Grammar Lng en GB

8/16/2019 Grammar Lng en GB

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/grammar-lng-en-gb 1/22

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UNIT1

Present simple > page 8

Remember that the present simple is used to:

Describe routines and habitual actions.

I read the newspaper every day.

Refer to facts or general truths.

Many people follow the principles of non-violence.

Talk about permanent situations.

I study law at university.

Present continuous > page 8

Remember that the present continuous is used to:

Describe actions that occur at the moment of speaking.

I’m watching the news now.

Describe temporary situations in the present which are not necessarily in progress at the moment of speaking.

We’re studying the Second World War this year.

Talk about confirmed future arrangements including appointments, commitments, etc.

She’s having lunch with us tomorrow.

Refer to habitual actions which irritate the speaker. In this case, it is usually used with the adverbalways.

You’re always talking about politics!

The present continuous is not normally used with the following verbs: know, like, want, hate, love, need, belong, mean,

understand, remember, prefer.

Past simple > page 8

Remember that the past simple is used to:

Describe actions which occurred at a specific time in the past. It is often used with time expressions such as

yesterday, the day before yesterday, last night, last week, last month, last year, two years ago, etc.

We read about Martin Luther King yesterday.

GRAMMARREFERENCE



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Narrate a sequence of past events.

Yesterday was a great day. I finished my final exam, had lunch with my girlfriend and then went to a party

to celebrate with my classmates.

Note: See the list of the most common irregular verbs on pages 126–127.

Past continuous > page 8

Remember that the past continuous is used to:

Describe an activity in progress at a specific moment in the past.

At eleven o’clock last night I was still doing my project on Mahatma Ghandi.

Describe an activity in the past which was interrupted by another shorter activity. In this instance, the past

continuous form is often preceded by the conjunction while.

My friends arrived while I was still cooking.

Describe two simultaneous actions. In this case, the equivalent verb tense in Spanish is normally

the pretérito imperfecto.

I was listening to President Obama’s speech while I was doing my homework.

Present perfect simple > page 9

Remember that the present perfect simple is used:

To describe actions which occurred at an unspecified time in the past.

The army has lost control of the situation.

With the adverb just to describe actions in the very recent past.

They have just arrested him.

With the prepositions for and since.

The preposition for is followed by a reference to a period of time: a week, two months, three days, several years,

a few weeks, a long time, etc.

They haven’t had a meeting for four weeks.

However, the preposition since is followed by a reference to a specific point in time since which the action has

occurred: last night, yesterday, the previous month, 1999, etc.

I have studied law since 1992.

With time expressions indicating a period of time which is not yet finished:today, this week, this month, this year,

this morning, etc.

They haven’t spoken this week.

With the superlative.

James is the most honest person I’ve ever met.

Present perfect continuous > page 9

Remember that the present perfect continuous is used:

To describe activities which started in the past and continue in the present. In this way, the duration

of the activity is emphasised and the tense is normally used with the prepositionsfor or since.

They’ve been investigating the crime since six o’clock this morning.



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M A R R E F E R E N C E With actions which started in the past and may have already finished.

She’s been working on the speech all morning.

With actions which have recently ended and which have a visible result in the present.

Have you been running?

Past perfect > page 9

Remember that the past perfect is used:

To talk about an action or event in the past which occurred before another (also in the past).

The killer had already escaped when the police arrived.

In third conditional clauses.

If the war hadn’t started, I wouldn’t have joined the army.

With the adverb just to talk about actions in the past which had occurred a short time before.

When he met his wife, he had just started working as a lawyer.

With until, till, before, as soon as, after to emphasise that a past action had completely finished before

another started.

I left the country after the war had started.

With the expression It was the first/second time.

It was the first time I had been on a demonstration.

Past perfect continuous > page 9

Remember that the past perfect continuous is used:

To highlight the repetition or duration of an action prior to another one in the past. This form is often equivalent

to the structure llevaba + gerund in Spanish.

He had been working on a new novel for ten months when we met him.

In reported speech (Unit 5), corresponding to the use of the present perfect continuous in direct speech.



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UNIT2

Future forms: will > page 20

Remember that will + infinitive is used:

To indicate a decision made at the moment of speaking.

This room is great – I’ll take it. To make predictions.

It won’t snow tomorrow.

To refer to events or actions which are very likely to occur in the future.

I will definitely book the flights at the weekend.

To offer to do something.

I’ll pay for the accommodation.

To make promises.

I’ll go on holiday with you next summer, I promise.

In first conditional structures, see Unit 6.

To make polite requests.

Will you close the door, please?

Future forms: be going to > page 20

Remember that be going to + infinitive is used to:

Refer to future plans or programmed future events or actions.

They’re going to launch the website next week.

Express intentions.

I’m going to travel to India.

Make predictions about the future based on some kind of evidence in the present.

Your coffee is very hot – you’re going to burn yourself.

The present continuous can also be used to refer to future arrangements or confirmed plans.

He’s visiting us this weekend.

Future forms: will be + -ing > page 20

Remember that the future continuous is used to:

Talk about actions which will be taking place or which will be in progress at a specific time in the future.

At this time next Sunday I’ll be flying to Australia. Ask indirectly about someone else’s plans.

Will you be driving into the city centre tomorrow?

Talk about scheduled future events.

I will be taking a holiday in March.



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M A R R E F E R E N C E Future perfect > page 20

Remember that the future perfect is used to:

Talk about actions which will be finished at a specific time in the future.

We will have finished packing by tomorrow.

Modals > pages 20–21

can

possibility or impossibility permission

ability in the negative form: deduction

be able to completes the remaining verb tenses for can

I can’t walk, I’ve twisted my ankle.

I can’t swim very well.

I won’t be able to ski for a few months.

Can I smoke?

She can’t be at work. It’s a bank holiday.

could

ability in the past suggestions

polite requests can in reported speech

impossibility in the past criticism

speculation (like might )

Dave could play the piano when he was six.

Could you turn off the heating?

It couldn’t have been Mike you saw, he’d already left the country.

This ticket could be hers.We could go to Lanzarote next Christmas.

He said he could organise the party.

You could have taken out the rubbish!

be able to

The main difference between could and was/were able to is that the former indicates that the circumstances

occurred which permitted the action to take place, while the latter indicates that the action was managed as a

result of an effort made.

I could swim at the age of four.

One day I was able to swim for one hour at the age of four.

may

requests possibility

permission speculation (like could and might ).

May I sit here?

You may start boarding now.



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We may have a meeting this afternoon.

That may be the only solution.

might

possibility speculation

I think they might win the league.

There might be a problem with the hard drive.

must

obligation in the affirmative form: deduction

in the negative form: prohibition.

You must check in before nine o’clock.

You must not drink alcohol during the session.

They must have left early.

have to

obligation in the negative form: absence of obligation

You have to leave your room before twelve o’clock.

We don’t have to take all these things.

need

necessity in the negative form: absence of obligation

Do we need to leave so early?

You needn’t come with me.

should/ought to

advice criticism of past actions

moral obligation

You should speak to the manager.

They should give us our money back.

She should have offered us another room.

will (See Unit 2, page 83)

shall

offers making decisions

suggestions

Shall I reserve the seats for you?

Where shall we have breakfast?

I shall call the hotel in the morning.



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M A R R E F E R E N C E would

polite requests (like could ) offers

Would you give me the bill, please?

Would you like to sit by the window?

used to/would

Used to (like would ) describes habits or routines in the past.

We used to go cycling when we were children.

Used to can also be used to describe past situations. Notice that in the following examples it is not possible to

use would.

I didn’t use to like olives.

I used to be a dancer before I became an accountant.

Would (like used to) is also used to refer to past habits or routines, but it cannot be used to refer to states.

In the winter we would go skiing in the mountains.

In the holidays my uncle would take us to visit different castles.

But: My father used to have a sailing boat. (He doesn’t have one any more.)

Modal perfects > pages 20–21

The modal verbs may, might, could, must, can’t, should, ought to, needn’t and would can be used with have + past

participle to refer to situations in the past.

May/Might have refer to situations that possibly occurred in the past, or which, in the negative form, possibly did

not occur.

They may have got married.

He might have passed the exam.

I may not have explained it properly.

Could have also refers to a situation which possibly occurred in the past. In the negative form,couldn’t have refers to a situation which was impossible in the past.

I could have answered the question but I didn’t bother.

They couldn’t have taken the plane yesterday. All the flights had been cancelled.

Must have and can’t have are used to make positive or negative deductions about the past.

Jane must have gone to bed late last night. She’s still sleeping.

The children can’t have gone out yet. I can hear noises upstairs.

Should have and ought to have refer to actions or events which were supposed to have occurred but which did

not in the end.

They should/ought to have arrived earlier.

Shouldn’t have and oughtn’t to have refer to actions or events which were not supposed to have occurred but

which did.

You shouldn’t/oughtn’t to have done it.

Needn’t have refers to an action which took place but which was not necessary.

You needn’t have brought any cakes. There’s plenty of food.

Would have (See Unit 6, page 99 – Third conditional ).



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Gerunds and infinitives > page 21

The gerund or infinitive form of a verb is used to link two actions.

We want to stay for a week.

She enjoyed skiing in the Pyrenees.

Uses of the gerund

In English, when a verb functions as a noun, the gerund (-ing form of the verb) can be used.

Smoking is prohibited in all public places.

Eating fruit and vegetables is a healthy habit.

The gerund is used:

After the following verbs:

admit deny finish it’s worth practise stop

avoid dislike give up keep (continue) resent suggest

can’t help enjoy go on mind resist

can’t stand fancy imagine miss risk

consider feel like involve need (in a passive sense)

I enjoyed travelling around Argentina.

I don’t feel like going to the beach today.

After a preposition.

I went on a cruise after finishing the course.

I’m looking forward to seeing my parents.

As the subject of a sentence.

Going too fast here is dangerous.

To refer to forbidden activities through concise phrases, such as those that appear on signs or notices.

No smoking.

No parking.

to + infinitivo

to + infinitive is used:

After the following verbs:

afford expect intend plan refuse

agree fail learn prepare seem

appear (seem) forget manage pretend want

attempt help need promise wish

decide hope offer propose would like

Johnny decided to go surfing.

We’re hoping to travel to Wales this summer. When the main verb has an infinitive as a direct object (verb + object + infinitive):

advise expect order remind would like

allow forbid permit teach

ask force persuade tell

enable help prefer want

encourage invite recommend warn



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M A R R E F E R E N C E They’ve persuaded me to go snowboarding.

They want us to go on a cruise.

Common mistake They want that we go on a cruise.

After adjectives and adverbs.

It’s diffi cult to learn Spanish.

After it is/was + adjective + of + noun/pronoun.

It is rude of you to suggest that.

Adjective + for + object.

It was exciting for us to go water-skiing.

With question words except why, which is followed by the infinitive without to.

I didn’t know where to stay.

‘Why stop it so soon?’ I asked him.

Infinitive without to

We use the infinitive without to: After modal verbs: can, could, may, might, must, shall, will, should, would, needn’t and the phrases had better,

would rather, would sooner.

You must read the instructions carefully.

You’d better call the airline now.

After the verbs let and make, which are followed by an object + infinitive withoutto.

My girlfriend won’t let me start tango classes.

They made me pay for damaging it.

If make is changed to the passive voice, the infinitive form takes the prepositionto again.

He was made to sit down.

The verb help could also be included in this group as it can be followed by object + infinitive with or withoutto.Can you help me (to) put my skis on?

With verbs of perception (see, hear, feel, smell and watch), which can be followed by object + infinitive withoutto

or by object + -ing.

I heard them refusing to play (from the very beginning).

I watched them surfing.

Gerunds and infinitives

to + infinitive or gerund can be used after the following verbs:

attempt continue hate like prefer

begin dislike intend love start

It’s started snowing./It’s starting to snow.

I love to swim in the sea./I love swimming in the sea.

We use to + infinitive after the present continuous of the verbs begin and start, as well as when they complement

verbs such as know, realise or understand .

I’m beginning to know her better.

The snow is starting to melt.



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Common mistake The snow is starting melting.

After like, love, hate and prefer the gerund or to + infinitive can be used. With the forms would like, would love,

would hate and would prefer only the infinitive with to is used.

I like travelling on my own.

But: I’d like to travel on my own.

As indicated previously, would prefer is followed by to + infinitive , and if two actions are compared, the secondcan be in the infinitive without to or in the gerund when preceded byrather than.

I’d prefer to go to the cinema rather than go/going to the gym.

When the verb prefer is used with two actions, the -ing form is used for both. The second action can be preceded

by the preposition to or by rather than.

I prefer jogging to cycling.

Or: I prefer jogging rather than cycling.

Verbs followed by gerund/to + infinitive with a change of meaning

forget + gerund: refers to the past.

Have you forgotten eating there last year?

forget + to + infinitive: refers to future actions (or future actions considered from the past).

Don’t forget to reserve the room.

I forgot to reserve the room.

go on + gerund: means “continue”.

I’ll go on training until lunch time.

go on + to + infinitive: refers to a change of activity, when one action is stopped or completed and a different

action is started.

After playing football, he went on to play tennis.

regret + gerund: refers to the past.

I don’t regret spending all day on the beach.

regret + to + infinitive: refers to the present or the future.

I regret to tell you that the flight has been cancelled.

remember + gerund: refers to the past.

I remember walking along this path.

remember + to + infinitive: refers to an action in the future (or a future action viewed from the past).

Remember to turn off the oven before you leave.

Or: He remembered to turn off the oven before he left.

stop + gerund: means to finish doing an action.

They stopped surfing just before it got dark.

stop + to + infinitive: is used to refer to a change of activity, for example, when we interrupt one activity in orderto carry out a different one.

On the way to the shops, I stopped to go to the travel agent’s.

try + gerund means “experiment” or “test”.

If you want to lose weight, try doing more exercise.

try + to + infinitive means “to make an effort to do something”.

Try to fix the bike if you have time.



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M A R R E F E R E N C E UNIT3

Relative pronouns > page 32

For people: who, that (when they function as the subject).

Dave is the guy who/that has freckles.

For people: whom, who, that (when they function as the object).

The people (whom/who/that) you’re going to work with are very demanding.

For things: which, that .

I don’t like bars which/that have loud music.

To indicate possession: whose.

This is my friend whose mother is a psychoanalyst.

To indicate place: where.

Barcelona is the city where you can see Gaudí’s beautiful buildings.

To indicate time: when.

I remember the day when I met you.

Defining relative clauses > page 32

Relative clauses can be divided into two types: defining relative clauses and non-defining relative clauses.

Defining relative clauses define the place, person or object referred to. The relative pronoun can be the subject or

object of the clause.

As the subject:

The person who/that cooks as a profession is called a chef.

The subject which/that I like most is psychology.

As the object:

The students (who/that) we spoke to were going to the demonstration.

The teacher whose class failed the exam is called Mr Morris.

In defining relative clauses, the following points should be taken into account:

The relative clause is not preceded or followed by commas.

The relative pronoun can be omitted if it is the direct or indirect object of the clause, or as a prepositional

complement to the relative clause. In the latter case, the preposition goes after the verb or the direct object if

there is one.

Sebastian is the slim man I was arguing with at the meeting.

Sarah is the girl he gave the report to.

Whom is the object pronoun which corresponds to who, and is normally used only in formal, written texts. In

other instances, who or that is used.In a formal, written style, the two previous sentences would be:

Sebastian is the slim man with whom I was arguing during the meeting.

Sarah is the girl to whom he gave the report.

That can be used to replace who or which.

What can also be used as a relative pronoun.

He told us what he knew.

But: He told us all that he knew.



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Non-defining relative clauses > pages 32–33

Non-defining relative clauses provide additional information to that presented in the main clause, but this

information could be omitted without affecting the meaning of the sentence. These clauses normally appear

between commas when they appear within the sentence.

Nicole Kidman, who has red hair and pale skin, is an Australian actress.

My car, which is seventeen years old, runs really well.

Tim, whose brother I work with, is a really generous man.

There may be a comma before the relative clause when it is at the end of the sentence.

Beatrice works in Cambridge, where she lives with her husband.

In this type of clause, the following points should be taken into account:

The relative pronouns can never be omitted andwho or which cannot be replaced by the relative pronoun that .

Which can refer to a complete sentence.

She left the company immediately, which caused a lot of problems.

Other aspects of relative clauses

An infinitive can be used after the first, the second , the last , the only , etc., instead of a relative clause.

She was the last one to come. (She was the last one who came.)

James was the only one to apologise. (James was the only one who apologised.)

The structure it is/was + noun (or pronoun) + relative clause is used to highlight the subject of a relative clause.

It is Jenny who expresses herself best.

It was my brother who started the argument.

Exclamations > page 33

In English, exclamations can be expressed as follows:

What a/an + (adjective) + singular countable noun.

What a difficult job!

What a concert!

What + (adjective) + uncountable noun (or plural countable noun).

What lovely coffee!

What cars!

The word order in an exclamation in which a verb is included is as follows:What + object + subject + verb.

What a stubborn person you are!

How + adjective/adverb.

How lazy!How exciting!

In this case, the word order in an exclamation in which a verb is included is as follows:How + adjective/adverb

+ subject + verb.

How difficult it is to really listen!

How slowly you eat!



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The passive (I) > page 46

Form

The passive voice is formed with the verbto be in the same tense as the verb would be in the active voice + past

participle of the main verb.They changed the lock after the robbery.

The locks were changed after the robbery.

VERB TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE

Present simple takes/take is/are taken

Present continuous is/are taking is/are being taken

Past simple took was/were taken

Past continuous was/were taking was/were being taken

Present perfect simple has/have taken has/have been taken

Past perfect simple had taken had been takenFuture simple will take will be taken

Future perfect will have taken will have been taken

Conditional would take would be taken

would + have + past participle would have taken would have been taken

Infinitive to take to be taken

to + have + past participle to have taken to have been taken

-ing forms taking being taken

having taken having been taken

Use

The passive voice is used when we wish to emphasise the action expressed by the verb and the person or thing

affected by it.

The money was stolen last night.

The subject of the active verb becomes the agent in the passive voice and is introduced by the prepositionby .

The agent is included when it is important.

The computer was stolen by two employees of the company.

The agent can be omitted:

When it is obvious who/what it is.

The vandal was sentenced yesterday (by the judge).

When it is not important or is unknown.

My car was found three days ago. (The most important thing is having found the car not who found it.)



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The passive (II): verbs with two objects > page 46

When the active verb has two objects, both an indirect and a direct one, the indirect object generally becomes the

subject of the passive sentence. Some of the verbs to which this structure applies include:give, send, show, lend, ask,

tell, offer, order and pay.

Active: They gave him a life sentence.

Passive: He was given a life sentence.

Or: A life sentence was given to him.

However, the verbs ask and tell are not generally used with the structure in which the direct object becomes the

subject of the passive voice sentence.

I was told a very strange story.

Common mistake A very strange story was told to me.

Other passive structures > page 47

The passive can also be used with verbs such assay, think, believe, know, report, estimate, etc., with which two

different structures are possible.

Active: They say that this street is very dangerous.

Passive: It is said that this street is very dangerous.

Or: This street is said to be very dangerous.

Active: They thought that the witness had lied.

Passive: It was thought that the witness had lied.

Or: The witness was thought to have lied.

Active: They believe that this passport is fake.

Passive: It is believed that this passport is fake.

Or: This passport is believed to be fake.

have/get + object + past participle > page 47

The structure have/get + object + past participle is used in a passive sense to express the idea that something is

done for us.

We’re going to have our alarm changed.

Compare with:

We’re going to change our alarm. (In this case, we are going to change the alarm ourselves.)

Other examples:

Sean has his head shaved every week.

I’m going to get my car repaired next Tuesday.

In some situations, the structure have + object + past participle can be used to indicate that something unpleasanthas happened.

I had my car vandalised last night.

She had her clothes stolen while she was swimming in the sea.



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Reported speech > page 58

Reported speech is used to convey what someone else has said without using the same words.

When the reporting verb is in the present simple, present perfect simple or future, the verb tenses in the reported

statements do not change.

She says: ‘You have to wear a uniform.’

She says (that) we have to wear a uniform.

However, when the reporting verb is in the past, the following changes occur in the reported statement:

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Present simple

‘I study from 12 p.m. to 8 p.m.’

Past simple

He said (that) he studied from 12 p.m. to 8 p.m.

Present continuous

‘I’m waiting to buy a ticket.’

Past continuous

She said (that) she was waiting to buy a ticket.

Present perfect simple

‘We’ve just eaten.’

Past perfect

They said (that) they had just eaten.

Present perfect continuous

‘I’ve been waiting for you.’

Past perfect continuous

She said (that) she had been waiting for us.

Past simple

‘I saw them in the lift.’

Past perfect

He said (that) he had seen them in the lift.


can

‘ I can play the trumpet.’

could

He said (that) he could play the trumpet.

will

‘ I’ll lend you the money.’

would

He said (that) he would lend me the money.

must / have (got) to

‘ You must arrive on time.’

had to

He said (that) I had to arrive on time.

may

‘ I may go to the concert.’

might

He said (that) he might go to the concert.

Other modal verbs do not change form.

The reporting verb in both direct and reported speech is usuallysay. In direct speech, when the verb is followed by

an indirect object, say to or tell can be used.

‘I’m still doing the report,’ she said to me.

‘I have to stay at home,’ she told us.

Common mistake ‘I’m still doing the report,’ she said me.

However, in reported speech only tell is used.

She told me (that) she was still doing the report.

Pronouns and possessive adjectives change from first person to third person.

He said, ‘I want to sell my car.’

He said (that) he wanted to sell his car.



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The pronoun you changes to I or we.

She said, ‘You are late.’

She said (that) I was late.

He said to us, ‘You are the best.’

He told us (that) we were the best.

Note: She said, ‘You look exhausted, Mark.’ She told Mark he looked exhausted.

Other expressions which change are:


this that

here there

today that day

yesterday the day before/the previous day

tomorrow the next day/the following day

tonight that evening/night

tomorrow morning the following morning

yesterday afternoon the previous afternoonnext week/month/year the following week/month/year

last week/month/year the previous week/month/year

a week/month/year ago a week/month/year before

Reported commands and requests

In direct speech, the imperative form is always used to give a command or an order. In reported speech,

the following structure is used:

Subject + reporting verb (told, asked, advised, warned) + object + to + infinitive.

Direct speech

She said to Carlos, ‘Take out your earring.’

Reported speech

She told (asked) Carlos to take out his earring.

If the command is negative, the same structure is used but withnot before to + infinitive.

Direct speech

She said, ‘Don’t wear your trainers at work.’

Reported speech

She told me not to wear my trainers at work.

Reported questions

Reported questions can be introduced using the verbs:ask, want to know, not know . The backshift in verb tensesis the same as for reported statements.



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M A R R E F E R E N C E Wh- questions

The word order of the original question changes to that of a statement. The subject goes immediately after

the question word, and the verb goes after the subject.

He said, ‘When did you start learning English?’

He

asked

when I had started learning English.wanted to know

didn’t know

Common mistake He asked when did you start learning English.

Yes/No questions

Yes/No questions are introduced using the conjunctions if or whether.

She said, ‘Can I smoke?’

She asked me if/whether she could smoke.

Reporting verbsCertain verbs indicate the intention of the speaker which could be a suggestion, an apology, an offer, a promise,

a rejection, etc. The most common verbs and their syntactic structure are listed below. Some of these verbs may

have more than one possible structure.

Clauses starting with that

admit claim explain promise reply suggest warn

agree complain insist remind (+ object) say tell (+ object)

They promised (that) they would help with the housework.

He suggested (that) we could share the work.

Verb + object + to + infinitive

advise agree ask invite order promise remind tell warn

The boss asked me to lock the door.

The doctor told her to stay in bed.

Verbs ending in -ing

accuse someone of admit apologise for complain about insist on recommend suggest

They accused him of distracting the players.

He apologised for not listening.

Verb + to + infinitive

agree claim promise

He agreed to help me with my project.

He claimed not to have broken the window.



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too/enough > page 59

The adverb too goes before adjectives and adverbs.

Your room is too messy.

The adverb enough goes after adjectives and adverbs.

She missed the train because she wasn’t fast enough.

Enough can also be used before nouns as a determiner or can function alone as a pronoun.Have you got enough help?

I’ll get some more rice if there isn’t enough.

The following structures can be used:

Too + adjective/adverb + (for + object) + infinitive (with to).

Chinese was too difficult (for me) to learn.

Adjective / Adverb + enough + (for + object) + infinitive (with to).

The water wasn’t clean enough for us to drink.



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Conditional clauses > page 70

First conditional

Form

CONDITION RESULT

If + present simple future (will + infinitive)

modal + infinitive

imperative

If you get an interview for the job, you will be nervous.

you must wear your new jacket.

don’t forget to ask some questions.

Use

To describe situations we believe are possible.

If he keeps driving so fast, he’ll have an accident.

The conjunction unless can often be used as an alternative to if … not .

I won’t go out unless she phones me.

Other possible combinations

Present simple + imperative.

If you don’t want to go out, stay at home.

Present continuous/going to + future with will .

If you’re still watching the TV, you’ll have to turn it off when you go to bed.

Second conditional

Form

CONDITION RESULT

If + past simple conditional (would/could/might + infinitive)

If we lived in London, we would go to the theatre more often.

Use

To refer to possible, but unlikely situations.

If I could, I would move to Buenos Aires.

To refer to hypothetical or imaginary situations.

If I were the director, I would sack you.

As can be seen from the previous example,were can be used in the first and third person singular of the verbto be,

although was is more frequent. However, in the phrase If I were you, were should not be replaced by was.

If I were you, I would buy the red jacket.



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Third conditional

Form

CONDITION RESULT

If + past perfectperfect conditional (would have/could have/might have

+ past participle)

If they had seen the weather forecast, they would have come with us.

they might have/could have left before.

Use

To describe situations in the past which never occurred.

If you had taken the train, you wouldn’t have been late.

Common mistake If you would have taken the train, you wouldn’t have been late.

unless/providing/provided (that)/as long as

The conjunction unless is often used as an alternative to if … not .I won’t drink it unless I find out what it is.

The conjunctions unless, providing/provided (that) and as long as have the same meaning as if , but they are used to

emphasise the condition.

I’ll go to the cinema with you providing/provided (that) we see a romantic film.

Paul can write the script as long as he doesn’t charge too much.

I’ll lend you my newspaper on condition (that) you give it back to me at lunch time.

Clauses of contrast > pages 70–71

Subordinate clauses of concession express contrasts and opposing ideas and often using the following structures:

although/though

Although/Though it was diffi cult, I could understand it.

The order of the clauses can be reversed.

I could understand most of it although it was diffi cult.

Instead of although/though, even though can be used to further emphasise the contrast.

Even though she didn’t know what it was, Alice decided to taste the liquid.

in spite of/despite

These conjunctions can be followed by a noun or a gerund.

In spite of/Despite the rain, we went to see the match.

In spite of/Despite training for six months, he couldn’t finish the marathon. The order can also be reversed in this case.

We went to see the match in spite of/despite the rain.

Note that despite is only one word and is never followed by of .

Common mistake Despite of the rain, we went to see the match.



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M A R R E F E R E N C E The following structure can also be used: In spite of/Despite + the fact (that) + subordinate clause.

In spite of/Despite the fact (that) she is a famous writer, her last book wasn’t very popular.

The previous example can also be expressed using the following structures:

In spite of her fame as a writer, her last book wasn’t very popular.

In spite of being a famous writer, her last book wasn’t very popular.

Although she is a famous writer, her last book wasn’t very popular.

Common mistake In spite of she is a famous writer, …

Clauses of purpose > pages 70–71

In English, purpose can be expressed in several ways:

to + infinitive

When we wish to explain why someone does something. This structure can only be used when the subject of the

main verb is the same as the subject of the infinitive clause.

I went to town to buy some books.

Common mistake I went to town for to buy some books.

in order to/so as to + infinitive

This structure is much more formal than the previous one.

We studied hard last night in order to/so as to be ready for the exam.

so (that)/in order that + subordinate clause.

Both forms can be used to express pupose both if the subject is the same in both clauses and if it is different. These

conjunctions tend to be followed by can, will, could, should, would + infinitive.

I’ll give him a key so (that)/in order that he can come and water the plants.

Consecutive clauses > pages 70–71

Subordinate consecutive clauses can be formed using:

such a/an + adjective + countable singular noun + (that) + main clause.

It was such a beautiful bottle (that) she decided to drink a little.

such + adjective + plural countable noun + (that) + main clause.

They were such good teachers (that) we always went to class.

such + adjective + uncountable noun + (that) + main clause.

It was such delicious food that I had to ask for more.

so + adjective /adverb + (that) + main clause.

This book is so good that I can’t stop reading it.He read so quickly that we couldn’t follow.

so much (+ uncountable noun) or so many (+ plural countable noun) + (that) + main clause.

I bought so much food (that) I couldn’t put it all in the fridge.

She has so many responsibilities that she is always busy with something.



Clauses of cause and effect > page 71

Subordinate clauses of cause and effect are introduced by the conjunctionsbecause, as and since.

Because and as can be used in the same way, althoughas is more frequent when the subordinate clause

appears first.

She decided to work freelance because/as she couldn’t find a permanent job.

Or: As/Because she couldn’t find a permanent job, she decided to work freelance.

In the previous example, since can also be used.

Since she couldn’t find a permanent job, she decided to work freelance.

When the cause is clear or is already known,as or since are more frequently used.

Since we both like sunbathing, we could go to Mojácar this summer.

Causes and consequences are usually expressed usingbecause and so.

I left the cinema because the film was very boring.

The film was very boring, so I left the cinema.

The structure not because … but because can also be used.

He went to Ireland not because he wanted to study English but because he wanted to have a good time.

Consequences can also be expressed using therefore, consequently and as a result .The film was very boring, therefore I left the cinema.

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