Genel Kimya - Doç.dr. Nilgün Kızılcan Ders Notları (Bütün Konular)

8/10/2019 Genel Kimya - Do.dr. Nilgn Kzlcan Ders Notlar (Btn Konular)

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DCMC@ GB[F

Ecrs Mit`fr

Ei. Er. Mk`dm GK^K@JFM

www.ccbecrsmit`frk.jib


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MECG@CQ ZfyhfDkrk 6A@B 6. FUIBSM [F_KZK vc FEF FUIB UCIQ@CQ 1

6.6Ef`tim Ftib Ucirksk 16.1 Ulibsim Ftib Ucirksk ... 16.: Qutlcrhire Ftib Ucirksk .. 16.5 Ailr Ftib Ucirksk :6.3 C`cgtrim`frm Ef`b 56.8 Bfdmctkg zc``kg`cr 56.4 Ftib Zkbdc`crk . 3

6.< Ftib Gt`c`crk 3

A@B 1. _CQ[IEG ^C@DC vc AF^K FUIB ^C@@G@CQ 81.6Hirb` Ufmb`fr vc Lcsfp`fr ..;1.1Ecmcysc` Hirb` Ufykmk .;

A@B :. GB[FZF@ AF@FQ 6?:.6@cwks Gurfb 6?:.1@cwks Zkbdc`crk vc [fp`fr ..6?:.:Givf`cmt Af`fmbf ...66

:.:.6Givf`cmt Af@cwks yfp`fr..61:.:.1ig Gft`Givf`cmt Affr 61:.:.:Givf`cmt Ak`ckg`crkm Gfrfgtcrkstkg zc``kg`cr..6:

:.5 yimkg Ak`ckg`crkm Gfrfgtcrkstkg zc``kg`crk .65:.3 @cwks [fp`frmm [fz`bfs 65:.8 Qczimfms ...64:.4 Igtct Gurf`mefm Zfpbf`fr . 64:.4.6Ucg Zfy`C`cgtrimu I`fm [fp`fr64:.4.1Cgskg Igtct`cr.6 4 eccr`kg c`cgtrimumf sflkptkr vc c`cgtrim ef`b s1p3er.

< F druau (Ziy dfz`fr)> lc`yub (1 c`cgtrim`u) emefgk`cr lfrk cm e tfafgf`frmef 6F vc 1F drup`frm gfpsfr.p a`iu > :F, 5F, 3F, 8f, 4f vc :A, 5A, 3A, 8A, 4A, `fmtfmkt`cr vc fgtkmkt`cr


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_CQ[IEG JCUXC@

s vc p aìu c`cbcmt`crkmc afdrup c`cbcmt`crk,e vc h aìu c`cbcmt`crkmc dckc`cbcmt`crkecmkr. h aìumf k dck c`cbcmt`crk ec ecmkr. Atm A druau, dck c`cbcmt`crkekr sfecjc 6Avc 1A drup`frmef drup mubfrfs cm e gfaugtfgk c`cgtrim sfysm vcrkr.

Akr c`cbcmtkm zc``kg`crkmk eccr`kg c`cgtrim`frmm ef`b ac`kr`cr. Akr c`cgtrim gfauumumaf gufmtub sfys ayegc cgkrecgtcm ig eflf uzfg`fref mcb`k èc c`cgtrim


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yiumùu dr`r. Au mcecm`c, c`cgtrim gfaug`fr ifègf ftibum eflf ayg i`bfsmacg`crkz. Akr druptf pcrkyit mubfrfs ayegc ftib fp ayr. Ayg ftib mubfrf`c`cbcmt`crec e vc h iraktf``crkmkm pcrec`cbc ctgksk s vc p c`cgtrim`frmm e gfaugc`cgtrim`frm pcrec`cbc ctgkskmecm eflf fz ièuu kkm, cm e gfaugtfgk c`cgtrim`frcgkrecc acg`cmcmecm eflf yfgm gimubef auùmur`fr. Dcmc` i`frfg, eflf ig c`cgtrim

gfauu auùmfm ftib`fr eflf ayg ftib`frer. Ftib yfrfp`fr c`cbcmt`crkm akr druaukkmec yugfrefm ffyf eiru frtfr. _crkyit aiyumjf sièfm sff eiru ftib yfrfp`frdcmc` i`frfg fzf`bfgtfer. fmjfg aumf dck c`cbcmt`crk uybfz. Ftib yfr fp`fr bctf``crkkm bctf``kg yfrfp, fbctf``cr kkm givf`cmt yfrfp i`frfg f`mbtr.

Ufaì 1.1 _crkyiekg kzc`dcecgk Ftib zc``kg`crk Eckkbk

Akr bctf` ftibu pizktkh akr kyim iùturbfg zcrc akr yfef eflf ig c`cgtrim gfyacttkkmec,cgkrecgtcgk yg bkgtfr c`cgtrim sfysmefm eflf hfz`f iùr. cgkrecg, c`cgtrim`fr eflfyfgmf cgcr vc simu i`frfg, gftyim`fr gcmekmk iùturfm ftib`frefm eflf ggtr`cr.Fmyim`fr gcmek`crkmk iùturfm ftib`frefm eflf aygtr. C c`cgtrimù fmyim`fr kkm kyimyg frtgf kyim yfrfp frtfr. Akr fbctf` mcdftkh kyim (fmyim) iùturbfg zcrc akr yfefeflf ig c`cgtrim fèmef cgkrecg yg sfakt gf`rgcm, hfz`f c`cgtrim mcecmky`c ctgkmcgkrecg yg (cgkreckm dcrcg yg k`c c`cgtrim`fr tfrfhmefm pcrec`cmcm yg frfsmefgkhfrg) eccrk fzf`r. C`cgtrim`fr frfsmefgk ktbc ctgksk frtfr, eflf ig ef`r vc ftib

ayg`g`crk frtfr.

Akr ftib c`cgtrim`frm mc gfefr gi`fy gfyacecrsc, bctf` zc``kk i gfefr hfz`fer. yim`fbfcmcrnksk (K), dfz lf`kmecgk ftib`frefm akr c`cgtrimu uzfg`ftrbfg kkm dcrcg`k cmcrnkbkgtfrer. yim`fbf cmcrnksk akrcysc` c`cgtrim`fr kkm c`cgtrim vi`t (cX) jkmskmecm vcyfc`cgtrim akr bi` c`cgtrim kkm bi` afmf ecm gN jkmskmecm vcrk`kr. 6 c`cgtrim vi`t7 vfgubef

pitfmskyc` hfrg 6 vi`t i`fm akr a`dcecm dccm akr c`cgtrim tfrfhmefm gfzfm`fm gkmctkg

cmcrnkekr. (6 cX 2 6,8?116?-6;

N 2 ;8,5


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yfpyf dc`bcg kstcb`crk simujumef iùur. C`cbcmt`crkm af yfpfak`bc dj, c`cbcmtftib`frmm cm e gfaugtfgk c`cgtrim sfy`frmf afèr.

:.6 @cwks Gurfb > C`cbcmt`crkm ftib`fr, siydfz ftib`frmm c`cgtrim ef`b`frmfacmzcbcg fbfjy`f akr frfyf dc`bcgtcekr. @cwks gurfbmm afz tcbc` csfs`fr y`cekr>

6. 6. C`cgtrim`fr, zc``kg`c cm e gfaug (eccr`kg ) c`cgtrim`fr gkbyfsf` af`fmbfef tcbc`ri` iymfr.

1. 1. Afz eurub`fref c`cgtrim`fr akr ftibefm ekcrkmc vcrk`kr. Ay`cjc iùfm frt vc cgskyg` kyim`fr akrakr`crkmk kyimkg affrfe vcrk`cm c`cgtristftkg guvvct`cr`c cgcr`cr.

:. :. C`cbcbk kgk yfef eflf hfz`f c`cgtrim`fr, ftib`fr frfsmef irtfg`fmr.C`cgtrim`frm au irtfg`fmbfsmf givf`cmt afecmkr.

5. 5. C`cgtrim`frm akr ftibefm ekcr akr ftibf vcrk`bcsk yfef irtfg`fmbfs lcr ftibum

gfrfr` c`cgtrim ef`bmf sflkp i`bfs cg`kmec iùr. Au ef`b dcmc``kg`c e gfaugc`cgtrim`frmm scgkz (igtct) ièuu siy dfz ef`ber.

:.1 @cwks Zkbdc`crk vc [fp`fr

@cwks skbdcsk, k gfaug c`cgtrim`fr vc cgkreck dstcrcm akr skbdc k`c e gfaug (eccr`kg)c`cgtrim`frm dstcrcm migtf`frefm iùur. Lcr c`cgtrim akr migtf k`c dstcrk`kr. @cwks skbdcskc`cbcmtkm ctrfhmf eccr`kg c`cgtrim sfys gfefr migtf giyfrfg vcyf akr kht c`cgtrim ycrkmc

akr kzdk, akr tcg c`cgtrim kkm akr migtf giyfrfg yfz`r.

Af drup c`cbcmt`crkmkm eccr`kg c`cgtrim`frm dstcrcm migtf sfysmm au c`cbcmtkm drupmubfrfs k`c fym ièuumf ekggft cekmkz.

@cwks skbdc`crk af drup c`cbcmt`crk kkm yfydm i`frfg gu``fmè lfèc, dck c`cbcmt`crkkkm hfz`f gu``fm`bfz.

Gkbyfsf` afefgk c`cgtrim f`vcrkkmk yfef irtfg`fmbfsm dstcrcm `cwks skbdc`crkmkm akrfrfyf dc`bcsky`c@cwks yfpsiùur.


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Bctf` kyimum `cwks skbdcskmec eccr`kg c`cgtrim`frmm lcpsk vcrkèkk kkm migtf yigtur7sfecjc yg dstcrk`kr.

@cwks yfp`frmefm hirb`m mfs` ièuumu ef gfrfak`krkz. Bcsc`f, f`bkmyub igsktkmhirb`mm mjcecm vcrk`bcskmc dcrcg yigtur. ftib vcrcm F` ftibu k`c kgk ftib f`fmigskncm ftibu akr frfyf dc`kmjc vcrk`cm c`cgtrimef akr hfz`f`g iùr. F`mfm vc vcrk`cmc`cgtrim`frm ckt i`bfs, akrkb hirbèc kgk F` vc I i`bfsy`f sf`fmr.

f) JfK a) AfZ j) @kI kkm uydum `cwks yfp`frm yfzmz.

Aurfyf gfefr yfp`fm`fr kgk`k kyimkg ak`ckg`crekr. ` kyimkg ak`ckg`cr dcmc``kg`c tcg ftibùvc ig ftibù kyim`frefm iùur vc ig ftibù kyim`fr frfsmefgk af`fmbf givf``cmttkr. Dfzlf`kmec kyimkg ak`ckg`crec lcr fmyim gftyim`fr`f, lcr gftyim fmyim`fr`f cvrk`bk i`frfg

auùmur. ig hfz`f sfyefgk au kyim`fr kyimkg grkstf` fe vcrk`cm ezdm akr rd kkmecsrf`fmbtr.

:.: Givf`cmt Af`fmbf> Akr kht c`cgtrimum af iùturfm ftib`fr tfrfhmefm irtfg`fmbfsakr tcg givf`cmt af iùturur. Givf`cmt af, kgk ftib frfsmef ftib iraktf``crkmkmrtbcskmecm iùfm ygscg c`cgtrim yiumùumf sflkp akr a`dcekr. Au tfmbf eccr`kgafymtcbkecmkr. au ymtcb, af iùubumum ìgf`kzc c`cgtrim biec`kekr. tcgk c`cgtrim`fr

vc irtfg`fmbfb eccr`kg c`cgtrim kht`crk gcmek ftib`frmm iraktf``crkmec gf`r`fr vc afyfpfm c`cgtrim`frm yg yiumùumu iraktf` rtbcsk a`dcskmec frtfr.

LJ` vc MfJ`, au kgk ak`ckgtc ec J` ftibu irtfgtr. Ief sjfg`mef MfJ` gft LJ` dfzmcecm9 L1Z dfz kgcm L1I sv er mcecm9 Zu eimeuumef lfjbk frtfrgcm iu sv`frmlfjbk fzf`r, mcecm9 Au siru`frm jcvfam au`bfg kkm ftib`fr frfsmefgk ctgk`ckb`crk, yfmkgkbyfsf` af`fr tfmb`fyfjfz.

J` c`cgtrim f`bf ck`kbkmec fjfaf lkerincmecm bk yigsf sieyubefm b gi`fy c`cgtrimgipfrr. Zieyubefm c`cgtrim gipbfs kkm K2 5;8gN/bi` , lkerincmecm c`cgtrim gipbfs kkmK2 6:61GN/bi` cmcrnk dcrcgbcgtcekr. Zieyubum kyim`fbf cmcrnksk eflf gg, i lfèc

sieyub lkerincmecm eflf bctf` (bctf` gfrfgtcr , kyim`fbf cmcrnk ) , au mcecm`c lkerincm


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Akr ftibum af` ièuu ekcr ftib`frefm c`cgtrim cgbc yctcmckmc c`cgtrimcdftkh`kg(CM)ecmkr. yim`fbf cmcrnksk vc c`cgtrim k`dkskmc afèr. 6;?6 y`mef _fu`kmd tfrfhmefmmcrk`bktkr. C`cgtrimcdftkvktc eccr`crk ?.4 k`c 5.? frfsmef eckkr. C`cgtrimcdftkvktc eccrkmc gfefr egsc i gfefr bctf` er vc pcrkyiekg tfaìef yugfrefm ffyf kmkèkgc frtfr.Ucbc` lfèc auùmfm kzi`c cek`bcbk akr ftibf akr c`cgtrim gft`bfs k`cbk k`c k`dk`k i`fm

cmcrnk eckkbkmc akrkmjk c`cgtrim k`dksk ecmkr. gg ftibum c`cgtrim gfzfmbf ck`kbk aygftibumgkmecm eflf hfz`fer. C`cgtrim k`dk`crk vcyf c`cgtrimcdftkh`kg`crk fym i`fm ftib`frfrfsmefgk givf`cmt af`frf fpi`fr givf`cmt af ecmkr. gk ftib frfsmefgk CM mc gfefrggsc i gfefr givf`cmt akr af eck`sc kyimkg af iùturuùr. Ftib`fr frfsmefgkc`cgtimcdftkvktc hfrg pi`fr bi`cg``crk iùturur. _i`fr bi`cg``cr frfsmef ekpi`-ekpi` cgkbguvvct`crk iùturur. Ekpi`-ekpi` guvvct`crk bi`cg``crkm pizktkh vc mcdftkh gutup`frmm

akrakr`crkmk cgbc`crk simuju irtfyf gfr.

:.:.: Givf`cmt Ak`ckg`crkm Gfrfgtcrkstkg zc``kg`cr>

6. 6. Givf`cmt ak`ckg`cr bi`cg``crecm iùur.

1. 1. Gg bi`cg` fr`g` i`fm`frm crdkbc vc gfymfbf migtf`fr egtr.

:. :. Dcmc``kg`c gi`fy aulfr`fr`fr.

5. 5. [f, sc`ìz, acmzcm dkak akr ig givf`cmt ak`ckg suef zmbcz. Fmjfg f`gi` vcfsctim dkak irdfmkg zj`crec zmr.

3. 3. C`cgtrkg fgbm k`ctbcz`cr.

Afz givf`cmt af`frm iùbfs srfsmef pfy`f`bfb c`cgtrim`frm lcr kgksk ec af`fmfmftib`frefm akrk tfrfhmefm sf`fmr. rmckm ML: (fbimyfg) k`c L+ frfsmefgk tcpgkbcec, ML:ecgk fzit ftibumum pfy`f`bfb c`cgtrim khtk ycmk akr givf`cmt af iùturbfg zcrcgu``fm`r. Au cgkèc bcyefmf dc`cm aff giirekmfsyim afecmkr.

yimkg Af> Akr bctf` akr fbctf``c ctgk`ctkk zfbfm c`cgtrim`fr bctf` ftibumefm fbctf`ftibumf fgtfr`r vc aumum simujumef akr kyimkg af (c`cgtrigivf`cmt ak`ckg) bcyefmf dc`kr.Ftib`frefm c`cgtrim gfyay`f iùfm pizktkh kyim`frf gftyim ecmkr. Ftib`frm c`cgtrim

gfzfmfrfg iùtureug`fr mcdftkh kyim`fref fmyim i`frfg kskb`cmekrk`kr. Au kyim`fr akr frfyfdcèkg`crkmec akr grkstf` iùturbfg zcrc akrakr`crkmk cgcr`cr. Fym c`cgtrimkg yfp`frfsflkp bfeec`crc kzic`cgtrimkg bfeec`crecmkr. _izktkh vc mcdftkh kyim`frm akr grkstf` kkmecyium`fbfsmf k`kgkm cmcrnk ctgksk grkstf` cmcrnksk vcyf rd cmcrnksk i`frfg kskb`cmekrk`kr.yimkg akr rcfgskyimu yrtcm guvvct, kyim`frm akrakr`crkmk c`cgtristftkg i`frfg cgbc`crkekr.yim iùubumef, cmcrnk fsmefm tcm hfz`f c`cgtrimum gfya yfef gfzfm`bfsgcmek`kkmecm bbgm eckèkr.

:.5.6yimkg Ak`ckg`crkm Gfrfgtcrkstkg zc``kg`crk>

6. 6. yimkg ak`ckg`crk kyim`fr iùturur`fr.


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1. 1. Gft lfècygcm c`cgtrkg fgbm k`ctbcz`cr. Crktk`bcsk lf`kmec vcyf suù zc`tk`crkc`cgtrkk k`ctcrcg gkbyfsf` eckbc`crc mcecm iùr.

:. :. [gscg gfymfbf migtfsmf sflkptkr`cr. Aulfr afsm`fr klbf` cek`cjcg gfefrggtr. mg kyim`fr frfs cgbc guvvctk ig aygtr.

5. 5. yimkg ak`ckg`cr suef zmr`cr.

:.3 @cwks [fp`frmm [fz`bfs

@cwks yfpsmef atm eccr`kg c`cgtrim`fr dstcrk`bc`kekr.

@cwks yfp`frmef atm c`cgtrim`fr dcmc``kg`c c`cbktkr.

Dcmc``kg`c lcr ftib cm e gfauumef igtct c`cgtrim`frmf u`fr. Fmjfg lkerincmece gfaug c`cgtrim`fr kgk iùr.

Afzcm gft` givf`cmt af`frf (kgk`k vcyf ` af`frf) dcrcg iùr. Gft` givf`cmt af`frJ, M, I, _ vc Z ftib`fr tfrfhmefm eflf gi`fy`g`f iùturuùr.

@cwks yfpsmm yfz`bfsmef eiru ksgc`ct yfpsy`f af`fbfg vc au ksgc`ct yfpsmef bcrgczftib vc u ftib`frm ac`kr`cmbcsk mcb`kekr. Bcrgcz ftib kgk vcyf eflf hfz`f ftibf

af`fme lfèc, u ftib sfecjc akr afgf ftibf afèr. Lkerincm ftib`fr lcr zfbfm uftib`frer.

@cwks [fp`frmm [fz`bfsmef kz`cmcjcg [i``fr>

[fpefgk eccr`kg c`cgtrim`frmm tip`fb sfysm ac`kr`cykmkz.

6. 6. sgc`ct yfpsm yfzp, ftib`fr au yfpef tcg`k givf`cmt af`fr`f af`fymz.

1. 1. Au cgkèc iùturu`fm lcr tcg`k af kkm tip`fb eccr`kg c`cgtrim`frmefm kgk gfrmz.

:. :. Gf`fm eccr`kg c`cgtrim`frmefm mjc u ftib`frm igtct`crkmk, simrfef bbgmscbcrgcz ftibumum yfef ftib`frmm igtctkmk tfbfb`fymz.

5. 5. Au eurubef bcrgcz ftibum igtctk cgskgsc, u ftib`frm aff dkrbcycm c`cgtrim

kht`crky`c gft` givf`cmt af`fr iùturumuz.

LJM (lkerincm skyfmr) m @cwks yfpsm yfzmz.

L 6F, J 5F, M 3F druaumf fkt7 tip`fb eccr`kg c`cgtrim sfy`fr tip`fb 2 6?

[ugfrefgk yfpefgk yfpef atm eccr`kg c`cgtrim`fr gu``fm`bfsmf gfr`g J ftibumumctrfhmef igtctkmk tfbfb`fbfyfm sfecjc ert c`cgtrim vfrer. Au eurubum M ftibumefgk kgktfmc aff dkrbcycm c`cgtrim khtkmk J vc M ftib`fr frfsmf ` givf`cmt af iùturfjfgcgkèc ycr`ctkrcrcg ezc`tcak`krkz.


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Hirbf` [gm @cwks [fpsmm [fz`bfsmef Gu``fm`bfs>

Irtfg c`cgtrim`frm ckt i`frfg a``bcsk vfrsfybmf efyfmfrfg lcsfp`fmfm yg`crchirbf`ygecmkr. Hirbf` yg`cr, @cwks yfp`frmefgk afz ftib`frm drmcm yg`crkekr. Au eurub,ftib`frm givf`cmt aff ckt c`cgtrim gftgs yfpbfeg`fr zfbfm irtfyf gfr. Bi`cgècgk

hirbf` ygm lcsfp`fmbfsmef ftibum drup mubfrfs, irtfg`fmbfb c`cgtrim sfys vc afsfysmm ak`kmbcsk dcrcgkr. Hirbf` ygm ac`kr`cmbcskmec7

Irtfg`fmbfb atm c`cgtrim kht`crkmk lfmdk ftibef ksc i ftibf fkt sfymz.

Af`fyj c`cgtrim`fr, af`fmfm ftib`fr frfsmef ckt i`frfg pfy`ftrmz.

Akr ftibum af yfpbfb lfècgk c`cgtrim sfysmefm @cwks yfpsmefgk c`cgtrimsfysmm gfr`bfsy`f cèc cek`cm yg i`fm hirbf` yg auùmuz.

Hirbf` [g 2 Drup mubfrfs Irtfg`fmbfbc`cgtrim sfys Afsfys

Af Zfys 2 ( Af`fyj c`cgtrim`frm sfys)

Drup mubfrfs 2 Eccr`kg c`cgtrim`fr sfys

Hirbf` yg dcrcgkyirsf, bbgm i`fm cm fz eccrec i`bf`

( - ) Cgsk yg`cr c`cgtrimcdftkh`kk hfz`f i`fmef auùmbf`

@cwks yfpsmef ftib`frm hirbf` yg`crkmkm tip`fb mtr akr bi`cg` kkm shr vc ig ftibù

akr kyim kkm kyimkg ygc ckt i`bfèr. Bcrgcz ftib dcmc``kg`c c`cgtrimcdftkh`kk cm fz i`fmftibeur.

LJM kkm hirbf` yg au cgkèc ac`kr`cyc`kb.

Givf`cmt akr bi`cgèc ftib`frm dcrcg yg`crkmkm i`bfem fgf drcak`krkz. Hirbf` vcdcrcg yg`cr frfsmefgk hfrg`` ac`krtbcg kkm hirbf` yg`crkm ctrfh lf`gf k`c cvrk`kr. Ccrgivf`cmt af`frf atm ftib`fr ckt sfyef gftgef auùmsf`fre, @cwks yfp`frm yfzfrgcmhirbf` yg`crkm i`bfyfjf vcyf cm fz i`fjf yfpy au`bfyf dfyrct ctbc`kykz. Aumu dcmcì`frfg ffefgk cgkèc dcrcg`ctkrcak`krkz>

Hirbf` yg dcrcgkyirsf, bbgm i`fm cm fz eccrec i`bfèr. Dcmc``kg`c cgsk hirbf` yg`cr eflf c`cgtrimcdftkh ftib`fref vc frt hirbf` yg`cr ksc

c`cgtrimcdftkh`kk eflf fz i`fm ftib`fref auùmur. Akr @cwks yfpsmef ftib`frm hirbf` yg`crkmkm tip`fb, mtr akr bi`cg` kkm shr vc

ig ftibù akr kyim kkm kyimkg ygc ckt i`bfèr.


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[ugfrefgk yfp`frefm (a) yfps (f) yf drc eflf eirueur. mg au yfpef lk hirbf` ygyigtur vc eflf fz c`cgtrimcdftkh ftib gfraim bcrgcz ftibeur.@cwks yfp`frmm yfz`bfsmef hirbf` yg`cr ec gu``fm`fak`kr. Aumu akr rmcg`c fg`frsfg7

Mktrizk` gìrr, ecrkkg mktrkg vc lkerigìrkg fskt`crkm akr gfrb i`fm vc f`tm ze kkmf`tm suyu i`frfg ak`kmcm akr ygsc`tdcm`crecm akrkekr. MIJ` m @cwks yfpsm yfzf`b>Hirb`m yfz`mefm I km bcrgcz ftib vc ekcr ftib`frm aumf af` ièuu (M-I-J` )ièuu dr`bcgtcekr. Au yfpyf (f) ekyc`kb. Fmjfg lcr yfz`fm hirb` ftib`frm af`fmbfsrf`fbfsm dstcrbcz. @cwks yfpsmefgk bcrgcz ftib lfggmef srf`febzdcmc``cbc`crecm gfrfg, aumum igskncm (CM2:.5) eck` fzit (CM2:.?) ièuumusy`cycak`krkz. Bcrgcz ftibum M ièuu yfpyf (a) ekyc`kb. Lcr kgk yfpefgk hirbf` yg`crk

ac`kr`cyc`kb.

6.Afsfbfg > Uip`fb eccr`kg c`cgtrim`fr sfys auùmur.

Mefm 3 + Iecm 8 + Jèfm 4 2 6 S ftib`fr bcrgcz ftibf tcg`k givf`cmt af`fr`f af`fmr. Zimrf gf`fmc`cgtrim`fr irtfg`fmbfb c`cgtrim kht`crk i`frfg, mjc u ftib`frf, simrfef bcrgczftib`frf ycr`ctkrk`kr. Bcrgcz ftibum igtctkmk tfbfb`fbfg kkm irtfg`fmbfb c`cgtrimkht`crkmecm akr khtk bcrgcz ftib`f ycmk akr af iùturfjfg cgkèc gfyerrz. Au eurubef(f) vc (a) yfp`fr kkm kgkcr i`fs`g irtfyf gfr. Au yfp`frf (f6), (f1), (a6), (a1), i`sum.

:.Afsfbfg > Lcr ftib kkm hirbf` yg`cr lcsfp`fmr. [fp (f6) ecgk M ftibu kkm

H[2 3-6/1(5)-5 2 -6.ekcr`crkec fym cgkèc lcsfp`fmr vc ffefgktfaì lfzr`fmr.

5.Afsfbfg > Hirbf` yg gurf``frmefm cm uydum @cwks yfpsmm (a6) ièuu dr`r.


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ecv>Gìrft (JÌ:)-fmyimum, sieyub pcrigsktkm (Mf1I1), hishir pcmtf igsktkm (_1I3) @cwksyfp`frm yfzmz.

:.8 Qczimfms > Afz eurub`fref kgk vcyf eflf hfz`f @cwks yfpsmef c`cgtrim`fr hfrgèzcmec i`bfsmf rfbcm ftib`fr fym ezcmec i`fak`kr. Qczimfms akr yfpef yg bcrgcz`crkiùubu ycrkmc akr ecìgf`kzc ygc mcecm i`bfgtfer. rmcg i`frfg strftishcrec auùmfm vcftbishcrkm f`t tfafgfsmef gkr`k`kg yfrftfm eubfmm akr ak`ccmk i`fm izim (I:) kkm @cwksgurf`m uydu`frsfg kgk i`fs`g`f gfr`frz. Fmjfg au kgk yfpmm akrakrkmkm rczimfms bc`czkièuumu drrz.

mg I-I tcg`k afmm uzumùu 654.3 pb, I2I kht afm uzumùu 61?.45 pb ièuu

lfèc izimefgk af`fr tcg`k vc kgk`k af frfsmef akr yfpef af uzumùu 614.< pb er.

:.4 Igtct Gurf`mefm Zfpbf`fr

Igtct gurf` @cwks yfp`frmm yfz`bfsmef cm mcb`k tcbc``crecmekr. Fmjfg afz eurub`frefsfpbf`fr iùr. Aum`fr fmf af`gtf tip`fyfak`krkz.

:.4.6 Ucg Zfy`C`cgtrimu I`fm [fp`fr> (.) Ucg sfyef c`cgtrim kcrcm bi`cg``crkm gfrfrì`fm`frmf rfekgf` ecmkr7 dcmc``kg`c iu gfrfrszer.

MI bi`cg`mec 66 eccr`kg c`cgtrimu (3+8) 266 vfrer vc au tcg sfyer. [fmk akrc`cbcbk c`cgtrimu vfrer. @cwks gurfb, c`cgtrim kht`crk k`c k`dk`kekr vc c`cbcbkc`cgtrimu mcrcyc giyfjfbz akzc dstcrbcz. _frfbfdmctkgtkr`cr.

:.4.1 Cgskg Igtct`cr >Cgskg igtct`cr air (A) vc acrk`yub (Ac) ak`ckg`crk k`c smrèr. Airtrkhìrrm (AH:) @cwks yfpsm yfzfrsfg k`g ffbfef A ftibumum eccr`kg gfauumef sfecjcf`t c`cgtrimumum ièuu cgskg akr igtct yfpsmef ièuu dr`r. Au eurubu, u ftib`frefm

aff dkrbcycm c`cgtrim`fr bcrgcz ftib`f af yfpfjfg cgkèc gfyerrsfgezc`tcak`cjckbkzk ak`kyiruz. @cwks yfpsmef akrecm hfz`f uydum yfp bcvjutsf, aum`frmrczimfms bc`cz`crkmkm dcrcg yfps ièuumu ef drbtg. Aum`fr yfzfrsfg7


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Gurf``fr uydu`febzef, gurf``frf fygr i`frfg A zcrkmec 6 vc H zcrkmec +6 yg vfrer.Hirbf` yg i`bfyfm,cgskg igtct`k @cwks yfps au eurubef cm uydum yfp i`frfgdr`bcgtcekr. Ekcr tfrfhtfm (AH:) ecgk A-H af uzumùu (6:? pb) tcg`k afefm eflfgsfer vc rczimfms bc`czkmecgk kgk`k af yfpsmm mcbkmk vurdu`fbfgtfer. Au yfp`frefmlfmdkskmk c`c f`rsfg f`f`b, AH: m mcb`k zc``kk, A ftibumum, c`cgtrim khtk vcrcak`cm

yfp`frefm akr c`cgtrim khtk f`frfg, akr giirekmc givf`cmt af yfpbfyf guvvct`k ck`kbki`bfser. Au eurub AH5 - kyimumum iùbfsmef dr`bcgtcekr.

AH5 ec af`fr tcg`k af`frer vc af uzumùu 653 pb ekr.

:.4.: Dcmk`ctk`bkigtct`cr>kbekyc gfefr s vc p f`t gfaug`frmm vc bcrgcz ftibum sfecjcscgkz c`cgtrim auùmeurfak`cjckmk ak`kyiruz. Lfàugk mj pcrkyit vc tcskmecgk

fbctf``crkm eccr`kg gfauumef e f`t gfaug`fr vfr. ay`cjc bcrgcz ftibef scgkz c`cgtrimefmhfz`f c`cgtrim auùmeurbf i`fs` irtfyf gfr. Hishir , _J`:vc _J`3 i`bfg zcrc kgk gìrriùturur. Igtct gurf`mf drc, _J`: kkm @cwks yfpsm yfzfak`krkz. _J`3ec ksc ac gìr ftibubcrgcz _ ftibumf eiruefm af`fmbtr vc _ um e gfauumef 6? c`cgtrim vfrer. Aurfefigtct 6? c`cgtrimf dcmk`cbktkr. ZH8bi`cg`mec ksc igtct 61yc dcmk`cbktkr.

@cwks yfp`frmm igtctk tfbfb i`frfg yfz`fakèkk eurub`fref ak`c dcmk`ctk`bk igtct`k yfp,eflf uydum i`fak`kr. Igtct gurf`mf drc ZI5-1 m atm af`fr tcg`k afer vc atm ftib`frefhirbf` yg vfrer. Lfàugk ggrt vc igskncm af`frmefm afz`frm kgk`k yfzfrsfg yfpefgkhirbf` yg`crk fzf`tfak`krkz. Au af`frm afz`frmm kgk`k af uzumùumef ièuu ecmcyscì`frfg dstcrk`bktkr. ZI5-1 ef Z-I uzumùu 65; pb ekr. Lfàugk Z-I tcg`k af uzumùu 648

pb vc Z2I kht`k af uzumùu ef 653 pb ekr. Au kyimum cm uydum yfp vcrk`cm yfp`frm akrrczimfms bc`czkekr.

ecv>ZIJ`1, MfM:vc H:ZM kkm cm uydum @cwks yfp`frm ac`kr`cycrcg af`frm tcg`k, kgk`kvcyf ` ièuumu ac`kr`cykmkz.

:.< Bi`cg``cr Dcibctrk (XZC_Q) vc Lkarkt`cbc


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Bi`cg` vc ig ftibù kyim`frefgk ftib`frm dcibctrkg ezcmk, eccr`kg gfauu c`cgtrim khtkktbc (XZC_Q) gurfb yfreby`f tflbkm cek`cak`kr. stcr gkbyfsf` af`, kstcr pfy`f`bfbc`cgtrim khtk i`sum c`cgtrim`fr akrakr`crkmk ktcr`cr. C`cgtrim kht`crk, ftib ctrfhmef ktbcyk cmfzf kmekrcjcg cgkèc ym`cmkr`cr. Aumum simujumef bi`cg``crkm gcmek`crkmc zd dcibctrkgcgk``crk iùur. XZC_Q (vcspcr ekyc igumur) gurfbmf drc, bi`cg``crecgk c`cgtrim

kht`crk bcrgcz ftib ctrfhmef ym`cmkrgcm bi`cg`m cg`k au c`cgtrim kht`crk ctrfhmef eck`,ftib`frm cgkrecg`crkmkm auùmeug`fr ycr`cr`c ac`kr`cmkr. C`cgtrim kht`crkmkm ef`bdcibctrkskmc c`cgtrim khtk dcibctrksk vc ftib cgkrecg`crkmkm iùtureuu dcibctrkyc ecbi`cg` dcibctrksk ecmkr. XZC_Q gurfb, kgkmjk pcrkyit c`cbcmt`crk kkm kyk simu vcrkr.XZC_Q dstcrkbkmec, F bcrgcz ftibu, \ bcrgcz ftibumf af` u ftib yf ef ftib`fr, Cirtfg`fmbfb c`cgtrim khtkekr. Dcmc``kg`c bcrgcz ftib ctrfhmef 1, :, 5, 3 yf ef 8 c`cgtrimkhtkmkm auùmeuu eurub`fr`f gfr`frz. Au eurub`frm c`cgtrim khtk dcibctrk`crk ucgkèc i`fak`kr>

1 c`cgtrim khtk > eirusf`

: c`cgtrim khtk > dcm pkrfbkt

5 c`cgtrim khtk > ert yz`


24/71

3 c`cgtrim khtk > dcm akpkrfbkt

8 c`cgtrim khtk > scgkzyz`

Irtfg`fmbfb c`cgtrim kht`crk af`fyj c`cgtrim kht`crkmc drc eflf ig ycr gfp`fr`fr.Aumum simujumef aff dkrbcycm kgk c`cgtrim khtk frfsmefgk ktbc, kgk af`fyj khtfrfsmefgkmc drc eflf aygtr.


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26/71

:. @cwks yfpsm ac`kr`cyc`kb.

3:K , 64J` .(64)+(54)+6 2 :8 eccr`kg c`cgtrimu sfys

1.Afsfbfg > K ftibu ctrfhmef 5 af`fyj 1 irtfg`fmbfb i`bfg zcrc 8 c`cgtrim khtkvfrer.

:.Afsfbfg > 8 c`cgtrim khtkmkm ym`cmbcsky`c iùfm dcibctrk scgkzyzèr.

5.Afsfbfg > KJ`5- fmyimu F\5C1tkpkmecekr. Bi`cg` gfrc ez`cbekr.

ecv>\cH1 mkm bi`cg` dcibctrkskmk ac`kr`cykmkz.

Gft` givf`cmt af` akr bi`cg`m cg`kmkm ac`kr`cmbcskmec XZC_Q gurfb uydu`frgcm

dcmc``kg`c gft` af`fr rczimfms bc`czkekr vc atm c`cgtrim kht`crkmkm af`fyj kht`cr ièuudr`r vc k`g fmefgk tcg`k af` yfp bi`cg` dcibctrkskmk ac`kr`cr.

_IJ`:vc ZI1mkm bi`cg` dcibctrkskmk ac`kr`crscmkz7 F\5vc F\1C ièuumu drrsmz.

ecv> M1I(Mktrz fskt) km bi`cg` dcibctrkskmk ac`kr`cykmkz.

:.


27/71

Bctimi` bi`cg` kkm cgk` mcrkmkz vc af f`frm ac`kr`cykmkz.

Givf`cmt akr af yfpb akr bi`cgèc akrkmc drc ekcr ftib eflf c`cgtrimcdftkh ksc ibi`cg` pi`fr akr bi`cgèr. _i`fr akr givf`cmt afef, yg ef`bmefgk hfrg``g ekpi`bibcmt () iùturur vc bi`cg` fsfèr.

Hfrg` cmcrnk ezcy`crkmec ftib iraktf``crkmkm gfrfrfg fym cmcrnk ezcykmec iraktf``crcembcskmc bc`cz`cbc, au ycmk iraktf``crc ec bc`cz iraktfècmkr. bc`cz`cbcyc gf ftibiraktf`k dkrkyirsf, i gfefr bc`cz iraktf` iùur. Bc`cz iraktf``cr af yfptg`frmef akrcr

c`cgtrim khtkmc sflkp iùr`fr. Af yfpb bc`cz iraktfècgk c`cgtrim khtkmkm akr c`cgtrimuafgf akr ftibum iraktf`kmecm dc`kr yfef c`cgtrim khtk zftcm bc`cz iraktfèc bcvjuttur. Bc`cziraktfèc c`cgtrim khtk mjcecm bcvjutsf, au bc`cz iraktf` af yfpbfz vc bcrgcz ftibumefirtfg`fmbfb c`cgtrim khtk i`frfg gf`r. Bi`cgèc af`frm eiru`tu`fr, bcrgcz ftibumbc`cz iraktf``crkmkm eiru`tu`fr k`c fymer. [fmk, akr bc`cz iraktf`km eiru`tusu af yfpfrgcmeckbcz.

1p iraktf``crk yfmefm rtcrcg akr af iùur. Zkdbf afmefgk rtbc afmefgkmecmeflf hfz`fer. Akr bi`cg`m cg`kmk sfecjc - afm iùturfm iraktf``cr ac`kr`cr. kht afctrfhmefgk embc ayg èc smr`fmbtr.

:.; Af Gurfb`fr

Givf`cmt af, kgk ftib frfsmef, ftib iraktf``crkmkm rtbcskmecm iùfm ygscg c`cgtrim

yiumùumf sflkp akr a`dcekr. Au tfmbf, eccr`kg af ymtcbk ecmkr. Au ymtcb, afiùubumum ìgf`kzc c`cgtrim biec`kekr. tcgk c`cgtrim`fr vc irtfg`fmbfb eccr`kgc`cgtrim kht`crk gcmek ftib`frmm iraktf``crkmec gf`r`fr vc af yfpfm c`cgtrim`frm ygyiumùu, iraktf` rtbcsk a`dcskmec frtfr.

Eccr`kg af ymtcbk 5 afsfbfgtf uydu`fmr.


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6.Afsfbfg> Lcr akr ftibum eccr`kg gfauu iraktf` ekyfdrfb kzk`kr.

rmcg _L:kkm

1.Afsfbfg> Lcr akr ftibum rtcm iraktf``crk kzk`kr.

:.Afsfbfg> Af` ftib`fr vc iraktf` rtbc`crk dstcrk`kr.

5.Afsfbfg> [fp tfbfb`fmr. _L:dcm pkrfbkt yfpsmef.

:.6? Bi`cg``cr Frfs Guvvct`cr

:.6?.6 Xfmecr Tff`s Guvvctk>Bi`cgèc auùmfm lcr ftibum af`fmbf gfpfsktcsk tfbfbcmei`bu iùrsf, bi`cg``cr frfsmef yf`mz Xfmecr Tff`s guvvct`crk vcyf af`fr iùur.C`cgtrim sfys frtgf vc pcrkyiekg skstcbec yugfrefm ffyf kmkèkgc Xfmecr Tff`sguvvct`crk frtfr.

:.6?.1 Ekpi`-Ekpi` Guvvct`crk> _i`fr bi`cg``cr frfsmef (+) vc (-) u`fr k`c akrakr`crkmkcgbcsk i`fyer.

:.6?.: @imeim Guvvct`crk> C`cgtrim`frm lfrcgct`crk simuju irtfyf gfr. Ac`kr`k akr fmefbi`cg` c`cgtrim auùtumf mcdftkh i`fjf akr ekpi` iùur. Aumu tfgkp cecm fmef ksc, c`cgtrim

auùtumum lfrcgctk mcecmky`c ekpi`m (+) vc (-; u`frmm gimubu eckcjcgtkr. Uip`fbzfbfmef au fm`g ekpi``crkm ctgksk akrakrkmk yig cecjckmecm pi`fr i`bfyfm akr bi`cg` gf`j

akr ekpi`c sflkp eckèkr. Bi`cg`m ekpi`mm ef`df`fmbfser. Fm`g ekpi`, gibubi`cg``cr frfsmef c ekpi``cr bcyefmf dctkrkr. Au fm`g ekpi``cr frfsmefgk cgkb guvvct`crk@iimeim Guvvct`crkmk tcgk` cecr. Cm ayg @imeim Guvvct`crk, gi`fy`g`f pi`frkzc i`fak`cm

vcyf ag`cak`cm ayg c`cgtrim auùtumf sflkp, ayg vc gibp`cgs bi`cg``cr frfsmefbcyefmf dc`kr.

A@B 5. DF^@FQ


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Dfz`fr lz` lfrcgct cecm vc frf`frmef ayg uzfg`g`fr auùmfm bi`cg``crecm iùur. Ac`kr`k

akr dfz kkm au bi`cg``crkm gt`c`crk vc ayg`g`crk fymer. Lcrlfmdk kgk dfz libincmi`frfg lcr irfmef gfrr. Dfz bi`cg``crk frfsmefgk uzfg`g hfz`f ièuumefm gi`fy`g`fsgtr`fak`kr. Dfz`fr ekhhz`cmcak`kr. Dfz`frm efvrfm lfggmefgk sfysf` lcsfp`fbf`fr afskt

dfz yfsf`fr vc kecf` dfz ecmg`cbk ecmk`cm dcmc` khfec gu``fm`frfg dcrcg`ctkrk`kr. Dfzf`frmhkzkgsc` efvrfmm ert zc``kg ac`kr`cr> dfzm bkgtfr, lfjbk, sjfg`g vc afsm. Aum`frefm ak`kmkrsc ekcr`crk lcsfp`fmfak`kr.

5.6 Dfz Afsmj vc ``bcsk

Afsm akrkb yzcyc uydu`fmfm guvvcttkr. Dfzm afsmj, au dfzm gfam cpcr`crkmcuydu`fe guvvctkm, gfam yzcy f`fmmf a`bmc ckttkr.

_2 Afsm, akrkbk _fsjf` (_f) > M/b1

_2 H / F 2 Guvvct / F`fm 7 H2 Guvvct, akrkbk Mcwtim (M) > gd.b/s1

F2 F`fm, akrkbk bctrc gfrc > (b1)

Afìm lfvfy`f eièuumef, sfakt lzefgk dfz bi`cg``crkmkm akrakr`crk vc kkmec auùmeug`frgfam cpcrk k`c frpbfs simuju kcr. Dfz bi`cg``crk au frpbf mcecmky`c gfam keuvfr`frmf akr guvvct uydu`fr`fr. Au guvvct afìmu dcmk`ctkr.Dcmc``kg`c dfz afsm`fr ftbishcr afsmj k`c gfr`ftr`frfg ``r. Ftbishcrkm ycryzmcuydu`fe afsmj `bcg kkm Afribctrc gu``fm`r. Afribctrc, Uirrkjc``k tfrfhmefmdc`ktkrk`bk akr uju gfpf` yfg`fg


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6 bb jkvf ygscg`kkmc ceccr i`fm afsm 6 tirr eur. Afribctrc Df``kimum rcmjkskUirkjc``k tfrfhmefm yfp`btr vc imum gsf ksbk tirr eur. Akr dfz afsmj sv afsmjy`fgyfs`fmfrfg ei`fy` yièfm ``r. Zv afsmj (lkeristftkg afsm)7 svmm yiumùu vcsv stumumum ygscg`kkmc afèr. Gcskt f`fm F i`fm akr sk`kmekrc l ygscg`kkmc gfefr sueièurf`b. Fr`g akr guvvcttkr vc gt`c k`c eiru irfmtèr.

T2 d.b 2Gt`c , b2 X.e , X2 l.F ksc7

_2 H/F 2 T/F 2 (d.b)/F 2 (d.X.e)/F 2 (d.l.F.e)/F 2 d.l.e

rmcg> sk`kmekr akr gfptf e yiumùumef l ygscg`kkmec sv vfrgcm tfafmf afsm _ er.Gfaf yiumùu :e i`fm afgf akr svefm l/1 ygscg`kkmec k`fvc cek`krsc tfafmf yfp`fm

afsm gf _ iùr 9 ( _t 2 3/1 )

Jkvf fz auùmfm, pflf` vc zclkr`k sver, i lfèc afribctrcec su ycrkmc jkvf mkycgu``fm`bfgtfer 9 48? bbLd ygscg`kgtc jkvf stumum afsmjmf ceccr afsmjiùturfak`cjcg su stumumum ygscg`kk mc iùr 9

Ld stumumum afsmj 2 d. lLd.eLd2 d 48.? jb 6:.8 d/jb:

Zu stumumum afsmj 2 d. lsu.esu2 d lsu6.?? d/jb:

d lsu6.?? d/jb: 2 d 48.? jb 6:.8 d/jb:

lsu 2 48 (6:.8/6) 2 6.?: 6?:

Ftbishcr afsmj jkvf afribctrcsk , k`c 6 bctrcecm fz akr ygscg`kgtc ``rgcm suafribctrcsky`c gft` akr akmf ygscg`kkmc u`fr. Ay`cjc, stum ygscg`kkmkm svyiumùu k`c tcrs irfmt` ièuu dr`r.

Jkvf afribctrc`crk ftbishcr afsmjm `t lfèc ekcr dfz`frm afsmjm `bcec mfekrcmgu``fm`r. Akr dfz rmckmkm afsmjm, afribctrc rmcg f`mfrfg yfp`b bfmibctrc`cr

gu``fm`frfg ``r.

(f)Dfz afsmj afribctrc (a) Dfz afsmj afribctrc (j) Dfz afsmj afribctrcafsmjmf ckt afsmjmefm ayg afsmjmefm gg

_dfz2_afr. _dfz2_afr + _ _dfz2_afr + _( _=? ) ( _0? )

cgk` 5.1Fg uù bfmibctrc k`c dfz afsmjmm ``bcsk


31/71

Bfmibctrc jkvf kcrcm akr uju ftbishcrc fg, ekcr gi` ksc dfz gfamf af` akr S tptr. Afrvc gkìpfsjf` frfsmef 6?? gft hfrg vfrer. Bk`k afr bctcriìnkec ig gu``fm`fm akr akrkbekr.

5.1 Afskt Dfz [fsf`fr

Afsm, lfjkb, sjfg`g vc dfz bkgtfr frfsmefgk k`kgk`crc afskt dfz yfsf`frecmkr. Cm iggf`ktftkh dfz efvrfm`frm fm`fbfg fbfjy`f gu``fm`r.

5.1.6 Aiy`c [fsfs> Zfakt sjfg`gtf, sfakt bkgtfrefgk dfzm lfjbk, afsmj k`c tcrs irfmtèr.X 6/ _ X 2 g / _ _.X 2 g (sfakt akr sfy )

_6X6 2 _1X1 2 g

ecf` akr dfz kkm 7

5.1.1. Jlfr`cs vcyf Dfy-@usssfj K [fsfs > Zfakt afsmtfgk ac`kr`k akr bkgtfr dfzm lfjbkGc`vm (but`fg) sjfg` k`c irfmtèr.

U (G) 2 t (iJ) + 14:.63 , X U

Akr dfz rmckmkm I iJ ef gk lfjbk Xi i`sum. Aumf drc lcr 6 iJ frt kkm dfz, Xi/14:dcmk`cycjcgtkr. Ccr sjfg`g iJ jkmskmecm t ksc lfjbkmecgk tip`fb frt (Xi/14:).t iùr. Aumfdrc t sjfg`mefgk sim lfjkb kkm 7

X 2 Xi + (Xi/14: ).t 2 Xi(6+ t/14:) 2 (14:+t) / 14: Xi

U 2 t + 14: X 2 Xi( U / 14: ) 2 ( Xi / 14: ) .U X 2 g.U

g irfmt sfaktk dfz rmckmkm bkgtfrmf vc afsmjmf afèr. Afsm sfakt tutuùrsf, lfjkb

eiruefm but`fg sjfg`g k`c eiru eckkr.

Dfz`fr mjc sv`fr`fr vc simrf but`fg shr sjfg`mf crkcbcecm gft`fr`fr. ecf` akr dfzbi`cg``crk7 gt`csk i`fm fmjfg lfjbk i`bfyfm vc sv yfef gft lf`c dcbcycm akr dfzer. Akr


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dcrcg dfzm lfjbk, bi`cg``crkmkm gcmek lfjkb`crk eck`, dfz bi`cg``crk frfsmefgk scracstlfjkbekr.

X6/ U62 g 2 X1/ U1 2 sfakt X6/ X12 U6 / U1

5.1.: Jlfr`cs vcyf Dfy @ussfj KK. [fsfs(Fbimtims [fsfs)

Zfakt lfjkb (kzigir) ec vc sfakt bkgtfrefgk akr dfzm, afsmj k`c sjfg` irfmtèr.

(_ / U)m,v2 _ / U 2 _ / U 2 sfakt

Akr dfzm sjfg`m 6iJ frttrebz zfbfm 2 6/14:.63 gfefr frtfr.

?iJ ef lfjkb _i, t iJ ef lfjkb _

_ 2 _i+ (t/14:.63) _i 2 _i (6+t / 14:.63) 2 _i(14:.63+t) / 14:.63 2 _i / 14:.63 .U 2U. sat _ / U 2 sat

5.1.5 Fvidferi [fsfs > Zfakt sjfg`g vc afsmtf, akr dfzm lfjbk bkgtfr k`c eiru

irfmtèr.Fym sjfg`g vc afsmtf hfrg` dfz`frm ckt lfjkb`crk ckt sfyef bi`cg` kcrkr.Fym sjfg`g vc afsmtf hfrg` dfz`frm ckt sfyefgk bi`cg``crk ckt lfjkb gfp`fr.

Mirbf` giu``fref akr dfzm 11.565 `ktrcsk 8.?1165 6?1:bi`cg` yfef 6 bi` dfz kcrkr.

5.: ecf` Dfz [fsfs

[ugfrefgk yfsf`frf drc akr dfzm lfjbk, bkgtfr vc sjfg`g k`c eiru irfmt`, afsm k`c tcrsirfmtèr.X m.U / _ _.X / mU 2 sat 2 Q _.X 2 m.Q.U ecf` dfz ecmg`cbkekr.

Q kecf` dfz sfaktkmkm mirbf` giu``fref eccrk7

Q 2 6 ftb. 11.656: @ / 6 bi`. 14:.63 G 2 ?.??


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Gurfbsf` i`frfg, tb gi``frefgk efvrfm`fr _.X 2 m.Q.U ckt`kkmc uydfm dfz`frf kecf`dfz`fr ecmkr.

( _2 d.l.e 6 ftb 248 jb. 6:.8 d/ jb: . ;


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Dfz`fr tfbsfy`fr`f khfec cek`cak`cm afskt lfjkb irfm`frmef akr`cbcgtcekr. Aumf Dfy-@ussfj

akr`ccm lfjkb`cr yfsfs ecmkr.

U vc _ mkm sfakt ièuumu vfrsfyfrsfg7 au eurubef akr bi` dfz ac``k akr X lfjbkmk, gfp`fr. 1bi` dfz 1X, : bi` dfz :X lfjbkmk gfp`fr.

5.3 Dfz Gfrb`fr

ecf` dfz ecmg`cbkmc uyfm dfz`fr, afskt dfz yfsf`frmf ef uyfr`fr. Au yfsf`fr tcg tcg dfz`frfuydu`fme dkak ctgk`cbcycm dfz gfrb`frmf ef uydu`fmfak`kr`cr. Ay`c eurubef m ycrkmcmU_ ycrkmc _Ugu``fm`r.

Akr dfz gfrbmm afsmj7 gfrbm ak`ccm`crkmkm gsbk afsm`frmm tip`fbmf ckttkr.AumfEf`tim gsbk afsm`fr yfsfsecmkr.

_U2 _F+ _A+ . mU2 mF+ mA+

_F2 (mF / mF+ mA)._

Dfz gfrb`frmm ak`ckbk dcmc``kg`c lfjkb % sk i`frfg vcrk`kr.

_F mF( Q.U / XU) mF XF mF(Q.U /_U) mF

_U mU( Q.U / XU) mU XU mU(Q.U /_U) mU

_F / _U 2 mF / mU 2 XF / XU

mF / mU2 \F Fmm bi` gcsrkekr. Akr gfrb kkmecgk akr ak`ccmkm bi` gcsrk, gfrb kkmecatm bi`cg``crkmkm gcsrkekr. Akr gfrb kkmec atm bi` gcskr`crk tip`fb 6c ckttkr.

5.8 Dfz`frm Gkmctkg Gurfb

Ub dfz`frm efvrfm`frmef dz`cmcm ezcm`k`kk fg`fbfg kkm gkmctkg gurfb ecmcm akr

biec` dc`ktkrk`bktkr. Ffefgk m gfau``crk kcrkr.

Dfz bi`cg``crk dc`kk dzc` vc ecvfb` lfrcgct lf`kmecekr. Afsm i`fymf dfz bi`cg``crkmkm auùmeug`fr gfam cpcr`crkmc yfptg`fr frpbf`fr

mcecm iùr. Au frpbf`fr tfbfbcm c`fstkgkekr. Dfz`fref eg afsm`fref bi`cg``cr frfs cgkb guvvctk sz gimusu cek`cbcz. Eg afsm`fref dfz bi`cg``crkmkm gfp`feg`fr lfjkb, gfam lfjbk yfmmef klbf`

cek`cak`kr. Dfzm but`fg sjfg` dfz bi`cg``crkmkm irtf`fbf gkmctkg cmcrnk`crkmkm akr k`cvkekr. Dfz`frm irtf`fbf gkmctkg cmcrnk`crk sjfg`f afèr vc but`fg sjfg`g`f eiru

irfmtèr. Ac`kr`k akr sjfg`gtf tb dfz`frm bi`cg``crk fym irtf`fbf gkmctkg cmcrnkycsflkptkr.


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5.4 Drflfb Ekhzyim ([fy`bf) [fsfs

gk hfrg` dfzm yfy`bf lz`fr bi`cg` fr`g`frmm gfrcgg k`c tcrs irfmtèr. Dfz`frm

gkmctkg gurfb, fym sjfg`gtfgk dfz`frm fym irtf`fbf gkmctkg cmcrnkyc sflkp i`fjfmac`krtkyireu.

GCF2 GCA bFSF12 bASA1

SF1 / SA12 bA / bF

Bi`cg` gt`c`crkmkm irfm, bi`cg` fr`g`fr irfm k`c fymer.Bi`cg` lz, yfy`bf lz, yfy`bf zfbfm, bi`cg``crkm fè yi`, yfy`fm dfz bkgtfrirfm`fr bi`cg` fr`g`frmm irfmmm gfrc gg k`c irfmtèr.

5.< Dcrcg (ecf` I`bfyfm)Dfz`fr

Dfz yfsf`fr, gkmctkg gurfb k`c tfmb`fmfm kecf` akr dfzm efvrfmm fg`fr. Mirbf` giu``frf`tmef dcrcg dfz`fr kecf` dfzf yfgm efvrfmr`fr. Fmjfg eg sjfg`gtf vcyf ygscg

afsm`fref kecf` lfècm sfpbf`fr dz`cmkr. mg7

6. 6. Gkmctkg gurfb, dfz bi`cg``crk frfsmef cgkb guvvct`crkmkm i`bfem gfau` cecr.Lfàugk dfz`frm tb sv`ftr`fakèkkmecm au dkak cgkb guvvct`crk vfr i`bfèr.Bi`cg``cr frfs cgkb`cr sv lfèc bi`cg``crk akr frfef tutfr.

[gscg sjfg`g`fref dfz bi`cg``crk ig lz` lfrcgct cecr, bi`cg``cr frfs cgkbguvvct`crkmkm ctgksk ig gg gf`r. Eg sjfg`g`fref bi`cg``cr eflf yfvf lfrcgctcecr`cr vc lfjkb kecf` dfz yfsf`frmf drc acg`cmcmecm eflf fz iùr. cgkb guvvct`crkmkmvfr` mcb gfzfmr.

1. 1. Gkmctkg gurfbef kecf` dfzm lfjbk shrer. Dcrcg dfz`fref lfjkb shr i`fbfz.Afsm frtrèmef bi`cg``cr frfs aiùg fzf`r, fmfjfg bi`cg``crkm gcmek lfjbkecktkrk`cbcz.

_.X / m.Q.U 2 6 kecf` dfz kkm sgtr`fak`kr`kg hfgtr

Atm dfz`fr yctcrkmjc eg afsm`fref kecf` efvrfmr`fr, hfgft frtfm afsm`fref sfpfr`fr.[gscg afsm`fref sgtr`fak`kr`kg hfgtr 6ecm aygtr.

Dcrcg dfz`fr ygscg sjfg`g`fref vc eg afsm`fref kecf``kc yfg`fr`fr. Bi`cg``crkm zlfjkb`crkmc vc bi`cg``cr frfs guvvct`crc af` i`frfg dcrcg dfz`fr kkm ezc`tbc hfgtrgimur.


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Dfz`fr`f k`dk`k f`bf`fr, dfz lf`kmecgk bi`cg``crkm akrakr`crkmecm uzfg i`bf`fr mcecmky`c,yfgm frpbf`fr lfrk, frf`frmefgk bi`cg`cr ctgk`ckb`crkmkm dz mmc f`mbfbfsmefmei`fy afskt`cbktkr. Au yfg`fb akzc dfz`frm kecf` dfz ecmg`cbky`c tfmb`fmbfs vc dfzefvrfm`frmm gkmctkg gurfb k`c fg`fmbfsm sf`fbtr. Fbf akz bi`cg``cr frfsguvvct`crk kmjc`cycrcg, gkbk gft vc sv`frm, mkkm au zc``kg`crc sflkp ièuumu

fm`fyfak`krkz. Zv vc gft lf``cr kkm lk akr ecmg`cb trctbcycjckz. Gft`fr`f k`dk`k f`bf`fraum`frm ftib vc bi`cg``crk yfgm ièuumefm vc dcibctrkg ezcmec ycr`ctkkmecm gibubi`cg``cr k`c guvvct`k i`frfg ctgk`ctkg`crkmecm ykmc afskt`ctkrk`bktkr. Fmjfg sv`fr`f k`dk`k

afskt`ctkrbc hfgtr`crk fzer7 sv`fref bi`cg``cr frfs ctgk`ckb`cr ièugf guvvct`k iùpaum`fr ac`kr`k akr lfjkb gfp`fr`fr. Au zc``kg`crkmecm ei`fy gft`frf hfz`f dfz`frf eflf fzacmzcekg`crk sy`cmkrgcm gi`fy`g`f fgbf`fr vc auùmeug`fr gfam cg`kmk f`bf`frzc``kg`crkmecm ei`fy ef dfz`frf acmzcbcgtcekr`cr. Au yzecm sv lf`k, dfz vc gft lf`frfsmef gfau` ctbcg bfmtgèr.

3.6 Zv`fr

Zv`fr, yium`fb dfz`fr yf ef ezcmskz gft`fr i`frfg em`cak`kr`cr. Zv lf`, tfmcjkg`crfrfsmefgk cgbc vc au pfrfjg`frm gkmctkg cmcrnk`crkmc afèr. cgkb guvvct`crk, svyac`kr`k akr lfjkbec tutfr vc gkmctkg cmcrnkec pfrf`frm lfrcgct`k`kkmk sf`fr. Ei`fysy`f aulfrcgct svyf fggfm`g sf`fr. Zv`fr vc dfz`fr fggfm`g, gilczyim vc auùmeug`fr gfamcg`kmk f`bf zc``kkmk pfy`fr`fr. Zv`frm iumùu ief sjfg`mef bi`cg`cr lfècekr.

Akr efb`f sv akr yzcy aiyumjf hk`b lf`kmec yfy`rsf, au svmm yzcyk s`ftt sy`cmkr.Akr sv efb`fsmm akr yzcyk s`ftbfs yf ef yzcy zcrkmec grcsc` akkbec gf`bfs, kgk ztguvvctkm ayg`g`crkmc afèr. Aum`fr gilczyim vc feczyim guvvct`crk er. Acmzcrbi`cg``cr frfsmefgk guvvct`crc gilczyim guvvct`crkhfrg` bi`cg``cr frfsmefgk guvvct`crcksc feczyim guvvct`crk ecmkr. Gilczyim guvvct`crk afsgmsf efb`f akkbkmk girur. Feczyim

guvvct`crk sfycskmec ec yzcy s`fmr. Zuyum tcbkz`kg frfj i`frfg gu``fm`bfsmm mcecmk ecaueur. Ectcrnfm gft`frfg ksc lcb yf tcbkz`cr lcb ec yzcy dcrk`kbk er`r. [zcydcrk`kbkmkm ebcsk, efb`fmm hk`b lf`kmec yfy`bfs kkm dcrcgcm cmcrnkmkm fzf`bfsecbcgtkr. Zuyum yzcy dcrk`kbkmk ercrcg gi`fyjf yfy`bfsm sf`fyfm bfeec`crc s`ftbfbfeec`crk ecmkr.

Xksgizktc> sv`frm fgbfyf gfr dstcrekk ekrcmtkr. Fyrjf sv`frm aulfr afsm`fr efvfrer.

Zv`frm Aulfr`fbfs> Ac``k akr sjfg`gtf bi`cg``crkm lz`fr vc ei`fysy`f gkmctkgcmcrnk`crk akrakrkmc ckt eckèkr vc akz irtf`fbf eccr`crk gu``fmrz. Gkbk bi`cg``cr,

bi`cg``cr frfs cgkb guvvct`crkmk ygscg gkmctkg cmcrnk`crc sflkptkr`cr vc aum`fr svefmgurtu`fak`kr`cr. Bi`cg``crkm au cgkèc sv yzcykmecm dfz yfef aulfr lf`kmc dcbcskmcaulfr`fbfecmkr. Akr svmm aulfr`fbf ck`kbk, sjfg`g frttgf frtfr vc bi`cg``cr frttgffzf`r. Ac`kr`k akr bkgtfr svy sfakt sjfg`gtf aulfr`ftrbfg kkm vcrk`bcsk dcrcgcm sbkgtfrmfaulfr`fbf cmtf`pksk ecmkr.

Laulfr`fbf2Laulfr Lsv

Aulfr`fbf cmeitcrbkg akr i`fy ièuumefm,Laulfrlcr zfbfm pizktkhtkr. Akr dfz yfef aulfrmsvyf embcskmc yium`fbf ecmkr. [ium`fbf, aulfr`fbfmm tcrskekr. Cgzitcrbkg akri`fyer.

Lyium`fbf 2Lsv- Laulfr


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Zv k`c ekmfbkg ecmdc lf`kmec auùmfm aulfrm yfpt afsmjf aulfr afsmjecmkr. Aulfrafsmj ygscg sv`frf uuju, aulfr afsmj ygscg sv`frf ef uuju i`bfyfm sv`fr ecmkr.Akr svmm uuju iùp i`bfbfsm bi`cg``cr frfs guvvct`crkm ayg` ac`kr`cr. Auguvvct`cr fzfègf uujuùg frtfr. Aulfr afsmjmm sjfg`g`f eckkbkmk dstcrcm drfhkcaulfr afsmj crksk ecmkr. Aulfr afsmj sjfg`g`f frtfr. Zv`fr gfymfbf migtfsmf

sflkptkr`cr.

Afz sv`fr frsmef lkerincm af`fr iùur. Au af dfz hfzmef iùbfz. Zu aulfrmef,bcsfhc hfz`f ièuu kkm cgkb dj fzf`r. Zv vc gft lf`kmecgk lkerincm af subi`cg``crkmk akr frfef tutfr. Au mcecm`c su ekcr sv`frm fgskmc eimeuumef lfjbk frtfr. Zusjfg` ?iJ efm +5iJ f gtmef lkerincm af gr`r vc bi`cg``cr frfs uzfg`g fzf`r. +5iJ mkm stmec gkmctkg cmcrnk frtfr bi`cg``cr sf`r vc vksgizktc ecr. Zu bi`cg`mec

pfy`f`bfb c`cgtrim khtk zfyh pritim`fr tfrfhmefm cgk`kr. Lkerincm af`fr7 c`cgtrimcdftkhakr ftibf af` lkerincm ftibu, gibu bi`cg`m c`cgtrimcdftkh`kk eflf gg akr ftibtfrfhmefm ef c zfbfm` i`frfg cgkèkk zfbfm iùfm, bi`cg``cr frfs guvvct`crecm eflfguvvct`k akr afer. Lkerincm af iùubumef, L ftibumum givf`cmt i`frfg af`fme

ygscg c`cgtrimcdftkh`kgtcgk ftib, af c`cgtrim`frm gcmekmc eiru cgcrcg, lkerincmcgkreckmk (pritim) p`fg arfgr. C`cgtrimsuz gf`fm au pritim gibu bi`cgècgkc`cgtrimcdftkh ftibum irtfg`fmbfb akr c`cgtrim khtkmk cgcr. Lkerincm af yf`mzjf Lftibuy`f iùfak`kr., mg tb tcgk ftib`frm k gfaug c`cgtrim`fr ftib cgkrecg`crkmk

pcrec`cr. Au mcecm`c lkerincm af yf`mzjf afz lkerincm ak`ckg`crkmc fkttkr. Lkerincm ftibufym bi`cg` kkmecgk kgk fbctf` ftibu frfsmef ef gpr iùturfak`kr aumf, bi`cg` kklkerincm af ecmkr. Lkerincm af ef zkyfec, lkerincm kcrcm M, I vc H ak`ckg`crkmec iùursfef lkerincm, gibu bi`cg``crkm J` vc Z ftib`fry`f ef ig zfyh lkerincm af`fr yfpfak`kr.

3.1 Gft`fr

Gft`fr sgtr`fbfyfm, sfakt lfjkb`k vc ac`krdkm cgk``crc sflkp i`fm bfeec`crekr.

Gft ckt`crk7

6. 6. Bi`cg`cr Gft`fr > Ezdm cgk``k bi`cg`cr gft`frer. Crkbc migtf`fr egtr.C`cgtrimcdftkh`kg`crk ig hfrg` i`bfyfm c`cbcmt`crecm iùur.

1. 1. Givf`cmt Gft`fr > Givf`cmt af`frefm iùfm ayg bi`cg`` ak`ckg`crekr. Crkbcmigtf`fr ygscgtkr. Drfhkt, c`bfs.

:. :. _i`kbcr`cr > Bi`cg` fr`g`fr ygscg, fbirh bfeec`crekr. Crkbc migtf`fr

ygscgtkr.5. 5. yimkg Gft`fr > yim`frefm bcyefmf dc`cm kyimkg gft`frer. Crkbc migtf`fr

ygscgtkr.

( sieyub gìrr, afgr gìrr dkak..)

Bctf``kg Gft`fr > Bctf``cr, grkstf` yfp vc bctf` af ecmcm af`fr`f af`fmb`frer. Bctf``kgafef, ftibum eccr`kg c`cgtrim`frmm ai auùmfm iraktf``crec dczkmbcskmc kzkm vcrk`kr. Auef bctf``kg gft`frf ig kyk s vc c`cgtrkg k`ctgcm`kk sf`fr.

Ief sjfg`mef sv i`fm : bctf` vfrer. Jkvf, sczyub, df`yub, ekcr`crk gfter.


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Grkstf``crkm sjfg`g gfpfsktc`crk, Jfymcm dfz`fref ièuu dkak, 6 bi` bfeecmkm sjfg`makr ecrcjc frtrbfg kkm dcrcgcm cmcrnk bkgtfry`f tfmb`fmfak`kr.

Grkstf``cr gftbfm`fr lf`kmec ftib`frefm bcyefmf dc`bk ezdm gft`frer. Fym zfbfmefgrkstf` yfp kkmecgk afbsz ftib`fr cm yfgm gibu`fr k`c giirekmc lf`kmecekr`cr. Ccr au

gftbfm `fr zcrkmc g dmecrk`krsc, lcr gftbfmefm akr yfmsbf i`fjfgtr. [fmsyfm mfè yi`, yfmst`fm gftbfmm srfsmf af` i`frfg eckgcm`kg dstcrkr. Sydum irtfbgiu``frmef f`mfm yi` bkgtfr`fr frfsmefgk hfrg yfrb ef`df aiyu gfefr i`fjfgtr. Aumumkkm ef`df aiyu 6iF i`fm g gu``fm`bfer gk au ef \ mer.

Gft`frm Afzzc``kg`crk. > Crkbc vc eimbf migtfsmf sflkptkr`cr. Grkstf` akr gft stègfgftmm yfpsmefgk ftib`fr, kyim`fr yfef bi`cg``cr eflf keect`k tktrckr`cr. Zimumef autktrckb`crkm grkstf` yfpsm aizfjf akr sjfg`f u`f`r7 ftib`fr, kyim`fr yfef bi`cg``cr

akrakrkmkm zcrkmecm gfyfr7 gft ac``k akkbkmk gfyacecr vc svyf emr. Au i`fyf crkbc vccrkbcmkm iùtuu sjfg` ef crkbc migtfs ecmkr. crkbcmkm tcrskmc, akr svmm gftyfembcskmc eimbf, eimbfmm ièuu sjfg` ef eimbf migtfs ecmkr. akr gftmm crkbc

migtfs k`c eimbf migtfs fymer. Akr gftmm crkbcsk kkm dcrcgcm s bkgtfrmf crkbccmtf`pkskecmkr.

Bi`cg``cr frfs guvvct`crkm eflf ayg ièuu gft`fr, sv`fr `smec i`bfsf ef aulfriùturfak`kr`cr. Bi`cg``crkm gft lfècm eiruefm aulfr lf`kmc dcbcskmc sa`b`cbcecmkr. sa`b`cbcmkm tcrskmc, bi`cg`m aulfr lfècm gft lf`c dcbcskmc grf`fbfecmkr.

Gft, sv vc dfz`frm (aulfr) tcg hfz yfef akrkakrky`c ecmdcec akrecm ig hfzef auùmeuuafsm vc sjfg`g`frm drfhkg`c dstcrkbkmc hfz ekyfdrfb ecmkr. ekyfdrfbef kzdk`crfrfsmefgk f`fm`fr tcg hfz`frf7 f`fm`fr fyrfm kzdk`cr ksc au f`fm`frm tcbsk` cttkk hfz`frm

ecmdc gimubumf gfr`g dc`kr.

A@B 8. ^C@U@CQ vc ^C@@G@CQ

zc`tk`cr kgk vcyf eflf hfz`f bfeecmkm akr`cbcsk k`c iùfm libincm gfrb`frer. Akrzc`tkec hfz`f bkgtfref auùmfm ak`ccmc zj, ekcrkmc zmcm ecmkr.zmr`g> akr bfeecmkm akr zjec ac`kr`k akr sjfg`g vc afsmtf zmcm bfgskbubbkgtfrmf i bfeecmkm zmr` ecmkr. zmr` pi`frktc, sjfg`g vc afsm ctgk`cr.


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C`bfs dkak f rd` grkstf``crec ftib`fr givf`cmt af`fr`f akrakrkmc af`fmemefm lkakrzjec zmbcz`cr.

_i`fr sv`fr akrig kyimkg ak`ckg`cr kkm zj k`cvkmc sflkptkr`cr. zmcm kyim`fr, pi`frzj bi`cg``crk tfrfhmefm c`cgtristftkg i`frfg cgk`kr. yim-ekpi` cgkb guvvct`crk

ièugf guvvct`kekr. yim`fr su bi`cg``crk k`c cvrk`krsc au i`fyf lkerft`fbfecmkr. akr yfefeflf hfz`f lkerincm af iùur, cmcrnk ff gfr.

Bctf``crkm givf`cmt ak`ckg`crkmkm iu suù zc`tkec lkerft`fmb kyim`fr iùturur`fr.

Af iùbfsy`f efkbf cmcrnk ff gfr. Akr afm gipfr`fak`bcsk kkm efkbf cmcrnkdcrcg`kekr. Lkerft`fmb kyim`frm, dfz lf`kmecgk kyim`frefm iùtuu vfrsfy`fm gurfbsf` akri`fyef, efryf vcrk`cm cmcrnkyc lkerfsyim ssecmkr. ygscg ecrcjc`k lkerfsyim sfecjc igscyrc`tkg zc`tkec iùur. Lkerfsyim ssmm eccrk, lkerft`fmbfy iùturfm kyim`fr vc subi`cg``crk rfsmefgk cgkb guvvctkmkm akr dstcrdcskekr. Zuù tuz zc`tk`crkmkm

aulfr`ftr`bfsy`f cèc cek`cm grkstf` bfeec`cr dcmc``kg`c lkerftkzc kyim`fr kcrkr.

8.: zmbc Kss

Akr bfeecmkm lcrlfmdk akr zjec zmbcsk srfsmefgk cmtf`pk eckkbkmc zmbc ssecmkr. zmcm bfeecmkm bi` afmf gN i`frfg vcrk`kr. zmbc ss simsuz scyrc`tkg akrzc`tkmkm lfzr`fmbfsy`f cèc cek`cm s i`frfg em`cak`kr. Akr zc`tkmkm lfzr`fmbfssrfsmef suefm afgf akr zj gu``fm`rsf lkerftfsyim ss ycrkmc si`vftfsyim ss tcrkbkgu``fm`r.

8.5 Dfz`frm zmrÀc``k akr sjfg`gtf, akr dfzm akr svefgk zmr` sv stmecgk dfzm gsbk afsmj k`cirfmtèr. AumfLcmrry [fsfsecmkr.

j 2 g._ _2 gsbk afsm, g 2 sfakt , j 2 zmr`g

Lcmrryyfsfs afsm frtgf zmr`g frtfr.

8.3 zc`tk`crkm Gimsfmtrfsyimu

Akr zc`tk kkmecgk zmcm bfeec bkgtfrmf, zc`tkmkm gimsfmtrfsyimu ecmkr vczc`tk`crecgk % ak`ckb, bi`frktc, bi`f`ktc, `b`crk yfp`r.


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% Ak`ckb F 2 (Fmm fr` / zc`tk bkgtfr ) 6??

% Lfjkb 2 (Fmm lfjbk / zc`tk lfjbk ) 6??

Bi`frktc (B) 2 6 `ktrc zc`tkec zmb i`fm bfeecmkm bi` sfyser.

B 2 j 2 (b / Bw) / X 2 m / X

Bi`f`ktc (b) 2 6 gkìdrfb zj kkmec zmbi`frfg auùmfm bfeecmkm bi`sfyser.

Bi`f`ktc (b) 2 (d / Bw) / 6??? dr.

Mirbf`ktc ( M ) 2 6 `ktrc zc`tkec zmbi`fm bfeecmkm ceccr sfysmf mirbf`ktcecmkr.

8.8 zc`tk`crkm Zcyrc`tk`bcsk

Lfzr zc`tkyc stig zc`tk ecmkr. Ac`kr`k akr gimsfmtrfsyimef, ac`kr`k akr lfjkbecgk stigzc`tkyk f`p eflf scyrc`tkg akr zc`tk lfzr`fbfg kstkyirsfg, lcr kgk zc`tkecgk bi` sfyseckbcycjcgtkr. Aumf drc ffefgk hirbècm sim zc`tk lfjbk ac`kr`cmcrcg scyrc`tbck`cbk dcrcg`ctkrk`kr.

X > zc`tk lfjbk , j> bi`frktc , m > zmcm bfeecmkm bi` sfys

m 2 j X ksc , jk`g

Xk`g

2 jsim

Xsim

8.4 zc`tk`crkm Aulfr Afsm`fr ( Qfu`t [fsfs )

Ac``k akr sjfg`gtf sfh uuju akr zjmm aulfr afsmj (_i), scyrc`tkg zc`tkmkm aulfrafsmj (_) ecm aygtr. (_i-_) aulfr afsmj fzf`bfs, zmcm bfeecmkm zc`tkecgk gsbkbi`fr gimsfmtrfsyimu k`c irfmtèr. Aumf Qfu`t [fsfs ecmkr.

m62 zjmm bi` sfys BF62 zjmm bi` fr`m12 zmcmkm bi` sfys BF12 zmcmkm bi` fr`

_i2 Zfh zjmm aulfr afsmj, _2 Zcyrc`tkg zc`tkmkm aulfr afsmj


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_i _ 2 _ Afsm fzf`bfsm `bcg zir ièuu kkm ca`yisgipk vc grkyisgipk ymtcbk k`cbi`cg` fr` tfykm cek`kr. Akr scyrc`tkg zc`tkmkm aulfr afsmj, sfh zjmmgkmecm eflfgg ièuumefm, ac``k akr afsmtf, zc`tkmkm gfymfbf migtfs, zjmmgkmecm eflfygscgtkr.Ug2 Zfakt afsmtf c`cgtri`ktkg i`bfyfm akr zc`tkmkm gfymfbf migtfs

ygsc`bcskekr.Ue2 Zfakt afsmtf c`cgtri`ktkg i`bfyfm akr zc`tkmkm eimbf migtfs f`f`bfser.

Ug2 Gg b Ue2 Ge b Gg, Ge > Irfmt sfakt`crk ,b > zmcmkm bi`f`ktcsk

B 2 Gg. d. 6??? / Ug.D d > zmcmkm bfeecmkm drfbD > zjmm drfb

B 2 Ge. d. 6??? / Ue.D B > Bi`cg` fr`

8.< Isbftkg Afsm

zmb tfmcjkg`crecm ei`fy gimsfmtrfsyimf af` zc`tkmkm zc``kg`crkmc gi``kdftkh yfefsfysf` zc``kg`cr ecmkr. uuju i`bfyfm bfeec`cr kkm au zc``kg`cr, aulfr afsmj ebcsk,eimbf migtfs f`f`bfs, gfymfbf migtfs ygsc`bcsk vc isbftkg afsmtr. Afz bi`cg` vckyim`frm dcbcskmc kzkm vcrekk lfèc afz`frmm dcbcskmc kzkm vcrbcycm zfrfyfrdckrdcm

zfr (bcbarfm) ecmkr. Isbftkg dckk eureurbfg kkm zc`tkyc uydu`fmbfs dcrcgcm afsmjfzc`tkmkm isbftkg afsmjecmkr. isbftkg afsmtf akr tfmcjkg zc``kkekr. mg au afsmjm

ayg` yf`mzjf zc`tkmkm akrkb lfjbkmec zmb i`fm zmcmkm tfmcjkg sfysmfafèr. [fmk, zmcmkm jkmskmc af` eckèkr.

2 ( m / X )QU 2 j.QU > Isbftkg afsm , Q > ?.?? Bi`frktc , U > Gc`vkm sjfg`

Uuzù suefm sfh su cèc cek`bcskmec dck tcrs ymec ièuu kkm au i`fyf tcrs isbiz ecmkr.

8.; C`cgtri`ktkg zc`tk`crcgcr dkak zc`tkec tfbfbcm bi`cg`cr lfèc gf`fm vc au mcecm`c ec zjmm k`ctgcm`kkmkfrtrbfyfm givf`cmt zmcm bfeec`crc c`cgtri`ktkg i`bfyfm bfeec`cr ecmkr. C`cgtri`kt`crzfyh vc guvvct`k c`cgtri`kt`cr i`bfg zcrc kgkyc fyr`r`fr. Zuù zc`tkec tfbfbcm kyim`ffmbfeec`cr guvvct`k c`cgtri`kttkr. ^fyh, c`cgtri`kt`cr ksc pi`fr givf`cmt ak`ckg`cr iùp, suùzc`tkec tfb i`frfg fyrbfz`fr. Gfymfbf vc eimbf migtf`frmefgk eckbc`cr

gimsfmtrfsyimf afèr. yim`fr frfs cgkb`cr, zc`tk`crkm kyim ecrkkb`crkmkm dcrcgecrkkb`crkmecm eflf ggb dkak efvrfmbf`frmf mcecm iùr.

A@B 4. UCQBIGB[F

Ucrbigkbyf, gkbyfsf` tcpgkbc`crec s f`vcrkkmk kmjc`cr. Ac`kr`k giu``fref ac`kr`k akrgkbyfsf` tcpgkbcmkm gurfbsf` i`frfg iùup iùbfyfjfm mjcecm tflbkm ctbcbkzksf`fr. Ucrbigkbyf, tcrbiekmfbkkm 6. yfsfsmm gkbyfsf` priscs`crc uydu`fmbfser. (tcrbiekmfbkkm 6. yfsfs cmcrnkmkm girumubu yfsfser.)

4.6 Ucrbigkbyfef Afz Ucrkb`cr


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Cvrcmkm kmjc`cmbcg zcrc sck`cm a`bmc skstcb, cvrcmkm skstcb emef gf`fm vc skstcb`ck`kgkec i`fm gsbmf cvrcecmkr. Fg, gfpf` vc yf`t`b i`frfg ckt skstcb vfrer. Fg

skstcb, skstcb`c cvrcsk lcb bfeec, lcb ec cmcrnk f`vcrkk i`fser. Akr aclcrecgk sjfggflvc cvrcskmc s vcrkr vc siur. Bfeec dckk su aulfr cg`kmec iùr. Gfpf` skstcb,skstcb`c cvrcsk frfsmef cmcrnk f`vcrkk bbgm, bfeec f`vcrkk bbgm eckèkr. Fz

gfpf` akr cr`cmec cvrcskmc s vcrkr vc siur. cvrcyc su aulfr dckk bbgm eckèkr.[f`t`bskstcb,skstcb`c cvrcsk frfsmef mc cmcrnk, mc ec bfeec f`vcrkk vfrer. Gfpf` akrgfptf iùturu`fm rcfgskyimef dfz iùursf, gfam kkmecgk afsm iùur. Ftbishcrc fgrcfgskyim`fref afsm sfakttkr. Zfakt afsm f`tmef dcrcg`ctkrk`cm rcfgskyim`fref ff gfmvcyf f`mfm syf cmtf`pk ecmkr vc L k`c dstcrk`kr. Lcr sfh bfeecmkm akr cmtf`pksk vfrer vc

aumf sgfpsfb ef ecmkr.Cmcrnk f`vcrk`crk, s (q) cg`kmec yfef lcpskmc akrecm k (w) fe vcrk`cm afgf cgk``creci`fak`kr. Ks vc k cg`kmec bcyefmf dc`cm cmcrnk f`vcrkk, skstcbkm k cmcrnksk (C) ecmcmtip`fb cmcrnkmkm bkgtfrm ecktkrkr. cmcrnkmkm zc``kg`c zcrkmec eurfjfbz ak`ccm`crk,dc`kk dzc` bi`cg` lfrcgct`crkmecm gfymfg`fmfm ssf` (tcrbf`) cmcrnkvc gkbyfsf` af`fr vcbi`cg``cr frfs guvvct`crecm gfymfg`fmfm gkbyfsf` cmcrnkekr.

Cmcrnk, k yfpfak`bc gfpfsktcskekr. Bcgfmkg cmcrnk, gkbyfsf` cmcrnk, s cmcrnksk, bfdmctkgcmcrnk, mg`ccr cmcrnk dkak tr`crk vfrer. Cmcrnkmkm akrakrkmc emcak`cm kgk tcbc` lf`k gkmctkgvc pitfmskyc` cmcrnkekr. _itfmskyc` cmcrnk, akr jksbkm eurub cmcrnksk iùp, gt`csc`, c`cgtrkgsc`,vcyf bfdmctkg f`fm kkmecgk eurubf drc gfzfm`fm akr cmcrnk trer.

Cp 2 H.l 2 b.d.l

Gkmctkg cmcrnk ,akr jksbkm lfrcgct lf`kmec auùmbfs mcecmky`c sflkp ièuu cmcrnkekr.

Cg 2 .bX1

Cmcrnk girumeuumf drc s kc, k syf emr. Aumf ceccr`kg prcmskak ecmkr.

cmcrnk 7 akr skstcbkm i`fs tb cmcrnk cgk``crkmk kcrcm vc C k`c dstcrk`cm akr k cmcrnkycsflkp ièuu vfrsfy`r. Akr skstcbkm k cmcrnksk i skstcbk iùturfm ftib`fr, bi`cg``cr,kyim`fr vc ftib f`t tfmcjkg`cr frfsmefgk ktbc vc cgbc guvvct`crk k`c tb skstcb pfrf`frmmgkmctkg cmcrnk`crkmk kcrkr. Akr skstcbkm k cmcrnksk, skstcbkm lf`kmc af` iùp, skstcbkm au lf`cmfs` u`ftmf af` eckèkr. Au mcecm`c k cmcrnk akr tr lf` himgskyimueur.

7 akr guvvctkm ctgksk k`c skstcb vcyf jksbkm lfrcgct cttkrk`kyirsf akrk yfp`b iùr.Gkbyfsf` tcpgkbc`crec k afsm-lfjkb kkekr. Au k dfz`frm dcm`cbcskmec vc

sgtr`bfsmef dr`r. Dcm`ccm akr dfz b gt`c`k akr jksbk l bcsfhcsk gfefr gfèremefakr k yfpfr. Dfzm lfjbkmecgk frt X er.

Ks 7 sjfg`g hfrgmefm k`crk dc`cm cmcrnk f`vcrkkekr. Ks yfm`zjf skstcbkm smr`frmefmcvrcyc fgtfr`fm cmcrnk akkbkekr. Akr bfeecmkm sjfg`m ecktkrbcg kkm dcrcg`k s bkgtfr(q) ,Zjfg`m mc gfefr ecktkrk`cjckmc,Bfeecmkm bkgtfrmf,Bfeecmkm mktc`kkmc (ftib yfef bi`cg` trmc) afèr.Akr drfb suyum sjfg`m akr ecrcjc sfmtkdrft ygsc`tbcg kkm dcrcg`k s bkgtfrmf 6 gfìrk(gf`) ecmkr.

Akr bfeecmkm ac`kr`k akr gt`cskmkm sjfg`m 6 iJ ygsc`tbcg kkm dcrcg`k i`fm s bkgtfrmf ibfeecmkm s gfpfsktcsk ( J ) ecmkr.


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J 2 gt`c zd` s , q 2 J ( t1 t6 )

Akr bfeecmkm 6 drfbmm sjfg`m 6 iJ ygsc`tbcg kkm dcrcg`k i`fm syf zd` secmkr.zd` s fs`mef akr irfmer. [fmk, akr bfeecmkm gt`cskmkm sjfg`m ecktkrbcg kkm

dcrcg`k s bkgtfrmm, fym gt`cec suyum sjfg`m fym bkgtfr ecktkrbcg kkm dcrcg`k sbkgtfrmf irfmer vc irfm ièuu kkmec akrkbskzekr.

Ksvckgksk 7

C 2 q T

C skstcbkm k`g vc sim lf``crkmc af` iùp, akrkmjk lfècm kgkmjk lf`c mfs` dctkkmc afèckèkr. Xcrk`cm s q vc f`mfm k T ksc aum`fr embcmkm mfs` yfpèmf afèr. [i`f

af` eckèkr. Zkstcbkm cvrcecm fè s (+q) , skstcbkm cvrcyc vcrekk s (-q) , skstcbkmef gfr yfpt k +T vc skstcbkm etfm fè k k`c khfec cek`kr.

4.1 Ucrbigkbyfmm Gfmum`fr

Akr rcfgskyimef ff gfm s, tcrs rcfgskyimef fasirac cek`cm s bkgtfrmf ckttkr.Lcss [fsfs > Ucpgkbc kstcr akr, kstcr akrgf afsfbfgtf dcrcg`cbk i`sum, lcrlfmdk akrgkbyfsf` tcpgkbcecgk cmtf`pk eckkbkmkm sfakttkr. Ucg tcg yfef gfecbc`crkm cmtf`pkeckkb`crk tip`fmr.

4.: Ucpgkbc Ks`fr vc ``bcsk

Zfakt sjfg`g vc afsmtf yrycm akr gkbyfsf` tcpgkbcec skstcb k`c cvrcsk frfsmef f`mpvcrk`cm s bkgtfrmf tcpgkbc ssecmkr. Ucpgkbc s`fr, ecmcysc` i`frfg, gfìrkbctrc ecmcmvc s bkgtfrm `cm f`ct`cr`c ac`kr`cmkr. Au k`cb`cr yf`t`b akr skstcbec dcrcg`ctkrk`krsc,

yfmk cvrcsk k`c bfeec vc cmcrnk f`vcrkkmec auùmbfzsf, tcpgkbc ssf` cmcrnkskmec eckbcbcyefmf dctkrkr vc sjfg`g frtfr yfef fzf`r. Zjfg`g eckkbkmk tcrbibctrc k`c `crkz.Gfìrkbctrc aibafs yfmbf tcpgkbc`crkmec ff gfm sy `cm, kht jkefr` jcgct kkmec

auùmfm, tcrbibctrc, gfrtrj kcrcm yf`t`b akr skstcbekr. [f`t`b akr skstcbec sjfg`gfrtmf mcecm i`fm yfef yf`t`bfb akr skstcbec cvrcyc s vcrcm akr tcpgkbcyc cgzitcrbkgtcpgkbc (qtcp.0?) ecmkr. [f`t`b akr skstcbec, sjfg`m fzf`bfsmf mcecm i`fm yfefyf`t`bfb akr skstcbec cvrcecm s f`fm akr tcpgkbcyc cmeitcrbkg tcpgkbc (qtcp.=?) ecmkr.

4.5 Ucrbiekmfbkkm Akrkmjk [fsfs

Ucrbiekmfbkg7 akr skstcbec bcyefmf dc`cm gkbyfsf` vcyf hkzkgsc` emb`crec, cmcrnkmkm

akr trecm afgf akr trc emb bkgtfr`frm ezcm`cycm gfmum vc afmt`fr kmjc`cycm akrak`kb efèr. Ucrbiekmfbkkm 6. gfmumu cmcrnkmkm girumubueur. Cmcrnk vfrefm yig, yigtfm


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vfr cek`cbcz. vc s akrcr cmcrnk cg`kekr. Cmcrnk akr cgkècm ekcr akr cg`c emtr`cak`kr.Au yfsfyf drc cvrcmkm cmcrnksk sfakttkr.

4.3 Cmtf`pk Eckkbk

L cmtf`pk eckkbkmk dstcrkr.

L 2 C + _.X Ccr sfakt afsm f`tmef skstcbc s vcrk`krsc, skstcbkm cmtf`pk frt fasiraccttkk syf ckttkr.L 2 C + _.X 2 C + mQU 7m > dfz hfzmefgk rm`crkm bi` sfys dfz hfzmefgk rcfgskyimf dkrcm`crkm

bi` sfysQ > ecf` dfz sfaktk ( akrkbk L vc C k`c fym i`fjfg cgkèc sck`kr.)

4.8 Ztfmefrt Iùub Cmtf`pk`crk

Akr bfeecmkm stfmefrt lf`k 6 ftbishcr afsm f`tmef vc 13 iJ ef gfrfr` ièuu lfèkr. Li

skbdcsk stfmefrt cmtf`pk eckkbkmk dstcrkr. Ztfmefrt iùub cmtf`pksk Lih, stfmefrt lfèc 6bi` ak`ckkm stfmefrt lfècgk c`cbcmt`crkmecm iùbfsmf k`kgkm tcpgkbcmkm cmtf`pkeckkbkekr.Li 2 Lih (rm`cr) - Lih (tcpgkbcyc dkrcm`cr)Iùub s`fr, bi` afmf gkì niu`c i`frfg vcrk`kr. Akr c`cbcmtkm iùub cmtf`pksk shrer.

4.4 [fmbf Kss vc Cmtf`pksk

[fmbf ss akr jksbkm igskncm k`c tfbfbcm yfmbfsmef bcyefmf dc`cm ser. [fmbf ss

eflf ig irdfmkg bfeec`cr kkm tfmb`fmr.rmcg > 6


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bfgskbub kk gf`irk, `ktrc .ftb. vc niu`c jkmskmecm lcsfp`fymz.

T 2 mQU `m X1 / X6 gf`.2 -316? niu`c2 -36.4 `t. ftb.

:.

drfb acmzcmkm gfymfbf migtfs


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Qcfgskyim lz> Akr rcfgskyimef akrkb lfjkbec vc akrkb zfbfmef embcyc urfyfmbfeecmkm bi` sfyser.

Gimsfmtrfsyimum zfbfm`f eckbcsk7

j / t , ej / et rcfgskyimf dkrcmkm ecrkkbk zfbfm`f y`c eckkr7

[ugfrefgk rcfgskyimef gimsfmtrfsyim eckkb`crkmk y`c yfzfak`krkz .

- eJF / et 7 F ecrkkbkmkm zfbfm`f fzf`bfs , F bfeecsk rcfgskyimf dkrkp zfbfm`f fzfèkkm afmf cgsk kfrctk gimuùr.

eJA/ et 7 A bfeecskmkm zfbfm`f iùbfs , eJJ/ et 7 J bfeecskmkm zfbfm`f iùbfs

Qcfgskyim lz, ecmg`cbkm stigkyibctrkskmc yfmk gftsfy`frf afèr.

-eJF/ et 2 1 eJA/ et 2 1 eJJ/ et er.

-eJ / et 2 h (JF, JA , Jj, ) Lcrlfmdk akr rcfgskyimum lz, lcr akr trm gimsfmtrfsyimumfafèr.Lcr gkbyfsf` tcpgkbc kkm rcfgskyimf dkrcm bfeec gimsfmtrfsyim`frm tcpgkbc lzmf

af`fyfm lz ckt`kk ecmk`cm bftcbftkgsc` akr khfec vfrer.Bcrtcac >Akr tcpgkbcmkm bcrtcacsk, lz ckt`kkmecgk ecrkkb tcrkb`crkmkm st`crkmkm tip`fbk`c vcrk`kr. Akr tcpgkbcmkm lz ckt`kk vc ei`fysy`f bcrtcacsk ecmcysc` i`frfg tfykmcek`bcgtcekr. Aum`fr, tcpgkbcmkm gkbyfsf` rcfgskyim ecmg`cbkmecm (gftsfy`frmefm)gfrt`fbfz`fr.

Au lz khfecsk rcfgskyim lzmm M1I3gimsfmtrfsyimu k`c eiruefm irfmt` ièuumu dstcrkr.Ccr gimsfmtrfsyim kgk gftmf gfr`rsf lz ef kgk gftmf gfr. Irfmt sfaktk g, lz sfaktki`frfg kskb`cmekrk`kr. Lz ckt`kkmkm cg`k vc g mm eccrk ecmcysc` i`frfg tfykm cek`kr. g mm

sfysf` eccrk sjfg`f vc lzm khfec cekèkk tcrkb`crc afèr.


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MI1ecrkkbk kgk gftmf gfr`rsf rcfgskyim lz ef kgk gftmf gfr. Ccr rcfgskyimf dkrcm lcrkgk bfeecmkm ecrkkbk ec fym fmef kgk gftmf gfr`rsf rcfgskyim lz ert gftmf gfr.

MI gimsfmtrfsyimu kgk gftmf gfrsf lz ert gftmf, L1gimsfmtrfsyimu kgk gftmf gfrsf lzkgk gftmf, lcr kgksk akrecm kgk gftmf gfrsf lz scgkz gft frtfr.

-ej /et 2 g. jFg jAg jj ay`c akr lz ecmg`cbk yfz`e zfbfm au rcfgskyim F yf drc. bcrtcacecmekr.Uip`fb bcrtcac > + + er.

r 2 -eJF/ et 2 g. JFm m> rcfgskyim bcrtcacsk, r> rcfgskyim lz

Ucg akr afsfbfgtf vc tcg ctgk k`c yrycm tcpgkbc`crc c`cbcmtcr ( cm afskt ) tcpgkbcecmkr.


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Ctgkm akr frpbf kkm dcrcg`k i`fm cmcrnk dck lf` gurfb k`c akrfz hfrg` cgkèc fg`fmr.

Fgtkh Gibp`cgs

Fgtkh gibp`cgs kzi`c cek`cbcz, yf`mzjf akr fm kkm vfr i`fm ftib`frm gfrfrsz akrezcm`cmbcskmecm kafrcttkr. Aumfdcklf`kecmkr. ygscg pitfmskyc` cmcrnk`k akr lfèkr.

Fgtkvfsyim cmcrnksk7 rcfgskyimf dkrcm bfeec`cr k`c rm`cr frsmef akr pitfmskyc` cmcrnkcmdc`kekr. Ctgkm akr frpbfef lz` lfrcgct cecm F1vc A1 bi`cg``crkmkm gkmctkg cmcrnk`crkmkm

akr gsb ygscg cmcrnk`k akr fgtkh gibp`cgs iùubu kkm dcrcg`k i`fm fgtkh`cbc cmcrnksk kkmlfrjfmr.

A@B ; GB[FZF@ ECMDC

[ugfrefgk gurfbsf` tcrskmkr akr rcfgskyim emc`kb. Au ckt`kc drc F1 vc A1gfrb`frmefm FA cèc cekèkk dkak sfh akr FA ak`ckk ec F1 vc A1 vcrbcg zcrc

aizumfak`kr.

F1 vc A1 gfrb`frmm akr rcfgskyim gfamf ycr`ctkrkèkkmk emc`kb. Sydum tcpgkbcgiu``frmef F1 vc A1 , FA rmm vcrbcg zcrc rcfgskyimf dkrcr vc ecrkkb`crk zfbfm`ffzf`r. Qcfgskyim srcskmjc F1 vc A1 gimsfmtrfsyim`fr fzfè kkm k`crkyc eiru i`fmrcfgskyim lz ef fzf`r.


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Ecmcy,km af`fmdjmef FA auùmbfe kkm dcrkyc eiru i`fm tcpgkbc (tcrs tcpgkbc)iùfbfz. Fmjfg, k`crkyc eiru i`fm tcpgkbc k`c akrfz FA iùumjf dcrkyc eiru i`fm tcpgkbc

af`fr. Dcrkyc eiru i`fm rcfgskyim mjc yfvf iùp (FA mkm gimsfmtrfsyimu eg

ièuumefm) zfbfm`f lz`fmr. ^fbfm k`cr`cekgc, k`crkyc i`fm rcfgskyim lzmm fzf`bfs vcaumf gfr`g dcrkyc eiru i`fm rcfgskyim lzmm frtbfs , lz`fr akrakrkmc ckt iùmjfyf gfefrecvfb cecr.

Ecmdcec, rcfgskyimef ycr f`fm tb bfeec`crkm gimsfmtrfsyim`fr sfakttkr. [fmk7

FAmkm iùbf lz 2 FAmkm aizumbf lz

FAmkm gimsfmtrfsyimumef eckbc i`bfz.

F1 vc A1mkm rmc embc lz 2 F1 vc A1mkm tcgrfr iùbf lz

F1 vc A1mkm gimsfmtrfsyimumef ef eckbc i`bfz.

Aurfef tb ctgcm`crkm eureuru`bfs k`c eck` k`crkyc vc dcrkyc eiru i`fm tcpgkbc lz`frmmckt i`bfs mcecmky`c gimsfmtrfsyim`frm sfakt ièuumf ekggft cek`bc`kekr.

lzh2 ghF1A1, lzr2 gr FA1

Ecmdcec, lzh 2 lzr

ghF1A1 2 gr FA1


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Aurfyf gfefr yfptbz k`cb`crec, k`crk vc dcrk rcfgskyim`frm tcg afsfbfgtf yrycmbcgfmkzbf`fr ièuumu gfau` cttkg. Akrecm hfz`f afsfbfg kcrcm bcgfmkzbf`fr`f iùfmrcfgskyim`fr kkm ec gkbyfsf` ecmdc gfmumu dccr`kekr. Aumu fg`fbfg kkm akr rmcgyfpf`b.

Fmjfg au yugfrefgk rcfgskyimum kgk afsfbfg kcrcm akr bcgfmkzbf k`c iùtuusfm`bfgtfer.

Zimu > G 2 G6G1 er.;.6 Ecmdc Zfakt`crk

Ecmdc sfaktk Gmm sfysf` eccrk ac`kr`k sjfg`gtf ecmcysc` i`frfg tfykm cek`bc`kekr. Ecmdcsfaktkmkm sfysf` eccrkmkm ayg` ecmdc gimubumu ac`kr`cycm mcb`k akr gfmttr.rmckm7

[ugfrefgk G eccrk ig ayg7 aumu y`c yirub`fyfak`krkz.


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;.1 Lctcrincm Ecmdc`cr

gk yfef eflf hfz`f hfzef au`umfm bfeec`cr frfsmefgk ecmdc`crc lctcrincm ecmdc`cr ecmkr.Zfakt sjfg`g vc afsmtf sfh gft vc sfh sv`frm ecrkkb`crk sfakttkr. Au mcecm`c lcrlfmdk akrlctcrincm ecmdcec, tcpgkbc skstcbkmec ycr f`fm sfh gft yfef sfh sv`frm ecrkkb ecmdc`crk Geccrkmc gft`r vc au bfeec`crkm ecrkkb tcrkb`crk ecmdc sfaktk khfecskmec dzgbcz.

Ac`kr`k akr sjfg`gtf gft gfrbm zcrkmecgk JI1dfzmm ecmdc ecrkkbk sfakttkr.

;.: Afsm`fr Jkmskmecm hfec cek`cm Ecmdc Zfakt`crk

Akr dfzm gsbk afsmj i dfzm ecrkkbkmkm akr `s i`euumefm dfz`fr kcrcm tcpgkbc`crcfkt ecmdc sfakt`crk, tcpgkbcec ycr f`fm dfz`frm gsbk afsm`fr jkmskmecm khfec cek`cak`kr. Autr ecmdc sfakt`crk Gp k`c dstcrk`kr.


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Au tcpgkbcyc k`kgkm Gp k`c ecrkkb`cr jkmskmecm yfz`fm ecmdc sfaktk frfsmef akr k`kgk vfrer.

Dfz`frm kecf` efvrfmem, ekcr akr ecyk`c kecf` dfz yfsfsmf uyeug`frm vfrsfyfrsfg >

_X 2 mQU ksc _ 2 (m/X) QU

m / X 2 gimsfmtrfsyim ièuumefm , F dfz kkm _F2 F QU

( _F)f 2 F f(QU)f

yfz`fak`kr. Au cgkèc, rcfgskyim skstcbkmec ycr f`fm ekcr dfz`fr kkmec yfz`fm acmzcrckt`kg`cr Gp khfecskmec ycrkmc yfz`rsf 7

;.5 Ecmdcyk Ctgk`cycm Hfgtr`cr

Ecmdc lf`kmecgk akr rcfgskyim, efrefm akr ctgk i`bfegf gimubumu girur. Au ctgkgimsfmtrfsyim, sjfg`g vc afsm i`fak`kr. Au ctgk`crkm lcrlfmdk akrk sz gimusu iùrsfecmdcecgk skstcbkm mfs` lfrcgct cecjckmk @c Jlftc`kcr ctgksk sfycskmec tflbkm cecak`krkz.@c Jlftc`kcrgcsk> Ecmdcecgk akr skstcbc akr ctgk yfp`mjf skstcb i cgkèc lfrcgct cecr gk ictgk fzf`sm vcyf yig i`sum. [f`mz gftf`kzr zc` akr eurub dstcrkr. Ecmdcecgk akr skstcbc

gftf`kzrm ctgksk yigtur. Eflf eirusu gftf`kzrm ctgksk sfecjc ecmdcyc faug u`f`bfsmsf`fr. Ecmdc gimubu ksc gftf`kzr tfrfhmefm ecktkrk`cbcz.


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;.5.6 Zjfg`g Ctgksk

Gkbyfsf` rcfgskyim`fr, cgzitcrbkg (L, cgsk eccr ) vc cmeitcrbkg (L, frt eccr ) i`frfgkgkyc fyr`r.

[ugfrefgk rcfgskyimum dcrkyc dktbcsk kkm s vcrk`bc`kekr. Ecmdc lf`kmecgk au skstcbsiutuùrsf ML:iùubu frtfr. mg, au efryf s vcrkr vc siutbf ctgkskmk yig ctbcgkkm f`r.Zjfg`g ecktkrkèkk zfbfm, ecmdc sfaktkmkm sfysf` eccrk ec eckkr. Zjfg`g frtgf ecmdcsfaktkmkm sfysf` eccrk ec frtfr.

;.5.1 Gimsfmtrfsyim Ctgksk

Dkrcm`crkm gimsfmtrfsyimu frtr`rsf ecmdc ML: iùubumf eiru gfyfr. mg,gimsfmtrfsyim hfz`f`` ctgkskmk yig cekjk ymec dc`kkr.

;.5.: Afsmjm Ctgksk

Eif` i`frfg ert dfz bi`cg`mm iùturfjf afsm, sfakt lfjkbec kgk dfz bi`cg`mmiùturfjf afsmtfm ayg iùr. Au mcecm`c, au ecmdc gfrbmm afsmj frtr`rsf ecmdcsff gfyfr. Eflf fz afsmjm ièuu ymc gfyfr gk afsm ctgkskmk yig ctskm. m 2 ? i`fmrcfgskyim`fref afsm eckkb`crk ecmdc zcrkmec ctgkskzekr.A@B 6? FZU@CQ vc AF^@FQ

Dmbzec,ert eckkg fskt-afz gfvrfb gu``fm`r vc eurubf cm uydum i`fm gfvrfbgkbyfj tfrfhmefm sck`kr.

Zuù zc`tk`crkmec turmusi` gfem grbzyf emtrcm, afz`fr mtr`ctkrcm vc tft`fr cgki`fm bfeec`crc fskt ecmkr. Zuù zc`tk`crkmkm tfe fj i`fm, turmusi` gfem bfvkyc

emtrcm, fskt`crk mtr`ctkrcm bfeec`crc afzecmkr.

Fskt`cr, afz`fr vc tuz`fr 6


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Lcrlfmdk akr guvvct`k fskekm scyrc`tkg zc`tksk, guvvct`k akr afzm scyrc`tkg zc`tksk k`cmtrf``ctkrkèkkmec, mtr`cbc cmtf`pksk sfakttkr. ^fyh akr fskekm fmyimu vc zfyh akr afzmgftyimumefm fz zmcm akr tuz iùursf tcpgkbc cmtf`pksk hfrg` iùr. mg, aurfef tip`fbcmtf`pk, mtrf``cbc yfmmef, zfyh fskt vc afzm kyim`fbfs vc fz zmcm tuzum gbcsk k`ck`dk`k s eckbc`crkmk gfpsfr.

Frrclcmkus fskt`crkmkm irtfg zc``kk L+ (fq) kyimumum zc``kkekr. Gkbyfsf` zc``kg`cr,fskt`crkm fgtkh bctf``cr`c vc akgfraimft kyimu k`c vcrbk ièuu rcfgskyim`frer.

Frrclcmkus afz`frmm zc``kk ksc7

iu bctf` igskt`crk, su k`c tcpgkbcyc dkrcrcg fskt`crk iùturur. Au fbctf` igskt`crc fskekgigskt`crvcyf fskt fmlkerkt`crecmkr.

Afz bctf` igskt`crk ksc suef zmcrcg lkerigskt`crk iùturur. Aum`frf afzkg igskt`cr ec ecmkr.

Fskt igskt`cr vc afzkg igskt`cr susuz irtfbef rcfgskyimf dkrcrcg tuz`fr iùturur`fr.Frrclcmkus gfvrfb sfecjc su vc suù zc`tk`cr kkmekr vc smrèr. Zimrf`fr eflf dcmc` vcsusuz irtfbefgk tcpgkbc`crcec uydu`fmfak`cm gfvrfb`fr dc`ktkrk`bktkr. Frrclcmkus-sugfvrfb afgf skstcb`crc ec uydu`fmfak`kr. Fsktzjyc zd gftyimu vcrcm, afzzjyczd fmyimu iùturfm bfeecekr. Ay`cjc zj skstcbkmkm fskek k`c afz rcfgskyimfdkrekkmec iùfm rm`crkm akr tfmcsk zjmm gcmekskekr.

zj Fskekg kyim Afzkg kyim Ukpkg fskt Ukpkg afz

L1I L:I+(fq),(L+.L1I)

IL- LJ` MfIL

ML: ML5+(L+. ML:)

ML1- ML5J` Mf ML1

ML1IL ML:IL+

(L+.ML1IL)MLIL- ML1IL. LJ`

(ML:IL+.J`-G(MLIL)

ZI1 ZI1+1 ZI:-1 ZIJ`1 Js1ZI:

M1I5 MI+ MI:- MIJ` FdMI1

JIJ`1 JIJ`+

J`-

(JIJ`)F`J`5 JfJ`1


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Zv`frm c`cgtrkgsc` k`ctgcm`kk, gcmek gcmekmc kyim`fbf`frmefm k`crk dc`kr.

Fskt-afz rcfgskyim`frm kmjc`cbcg kkm kmekgftr`cr gu``fm`r. Hcmi`htf`ckm, sv fbimyfgzc`tkskmec, pitfsyub fbke (GML1) k`fvcsky`c grbz rcmg`kekr.Fbke kyimumum rcfgskyim`fr lkerigsk` kyimumum rcfgskyim`frmf acmzcr.

6?.6 Armstce-@iwry Fskt Afz Gfvrfb

6;1:ec Nilfmmcs Armstce vc Ulibfs @iwry akrakr`crkmecm afbsz i`frfg dcmk gfpsfb`

fskt-afz gfvrfb mcrek`cr. Aumf drc, pritim vcrcm bfeec`crc fskt, pritim gfau` cecmbfeec`crc afzecmkr. Au tfmbf drc, fskt-afz rcfgskyimumef fskttcm afzf akr pritim fgtfr`r.Aumf drc,

Au tcirkyc drc fskt`cr vc afz`fr bi`cg` yfef kyim i`fak`kr`cr. Akr pritimum f`mbfs vcyfvcrk`bcsk k`c akrakrkmc emcak`cm au dkak fskt-afz kht`crkmc gimnudc fskt-afz khtk ecmkr.

ML5+, ML:m gimnudc fskek, ML: ksc ML5+fskekmkm gimnudc afzer. Afz tcpgkbc`crec fskt,afz tcpgkbc`crec ksc afz i`frfg drcv yfpfak`cm akrig bi`cg` vc kyim auùmbfgtfer7 audkak bfeec`crc fbhkpritkg bfeec`cr ecmkr. rmckm, fbimyfg`f su tcpgkbcskmec7 su fsktdrcvkmec, fsctkg fskt i`fm tcpgkbcec ksc su akr afzer.

Armstce gfvrfbmf drc, fskt`crkm guvvct`k`kk pritim vcrbc yftgm`mf, afz`frmguvvct`k`kk ksc pritim f`bf yftgm`mf afèr.

Fskt mc gfefr guvvct`k ksc afz i gfefr zfyhtr. Afz mc gfefr guvvct`k ksc gimnudc fsktk i gfefrzfyhtr.

Fskt afz tcpgkbcskmec7 ecmdc eflf zfyh i`fm fskekm vc eflf zfyh i`fm afzm iùbfs`clkmcekr.

Armstce gfvrfb Frrlcmkus gfvrfbmm dcmk`ctk`bk cg`kekr. Guvvct`k fskt`cr7 rmckm LJ`

guvvct`k c`cgtri`kt dkak efvrfmr`fr. [fmk, au fskt`cr suef lcbcm lcbcm % 6?? irfmmefkyim`ffrfg L:I+ecrkkbk egtr. Armstce gfvrfb, Frrlcmkus f drc ig dcmktkr vc sfec


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IL- kyimu Armstce afz i`frfg Frrlcmkus gfvrfbmf dkrcr. Frrlcmkus Gfvrfbmf drcguvvct`k afz`fr suef tfbfmcm kyim`fr`fr vc IL- kyimu dkak ecrkkbkmkm ygscg ièuuzc`tk`cr iùturur`fr. Fs`mef MfIL dkak ak`ckg`cr sfh lfèc ec kyimkg iùp MfILbi`cg``crk yigtur.

6?.1 Lkeri`kz

Akr kyimum, L:I+vcyf IL- kyimu iùturbfg zcrc su k`c vcrekk rcfgskyimf lkeri`kz ecmkr.Zuef afz dkak efvrfmfak`cm fmyim`fr lkeri`kz tcpgkbcskmk tcbsk` cecr`cr.

Akr fmyimum lfmdk irfmef lkeri`kzc dkrcjck fmyimum afz`g guvvctkmc afèr vc zc`tkecgkIL- kyimu k`c fmyimum af` ecrkkb`crk lkeri`kzkm mc irfmef dcrcg`ctkkmkm akrdstcrdcskekr. [gscg irfmef lkeri`kz i`fm fmyim`fr, gimnudc fskt`crk zfyh i`fm guvvct`k

afz`frer.

Afz fmyim`fr, bcsf`f J`-lk lkeri`kzc dkrcbcz. ^fyh afz ièuu kkm suefm pritim f`fbfz.

Gimnudc fskt`cr, L:I+efm eflf guvvct`k i`fm fmyim`fr suef lkeri`kz tcpgkbcsk vcrbcz`cr.Fsctftm lkeri`kzk>

Lkerincm kcrcm afz gftyim`fr, lkeri`kz tcpgkbcskmc dkrcrcg L:I+iùturur`fr.

6?.: 6?.: Fskt`kg Guvvctk vc Bi`cg` [fps

Fskt`cr givf`cmt lkerr`cr vc igskfskt`cr i`bfg zcrc kgk fmf smhf fyr`r.

6?.:.6 Lkerr`cr

Lkerincmkm afgf c`cbcmt`c yfpt givf`cmt ak`ckg`crc lkerr ecmkr. rmckm, L1Z, LJ`, dkak.Akr c`cbcmtkm lkerrmm fskt`kg guvvctkmk af`jf kgk hfgtr ctgk`cr7 c`cbcmtkmc`cgtrimcdftkh`kk vc ftib aygèr. Fym pcrkyittf auùmfm c`cbcmt`crkm lkerr`crk kkm fskt`kg guvvctk sièfm sff eiru

frtfr. Fym c`cgtrimcdftkh`kg guvvctkmkm frt dkakekr. C`cgtrimcdftkh`kk ygscg i`fmc`cbcmt`cr, c`cgtrim`fr lkerincmecm gcmekmc eiru cgtkk kkm lkerincm pritim cg`kmecgi`fy`g`f ff gfr. gkmjk pcrkyittf auùmfm fzit, igskncm vc hìrm c`cgtrimcdftkh`kg`crky`cekr7

M 0 I 0 HLkerr`crkmkm fskt`kg guvvctk7

ML:0 L1I 0 LH


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mj pcrkyittf auùmfm 7 hishir, ggrt vc gìrm c`cgtrimcdftkh`kk y`ceckbcgtcekr.

_ 0 Z 0 J`Fskt`kg guvvctk ksc ,

_L:0 L1Z 0 LJ`

Fym druptf auùmfm c`cbcmt`crkm lkerr`crkmec fskt`kg guvvctk, bcrgcz ftibumayg` frtgf frtfr. XK F vc XKK F druau c`cbcmtk lkerr`crkmec fskt`kg guvvctk 7

L1I 0 L1Z 0 L1Zc 0 L1UcLH 0 LJ` 0 LAr 0 LK

L1I vc LH cm zfyh fskt vc c`cgtrimcdftkh, i lfèc bcrgcz ftib ayg` mcb`kekr. Ftibayg`mm ctgksk, c`cgtrimcdftkh`kg ctgkskmk afstrr. mg, bcrgcz ftibu ayg i`fm akrlkerrm pritim vcrbcsk, bcrgcz ftibu gg i`fm lkerrm pritim vcrbcskmecm eflfgi`fyer. Fym pcrkyittf auùmfm c`cbcmt`crkm lkerr`crkmec bcrgcz ftibum aiyut`frmefgkhfrg`fr klbf` cek`cak`kr. Lfàugk fym druptf auùmfm ftib`frm lkerr`crk gfr`ftrèmef

bcrgcz ftib ayg` mcb`kekr. Hìrm ftib yfrfp 46pb, kyieum yfrfp 6:: pb ekr.LH zfyh fskt, LK ksc guvvct`k fskttkr.

6?.:.1 Igskfskt`crL-I-^

Igskncmc af` lkerincm fskt gfrfgtcr`kekr. Fskt`kg guvvctk ^ ftibumum c`cgtrimcdftkh`kkmcafèr. ^ ftibu, eg c`cgtrimcdftkh`kc sflkp akr bctf` ksc afz, ^ ftibu, ygscgc`cgtrimcdftkh`kc sflkp akr bctf` ksc fskt zc``kg dstcrkr.C`cgtrimcdftkh`kg srfs K 0 Ar 0 J` i`fm ftib`frm igsk fskt`crkmkm fskt`kg guvvctk y`cekr7LIK 0 LIAr 0 LIJ`

^ ftibumf af` i`fm igskncm`crkm sfys mc gfefr ig ksc, fskt i gfefr guvvct`kekr.

Fskt`kg frtkgf bcrgcz ftibum hirbf` ygec frtfr.Hishir kcrcm igskfskt`crkm lcpsk zfyh fskt iùp, fskt`kg guvvctk lcbcm lcbcm fymer.

(LI)bÎmdcmc` hirb`mc sflkp i`fm fskt`crkm guvvct`kg`crk m eccrk k`c k`kgk`cmekrk`cak`kr. m 2 ? ksc fskt ig zfyh akr fskttkr. LIJ`, (LI):A m 2 6 ksc fskt zfyh akr fskttkr. LIJÌ, LMI1 , (LI)1ZI1 , (LI):_I m 2 1 ksc fskt guvvct`k akr fskttkr. LIJÌ1, LIMI1 , L1ZI5 , m 2 : ksc fskt ig guvvct`k akr fskttkr. LIJÌ:, LIKI:,C`cgtrim cgkjk drup`frm ctgksk, irdfmkg fskt`crec ec dr`r.

6?.5 @cwks Gurfb

Arstce, gurfbmef akr afz akr pritimu cgcak`cm vc tutfak`cm pfy`f`bfb c`cgtrim khtkmcsflkp akr bi`cg` yfef kyimeur. Fskt ksc pritim sf`fyfak`cm bfeecekr. Ccr akr bi`cg` yfef

akr kyim, akr c`cgtrim khtkmk akr pritim k`c irtfg`ff gu``fmfak`kyirsf, fym kk ekcr bfeec`cr`cec yfpfak`kr.


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Dkàcrt M. @cwks 6;1: 6;:< y``frmef fskt- afz i`fym pritimefm afbsz dc`ktkrbktkr.@cwks afz7 ksc sflkp ièuu pfy`f`bfb c`cgtrim khtk k`c akr ftib, bi`cg` yfef kyim k`cgivf`cmt af iùturfak`cm akr bfeecekr.@cwks fskek7akr afzefm c`cgtrim khtkmk gfau` cecrcggivf`cmt akr af iùturfak`cm akr bfeecekr.

Arstce, gurfbmf drc afz i`fm bfeec`cr, @cwks gurfbmf drc ec afzer. Fmjfg, @cwks fskttfmb, ig sfyef bfeecyk gfpsfr. @cwks fskekmec afzm c`cgtrim khtkmk gfau` cecak`cjcg ai

akr iraktf`km auùmbfs dcrcgkr.@cwks fskt`crk, igtct`crk tfbfb`fmbfb i`fm ftib yfef bi`cg``crk gfpsfr. [fmk, eccr`kggfauumef c`cgtrim cgskk i`fm vc giirekmfsyim sfysm frtrfak`cm bcrgcz ftib kcrcm

ak`ckg`cr @cwks fskek i`frfg efvrfmr.

F`bkmyub gìrr ekbcr cg`kmec auùmur. F`bkmyub ftibumum igtctkmk tfbfb`fbfg kkmec gìr c`cgtrimumu vcrkr.

Eccr`kg gfauumu dcmk`ctcak`cm bcrgcz ftib`frf sflkp i`fm ak`ckg`cr, au dcmk`cbcmkmiùtuu tcpgkbc`crec @cwks fskt`crkekr. Bcrgcz ftib`frmef akr vcyf eflf ig sfyef igù

af i`fm ZI1, ZI:vc JI1dkak bi`cg``cr ec @cwks fskekekr.


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Bfecm hk`kzkmecgk sk`kgfy (ZkI1) sk`kgft (ZkI:) i`frfg uzfg`ftrfak`krkz. Jfb, scrfbkg vckbcmti yfpbmef gu``fm`fm ymtcbekr. @cwks fskekmec ekggftk pritimef tip`fyfm Frrlcmkusvc Armstce kht`crk @cwks tcrkb`crky`c yirub`fmfak`kr.

_rkbcr @cwks fskek i`fm pritimu sf`femefm Armstce fskekmc scgimecr @cwks fskekecmk`bcgtcekr. Armstce fskek, @cwks fskekmkm (pritim) eflf mjcecm akr afz`f akr`cbkièuu akr gibp`cgs ak`ckg i`frfg yirub`fmr. Au tcpgkbcyc au afzm, eflf guvvct`k i`fmekcr akr afz`f ycr ecktkrbc tcpgkbcsk i`frfg afg`r.

Ub Armstce fskt-afz tcpgkbc`crk, @cwks afz ycr ecktkrbc tcpgkbc`crkekr.

@cwks Afz`fr7atm fmyim`fr @cwks afzer. Zu, f`gi`, ctcr dkak irtfg`fmbfb c`cgtrim khtkauùmeurfm bi`cg``cr @cwks afzer. Bctf``cr, giirekmc givf`cmt af yfpfm f`gkm, f`gcm,

@cwks afzer. Afz cgkrecc c`cgtrim khtk vcrekkmecm, aumf yumfmjfef cgkrecg scvcmfm`fbmf dcèkkmecm mg`cihk`fe vcrk`kr. Afz`frm ycr ecktkrbc rcfgskyim`fr, mg`cihk`kgycr ecktkrbc rcfgskyim`frer. @cwks fskt`crk, akr afz`f i`fm rcfgskyim`frmef c`cgtrim khtkfèg`frmefm c`cgtrihk` ecmkr vc rcfgskyim`fr ef c`cgtrihk`kgtkr.

ecv> ML5J`, MfML1 k`c sv ML: tc MfJ` vc ML: iùturfjfg cgkèc tcpgkbcyc dkrcr.Armstce, @cwks vc zdcm skstcb`crkmc drc fskt-afz gfvrfb fg`fymz.

6?.3 @ux-Hìie Fskt Afz Ucirksk

6;:;ef @ux, 6;54 ec Hìie, akr tcirk k`crk sre`cr. Aumf, drc fskt`cr igskt kyimu i`fmbfeec`crekr. Afz`fr ksc igskt kyimu vcrcm bfeec`crekr.

6?.8

6?.8 Fskt`kg Guvvctk

Fyrbf sfaktk ayg i`fm fskt vc afz`frf guvvct`k, gg i`fm fskt vc afz`fr ksc zfyh i`frfgak`kmkr.

Zuef tfbfbcm kyim`ffak`cm fskt`crc ( LJ`, LAr, LK, LMI:, LJÌ5) guvvct`k fskt, tfbfbcmkyim`ffbfyfm (LMI1, JL:JIIL, LJM, L:_I5) fskt`crczfyh fsktecmkr.


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Guvvct`k afz`fr suù zc`tkskmec tby`c kyim`frmf fyrfak`cm f`gf`k vc tiprfg f`gf`kbctf``crkm lkerigskt`crkekr.

6?.4 6?.4 Zuyum yim`fbfs, pL vc _IL

_L tfmb>Akr zc`tk irtfbmm pL zc`tk irtfbmef auùmfm L+kyimu bi`fr ecrkkbkmkmim tfafmmf drc mcdftkh ìdfrktbfser.

rmcg>pL 2 3.85: i`fm zc`tkmkm J mum bi`fr ecrkkbk mcekr 9Jcvfp > 1.1 zc`tk irtfbmef auùmfm IL- kyimu bi`fr ecrkkbkmkm im tfafmmf drcmcdftkh idfrktbfser.

6?.


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ecv> ?.?1 B ML5JIIJL: pL 2 9 (Gf 2 6. ?.8 bi`fr sftkg fskt k`c ?.: bi`fr sieyub fsctft kcrcm akr tfbpim zc`tkmkm pLmcekr9 Akr `ktrc tfbpim zc`tkyc ?.6 bi` LJ` gft`rsf pL mc i`ur9

GF[MFG@FQ6. 6. Qf`p L. _CUQSJJK, Dcmcrf` Jlcbkstry _rkmjkp`cs fme Biecrm Fpp`kjftkims.

Hkhtl Cektkim. 6;


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MECGZFFg skstcb, 5?Fsf` bibcmtub, 5?Feczyim guvvct`crk, :Fgtkh gibp`cgs, 5

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