CONDITIONALES: CONDITIONALES REALES

USO:Se utilizan para hablar sobre posibilidades reales en "tiempo general" y hechos dudosos pero posibles en el futuro.

FORMA:La oración condicional comienza con IF/IF...NOT (o a veces UNLESS). El verbo normalmente está en presente.

La oración de resultado suele contener verbos en presente (para hablar sobre posibilidades en "tiempo general") o en futuro y modales tales como CAN, MAY, MUST o SHOULD (para hablar sobre hechos dudosos en el futuro).

Se puede comenzar una oración con una oración condicional o de resultado.

POSIBILIDADES EN TIEMPO GENERAL (El verbo de la oración de resultado está en presente.)

EJEMPLOS:

ORACIÓN CONDICIONAL    ORACIÓN RESULTADOUnless you give    

 plants enough water,   they die."If it isn't coldenough,   it doesn't snow."

       ORACIÓN RESULTADO   ORACION CONDICIONAL"It's time to eat   unless you are not hungry.""Talk to your plants   if you want them to grow."

EVENTOS INCIERTOS EN EL FUTURO(La oración de resultado tiene un verbo en futuro o un verbo modal.)

EJEMPLOS:

ORACIÓN CONDITIONAL   ORACIÓN RESULTADO"If you say that again,   I'm going to hit you!""If it rains,   I'll take an umbrella.""If she doesn't study,   she may fail the exam."      ORACIÓN RESULTADO   ORACIÓN CONDITIONAL"They will come to the party   if they find a baby-sitter.""I'm going to buy a new dress  if I get paid today.""He won't wash the car   unless you pat him."

PASADO PERFECTO

USO: Se utiliza para enfatizar la diferencia temporal entre dos estados, acciones o hechos en el pasado que se mencionan en la misma oración. Por lo general empleamos el pretérito perfecto si queremos enfatizarque un hecho o estado aconteció antes que otro.

EJEMPLO:"I was really surprised when I met Fred at Jill's party last week. I hadn't seen him for five years, and he looked really different. I asked him what he'd been doing since we left school, but he didn't tell me. Then somebody told me he'd been in prison..."

PASADO PERFECTO SIMPLE

USO: Se utiliza para enfatizar que un hecho aconteció antes que otro (conectado mediante conjunciones como WHEN y BEFORE) o en el modo indirecto, cuando el "verbo informante" está en pasado y la afirmación o idea "original" estaba en pretérito, presente perfecto o pretérito perfecto.

FORMA:

AFIRMATIVO

[SUJETO + HAD (+Adverbio) + Past Participle[V3]...]HAD NOT/HADN'T

EJEMPLOS:"She had just arrived when he came in.""We had already eaten by the time they arrived.""The opera had just begun when we arrived.""I had never been in love until I met you!"

VOZ REPORTADA 

[TIEMPO PASADO + (THAT) + PASADO PERFECTO]

EJEMPLOS:"I thought (that) you'd already seen this.""She said (that) she'd never met me before."

PASADO PERFECTO PROGRESIVO

USO:Se utiliza para hablar de acciones o estados continuos que continuan hasta un momento dado del pasado.

FORMA:[SUJETO + HAD/HAD NOT + BEEN + VERB + ING...](HADN'T)

EJEMPLOS:"I'd been waiting for an hour when the train pulled in.""He hadn't been studying much until he failed his first exam.""They'd been waiting for two hours when the bus finally arrived."

REPORTED SPEECH: STATEMENTS and QUESTIONS

USE:To report or describe statements/ideas or questions without using the speaker's exact words.

FORM:The main clause contains the "reporting or question verb":

REPORTING VERBS: SAY, TELL, PROMISE, KNOW, BELIEVE, THINK, CLAIM, etc.

QUESTION VERBS: ASK, WONDER, WANT/WOULD LIKE TO KNOW

The noun clause contains the statement or question which is being reported.

For statements, we use the conjunction THAT, which is omitted in informal English.

[MAIN CLAUSE + (THAT) + NOUN CLAUSE]

EXAMPLES:"Mr. Jones says (that) he'll call later.""She said (that) she was leaving.""I'm sorry, Mr. Jones says (that) he is too busy to talk to you.""Everybody tells me (that) I should stop smoking."

For questions, we use IF (Yes/No questions) or WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHY, WHERE, HOW, HOW MUCH, or HOW MANY (Wh-Questions).Notice that the verb in the noun clause takes the normal affirmative or negative form and not the question form.

We often use "double questions" with ASK, TELL, or KNOW to make a polite request for information.

"May I ask what your name is?" is politer than "What's your name?"

[MAIN CLAUSE + IF or WH-WORD + NOUN CLAUSE]

EXAMPLES:"He's asking you if you like chocolate.""Please ask him who that boy is.""I wonder why the President didn't go to Rome.""Do you know how many windows were broken.""Could you tell me where the station is?"

CONDITIONALS: UNREAL CONDITIONALS

USE:To talk about unreal, impossible, or very improbable hypotheses in the presentand future.

The condition clause begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS).

The verb can take the Past of "BE", the Past Simple/Past Progressive(to talk about a hypothetical fact), or the Modal COULD (to talk about a hypotheticalability).

NOTE: If we use the verb "BE" as the main verb, or in the pastprogressive form, we use WERE instead of WAS.

The verb in the RESULT CLAUSE always has a Modal, usually WOULD/'D(to express a certainty), MIGHT (to express a possibility), or COULD (to expressability).

We can begin a sentence with either a condition or a result clause.CONDITION CLAUSE   RESULT CLAUSE"If I had a new car,   I'd be very happy.""If she weren't so tired,   she'd go to the party.""If he asked him nicely,   he might agree.""If we could meet tomorrow,   we could finish the project."

"If I had enough money,   I wouldn't be working."     RESULT CLAUSE   CONDITION CLAUSE"I might pass English   if I studied more.""They'd tell me   if they knew.""He'd answer the phone   if he were at home.""We might go swimming   if we weren't studying."

REPORTED SPEECH: TIME ASPECTS

When the reporting VERB (SAY, THINK, ASK, etc.) is in the Past Tense, the "original" statement/idea or question may be modified.

VERB IN REPORTED NOUN CLAUSEWhen the reporting verb in the main clause is in the Past Tense, the verb in the noun clause is usually also in the Past Tense, even when the original statement or idea was in the Present Tense.

Here are some examples to show the differences between direct speech/quotation and indirect/reported speech.

DIRECT SPEECH / INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH

Present Tense / Past Tense

Ann: "I'm happy." (DIRECT SPEECH)She told me she was happy. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Tom: "I like bananas." (DIRECT SPEECH)He said he liked bananas. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

The Browns: "We're enjoying the concert." (DIRECT SPEECH)They said they were enjoying the concert. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Ann: "Where do you live?" (DIRECT SPEECH)She asked me where Ilived (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH).

Past Simple/Present-Past Perfect / Past Perfect

Frank: "She went home." (DIRECT SPEECH)He said she had gone home. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Jane: "He's been arrested." (DIRECT SPEECH)She said he had been arrested. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Mr. Selden: "Why had they invited me?" (DIRECT SPEECH)He asked why they had invited him. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Modals / Past Modals

Tim: "I can't swim." (DIRECT SPEECH)He said he couldn't swim. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Marsha: "I may be late." (DIRECT SPEECH)She said she might be late. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Paul: "Will you try to do it?" (DIRECT SPEECH)He asked if I would try to do it. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

PRONOUNS

Pronouns must be changed to fit the reported statement.

EXAMPLES:Tom: "I bought my girlfriend a pin for her birthday." Tom said that he'd bought his girlfriend a pin for her birthday.

Alice: "Can I borrow your car?" Alice asked me if she could borrow my car.

TIME ADVERBIALS

When the reporting verb is in the Past Tense "time adverbials" may also change.DIRECT - INDIRECT/REPORTED

NOW - THEN/AT THAT TIMEAli: "I live in Paris now."He said he lived in Paris then/at that time.

TODAY - THAT DAY/THE SAME DAYThe Workers: "We're going to finish the job today."They told us they were going to finish the job that day/the same day.

TOMORROW - THE NEXT/FOLLOWING DAYToshio and Kumi: "We'll see you tomorrow."They said they'd see us the next/following day.

NEXT WEEK, etc. - THE NEXT/FOLLOWING WEEK, etc.Mr. Edison: "We can go to Rio next year."He said they could go to Rio the following year.

YESTERDAY - THE DAY BEFOREAda: "I couldn't come yesterday."She said she hadn't been able to come the day before.

LAST WEEK, etc. - THE WEEK, etc. BEFOREAlex: "I sent you that letter last month."He claimed he'd sent us the letter the month before.

THE/THIS/THESE - THAT/THOSEMaria: "I can't believe these stories."She told us she couldn't believe those stories.

Pedro: "I like that picture near this window."He said he liked the picture near that window.

HERE - THEREPaul: "I'm going to wait here."He said he was going to wait there.

REPORTED SPEECH

USE:To report what somebody says or thinks without using their exact words.

FORM:The main clause contains the "reporting or question verb":

REPORTING VERBS: SAY, TELL, PROMISE, KNOW, BELIEVE, THINK, CLAIM, etc.

QUESTION VERBS: ASK, WONDER, WANT/WOULD LIKE TO KNOW

The noun clause contains the statement or question which is being reported.

EXAMPLES:"I asked Smith why he'd robbed that bank.""He told me that he needed money.""He said he'd never had any luck." "He wanted to know if I would help him."

STATEMENTS and QUESTIONS

For statements, we use the conjunction THAT, which is omitted in informal English.

[MAIN CLAUSE + (THAT) + NOUN CLAUSE]

EXAMPLES:"Mr. Jones says (that) he'll call later.""She said (that) she was leaving."

For questions, we use IF (Yes/No Questions) or WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHY, WHERE, HOW, HOW MUCH, or HOW MANY (Wh-Questions). Notice that the verb in the noun clause takes the normal affirmative or negative form and not the question form.

We often use "double questions" with ASK, TELL, or KNOW to make a polite request for information.

"May I ask what your name is?" is politer than "What's your name?"

[MAIN CLAUSE + IF or WH-WORD + NOUN CLAUSE]

EXAMPLES:"He's asking you if you like chocolate.""Please ask him who that boy is."

TIME ASPECTS

When the reporting verb (SAY, THINK, ASK, etc.) is in the Past Tense, the "original" statement/idea or question may be modified.

VERB IN REPORTED NOUN CLAUSEWhen the reporting verb in the main clause is in the Past Tense,the verb in the noun clause is usually also in the Past Tense, even when theoriginal statement or idea was in the Present Tense.

  DIRECT SPEECH   INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH         Be Present   Be Past  Present Simple   Past Simple  Present Progressive   Past Progressive  Past Simple   Past Perfect

  Present/Past Perfect   Past Perfect

  Modals   Past Modals

EXAMPLES:Mary: "I want to go alone." Mary said she wanted to go alone.

Tony: "I'll pay you when I see you." Tony said he'd pay me when he saw me.

PRONOUNS:Pronouns must also be changed to fit the reported statement.

EXAMPLES:Tom:"I bought my girlfriend a pin for her birthday."Tom said that he'd bought his girlfrienda pin for her birthday.

Alice: "Can I borrow your car?" Alice asked me if she could borrow my car.

TIME ADVERBIALS

When the reporting verb is in the Past Tense, "time adverbials" may also change.Here are some possible changes: 

  DIRECT   INDIRECT/REPORTED  Now   Then/At that time  Today   That day/The same day

  Tomorrow   The next/following day  Next week, etc.  The next/following week, etc.  Yesterday   The day before  Last week, etc.   The week before  This   That  These   Those  Here   There

CAUSATIVES and PERMISSIVES: ACTIVE

USE:To describe when one person allows another person to perform an action (LET) or when one person obliges or persuades another person to perform an action (HAVE, MAKE, or GET).

We generally use the following verbs in Active Causatives (in all forms including Modals):

LETHAVEMAKEGET(Also PAY, BRIBE, PERSUADE, FORCE, OBLIGE, ASK, BEG, and EXPECT.)

FORM:

AFFIRMATIVE

[SUBJECT + LET/HAVE/MAKE + Object + VERB (base)...]

EXAMPLES:"I'll have her call home. ""You're making him get angry.""She lets them stay up late."

[SUBJECT + GET + OBJECT + INFINITIVE...]

"We'll get him to finish it on time.""She got him to wash the floor."

NEGATIVE and QUESTIONS

We can use LET, HAVE, MAKE, and GET in their normal negative and question forms.

EXAMPLES:"The boss didn't let me go home early.""They're not having their house painted this year.""He couldn't get them to clean their room.""When will you let me use your computer?""Can't you get him to apologize?""Where are you getting him to take you tonight?"

CAUSATIVES and PERMISSIVES: PASSIVE

USE:The PASSIVE form is used with Causatives as with other verbs to emphasize the receiver of the action. We use it when we want something done to someone or something.

FORM:We generally use the following verbs in Passive Causatives:WANTWOULD LIKE/'D LIKE (More formal than WANT)HAVEGET (Less formal than HAVE)

The verb which expresses the action is in the past participle [V3] form.

If we want to mention the agent (the person who performs the action), we use the preposition BY after the verb.

NOTE: WANT does not usually take perfect or progressive forms.

FORM:

AFFIRMATIVE

[SUBJECT + CAUSATIVE + Object + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EXAMPLES:"I want the dishes washed." 

"You are getting your car fixed by the best mechanic in town!""He would like his eggs cooked for 3 minutes.""We are having a new house built next year."

NEGATIVE and QUESTIONS

We can use WANT, WOULD LIKE, HAVE, and GET in their normal negative and question forms.

EXAMPLES:"I don't want the house painted blue!""I won't have my hair cut today.""She didn't get the computer fixed last week.""How would you like your steak cooked, madam?"

FORMAS DE PASADO DE MODALES:SHOULD HAVE and COULD HAVE

SHOULD HAVE

USO: Utilizamos SHOULD HAVE para hablar sobre una expectativa, un supuesto o una obligación no cumplida en el pasado. Esto puede referirse a algo que no se hizo, aunque era necesario, o a algo que se hizo aunque fuera incorrecto o lamentado.FORMA

AFIRMATIVO y NEGATIVO

[SUBJECT + SHOULD (+ NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EJEMPLOS:"Our exam results should have arrived by now. Let's check the mailbox.""I should have thanked Mary for her help, but I completely forgot.""We shouldn't have invited James to the party; he behaved very badly."

PREGUNTAS

FORMA:[(Palabra-Wh) + SHOULD(N'T) + SUBJECT + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EJEMPLOS:"Shouldn't the bride have arrived by now? It's very late.""Should we have waited for the next train?""What should I have done when the fire started?""Why shouldn't I have read that letter?"

NOTA: Las preguntas anteriores implican que, en realidad, sucedió lo contrario: el paquete no ha llegado todavía, no esperamos el siguiente tren, yo no hice nada (o hice algo incorrecto) cuando comenzó el incendio, y leí la carta.

COULD HAVEUSO: Utilizamos COULD HAVE para hablar sobre una acción o hecho que era posible pero que no sucedió, o que no era posible (forma negativa) en el pasado. A menudo empleamos COULD HAVE en la oración de resultado de los condicionales pasado irreales.

FORMA

AFIRMATIVO y NEGATIVO

[SUJETO + COULD (+NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]..]

EJEMPLOS:"I could have done well on the test, but I was too lazy to study.""That couldn't have been Sarah you saw at the party. She's out of town.""If I'd known your address, I could have written to you."

PREGUNTAS

FORMA:[(Palabra-Wh )+ COULD + SUJETO + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EJEMPLOS:"Couldn't he have arrived earlier?""What could we have done to prevent the disaster?""How could she have known the way?"

MORE RELATIVE CLAUSES:NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES

USE:To provide "extra" information about the NOUN, which is not needed to define it. We often use them to combine two statements in one sentence.

EXAMPLES:(1) "My mother is a doctor. "(2) "My mother works in Paris."(1+2) "My mother, who is a doctor, works in Paris."

FORM:Non-restrictive relative clauses are formed in the same way as restrictive relative clauses (see Intermediate 1), but they always contain a relative pronoun, and they are always separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

When the pronoun is the subject of the verb in the relative clause, we use pronouns WHO for people and

WHICH for animals, things, or a whole idea.

FORM:

[NOUN, + WHO/WHICH + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:

"My father, who lives in England, is an artist."

"The Empire State Building, which used to be the tallest skyscraper in the world, is in New York."

"I threw away all my History notes, which I regret now."

MORE RELATIVE CLAUSES: WHOEVER, WHENEVER etc.

USE:WHOEVER, WHENEVER, etc. may be used as either the subject or object in noun clauses to describe or define a whole class of people, objects, places etc. WHOEVER... is used with the same meaning as: ALL THE PEOPLE WHO... or WHATEVER... means ALL THE THINGS THAT... or EVERYTHING THAT... WHOEVER and WHATEVER can also mean ANYTHING THAT...

EXAMPLE:"Anna is an obedient child. She does whatever her parents tell her to do."

FORM:WHOEVER and WHATEVER can act as the subject or the object of the verb in the relative clause.

As SUBJECT OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE:[...WHOEVER/WHATEVER + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:"Please tell whoever calls that I'll be back by noon.""I hope to be back sooner, but I'll be back by noon, whatever happens."

Notice that WHOEVER and WHATEVER are always singular and take the normal 3rd person singular "-s" with Simple Present Tense verbs.

As OBJECT OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE:[...WHOEVER/WHATEVER + SUBJECT + VERB]

EXAMPLES:"Tom's very friendly. He says hello to whoever he meets.""Whatever Sally does she does well."

WHOEVER and WHATEVER can act as the subject or the object of the main clause.

As SUBJECT:[WHOEVER/WHATEVER (+ SUBJECT) + VERB... + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:"Whatever arrives by post comes to this office first."

As OBJECT:[SUBJECT + VERB + WHOEVER/WHATEVER (+SUBJECT) + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:"The police questioned whoever arrived atthe house."

"Some people believe whatever they readin the newspapers."

WHEREVER... means ALL THE PLACES WHERE... or EVERY PLACE WHERE... or ANY PLACE WHERE... and WHENEVER means EVERY TIME WHEN... or ANY TIME WHEN...

FORM:Clauses containing WHEREVER or WHENEVER are normally used like adverbs, to provide information about the verb in the main clause.

EXAMPLE:"I will always think of you, wherever I am."

[MAIN CLAUSE + WHEREVER/WHENEVER + SUBJECT + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:"You can find plenty of parking wherever you go in the city.""I think of Julia whenever I hear that song."

MORE RELATIVE CLAUSES: WHOSE and WHEREWHOSE

USE:WHOSE is a relative pronoun which shows possession. It can refer to people or things.

FORM:WHOSE is used together with nouns in the same way as HIS, HERS, etc.[NOUN + WHOSE + SUBJECT + VERB...]

EXAMPLE:"My Uncle Jack, whose house burned down last week, is living with us now."

WHERE

USE:A relative clause which describes a place can begin with WHERE.

FORM:[NOUN + WHERE + SUBJECT + VERB...]

EXAMPLE:"This is a photograph of my first school, where I studied until I was twelve."

MORE RELATIVE CLAUSES

USE:Some relative clauses are used to provide information about one of the nouns in a sentence (see Intermediate 1 for RELATIVE CLAUSES).

When the relative clause contains information about possession and place, the relative pronouns used are WHOSE and WHERE.

When the NOUN is EVERYTHING THAT or EVERYBODY THAT or ANYTHING THAT, we can replace it with WHATEVER or WHOEVER.

EXAMPLES:"Here comes Mr. Chang. He's the teacher whose car was stolen from the school parking lot."

"Look, kids! There's the house where your father grew up."

"Whatever you decide, I will support you."

"Please tell whoever it is you are speaking to that you will call back later."

NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES contain additional information which is not needed to identify the NOUN. They appear set off from the rest of the sentence by commas, or between a comma and the period at the end of the sentence.

EXAMPLE:"My brother, who is a writer, hates using computers."

NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES with WHICH can contain additional information about a particular noun in the sentence, or relate to the entire idea being expressed by the sentence.

EXAMPLES:"The company, which was formed three years ago, develops computer programs."

"John believes that computers will replace books, whichI think is impossible."

PAST FORMS OF MODALS:MIGHT/MAY HAVE and MUST HAVE

MIGHT/MAY HAVE

USE:We use MIGHT/MAY HAVE to speculate or form opinions about possible events in the past. MAY suggests a stronger probability than MIGHT.

FORM:

AFFIRMATIVE and NEGATIVE

[SUBJECT + MAY/MIGHT (+ NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]..]

EXAMPLES:"She might have been the thief, but I don't think she was.""I may have met him before, or I may have seen his photograph; I really can't remember.""They might not have gone without us."

MUST HAVE

USE:We use MUST HAVE to express deductions about past actions or events, when the speaker uses logic to decide what happened.

FORM:

AFFIRMATIVE and NEGATIVE

[SUBJECT + MUST (NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EXAMPLES:"The roads are all wet this morning; it must have rained last night.""The office is empty; everybody must have gone home.""The papers are still here; he must not have finished the report."

Since MUST HAVE expresses a logical deduction, it is almost never used in questions.