

$overnments !all, he "e$an a comple2 process o! reesta"lishin$ traditional Peronist control o! the

social movements that was "e$un "y the !ounder o! the ?ustice Party, ?uan Peron. n classic

corporatist style, the Peronists had ta7en almost !ull control over the population "y $rantin$

si$ni!icant social "ene!its where 7eepin$ a ti$ht lid on any independent political action "y unions

or other or$ani%ations. That control evaporated in the +>:*s under Carlos -enem when he

moved the Peronist a$enda to the neoli"eral ri$ht and "ro7e its historic ties to Ar$entina5s

popular classes. Dhen 8adical Party leader 4ernando de la 8ua continued -enem5s ri$htist

politics and was driven !rom power "y social movement#led street demonstrations in ;ecem"er

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)**+, it provided the Peronists with an opportunity to reposition themselves to the le!t and re$ain

its historic domination o! the country5s politics. That process "e$an when ;uhalde, the de!eated

Peronist candidate in the +>>> who assumed the presidency in the wa7e o! the street

demonstrations, acted to meet the protestors demands and to wor7 systematically to co#opt the

pic'ueteros movement that had "een at the heart o! the demonstrations. The pic'ueteros were

primarily unemployed city dwellers, the victims o! -enem5s neoli"eral policies that slashed

employees !rom the economy. ;uhalde not only created new 6o"s "ut also put many pic'uetero

leaders in char$e o! the nei$h"orhood "ased 6o" pro$rams. The strate$y was success!ul and in

)**I the endorsed Peronist candidate, 3estor 9irchner, de!eated Carlos -enem5s attempted

political come"ac7. Once in o!!ice 9irchner continued the populist direction o! $overnment

policies and the party was rewarded with the election o! Christina 4ernande% de 9irchner,

3estor5s spouse to the presidency in )**K. 4ollowin$ 3estor5s death in )*+* it now appears that

Peronist domination o! Ar$entine politics and the relative demo"ili%ation o! the social

movements will continue with Christina5s li7ely reelection in the !all o! )*++.

The case o! Vene%uela has some parallels with that o! olivia and Ar$entina "ut has its

own distinct characteristics. Li7e olivia, the rulin$ party o! Vene%uela, the Fnited /ocialist

Party o! Vene%uela P/FV0, has its roots in anti#neoli"eral social movements that arose in the

streets in the early +>>*s in reaction to the austerity measures o! the $overnment o! Carlos

Andres Pere%. The sym"olic leader o! those protests was army o!!icer Hu$o Chave% who led a

!ailed coup attempt and was su"se'uently 6ailed. However, in +>>: Chave% reemer$ed as a

populist, anti#li"eral presidential candidate. He scored an impressive victory a$ainst the

country5s two traditional parties "y mo"ili%in$ popular support !rom the people and or$ani%ations

that had "een in the streets earlier in the decade. However, the Vene%uelan case ta7es on a

somewhat di!!erent !ramewor7 durin$ the thirteen years that Chave% has "een in power. t can "e

ar$ued that the lar$e scale resources availa"le to the Vene%uelan state !rom its oil and $as

revenues allows Chave% to create a state that "orders on corporatism where 7ey constituencies,

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Vene%uela, Ecuador, or olivia. oth pro$ressive $overnments pursued social democratic

policies o! poverty alleviation aimed at the most vulnera"le sectors o! their societies while

"asically acceptin$ the "road neoli"eral policies o! the more conservative $overnments that

proceeded. Pro$rams o! education and !ood security received priority attention in "oth countries

and "oth achieved enou$h success to sustain themselves in power. n the case o! ra%il, that

continues into the present with the election o! /ilma 8ousse!!. The /ocialists lost power in the

)*+* election in Chie a!ter "ein$ part o! the concertacion rulin$ coalition !or twenty years.

However, these social democratic policies played out di!!erently in each country in terms o! their

relations with important social movements. The case o! Chile is one o! classic co#optation o!

social movements "y a rulin$ pro$ressive party with si$ni!icant $ains !or "oth sides in the

process. ;urin$ the dictatorship, power!ul nei$h"orhood#"ased movements developed that

contri"uted to the de!eat o! Pinochet in the +>:> re!erendum. t mi$ht have "een e2pected that

these movements would have !lourished with the return o! democratic civil li"erties "ut twenty

years later with a !ew important e2ceptions, li7e the -others o! the ;isappeared, the

nei$h"orhood $roups were lar$ely demo"ili%ed throu$h the inte$ration o! the 7ey activists o! the

movements into positions o! local authority implementin$ $overnment pro$rams that responded

positively to some o! the needs o! the community lon$ ne$lected under the dictatorship. Dhen

protest movements did emer$e durin$ the concertacion period, they o!ten came !rom unli7ely

sources such as hi$h school students.

The ra%ilian case is an interestin$ one !rom the perspective o! the Dor7ers Party

$overnment and the social movements. 4irst o! all, the Dor7ers Party itsel! emer$ed !rom the

social movements o! the period o! the dictatorship, primarily the Christian "ase communities and

newly#!ormed trade unions, especially in the auto industry. As an electoral party, the Dor7ers

Party has drawn on those "ases throu$hout its twenty#!ive year history. n the last !i!teen years,

the country5s most prominent social movement has "een the Landless -ovement -/T0 which

has mo"ili%ed tens o! thousands o! rural wor7ers to occupy unused !arm land and to pressure the

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$overnment !or land re!orm. The -/T has openly supported the candidates o! the Dor7ers Party

in a tactical alliance a$ainst the neoli"eral ri$ht while maintainin$ its !ull independence !rom the

$overnment. t has done so out o! reco$nition that President Lula has championed the interests o!

lar$e scale commercial !armin$ to "olster ra%il5s $rowin$ role in the world economy. /uch an

alliance ma7es si$ni!icant pro$ress on land re!orm unli7ely and leaves the two sides in a position

o! an uneasy truce where "oth "ene!it !rom the arran$ement.

Dhere does this review o! case studies leave us twenty years a!ter the triumph o! the !irst

le!tist $overnment in Chile in +>>* As demonstrated, the relationship "etween le!tist

$overnments and social movements is a comple2 one with many peculiar national characteristics

Generali%ations are di!!icult to ma7e. However, one pattern does $enerally emer$e. The

relationship is a sym"iotic one. n the !ace o! the traditional elites and their political parties the

parties o! the le!t need the enthusiasm and renewin$ 'ualities o! the mass social movements in

they are to achieve state power, either directly "y street mo"ili%ation or throu$h elections. On the

other hand, no matter how power!ul they may "e, the social movement cannot hope to achieve all

or party o! their am"itious pro6ects without the mechanisms o! the state apparatus that a le!t party

in power can provide. nevita"ly their relations will "e !illed with con!lict "ut that is the nature o!

politics.

)I

Documents

Gary Prevost