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    EMPLOYEES HEALTH AND SAFETY

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    1. Introduction

    This paper discusses the issue of improved safety behavior and the many benefits for

    employers and employees. Starting with a brief history and taking into account how vast this

    subject is: included is a section on Health and Safety behavior around the world, giving it a

    global perspective.

    So much has had an effect on the behavior of employees and employers alike and with that in

    mind this paper takes a look at the culture, the legislation and the human interaction in the

    workplace, among others.

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    2. A Brief history of health and safety

    At the beginning of the twentieth century, journalist Arthur Reeve (2009) reported that

    thousands of wage earners, men, women, and children were caught in the machinery of

    record-breaking production and were turned out cripples. Other thousands were killed

    outright. Reformers of the period compared the toll of industrial accidents to an undeclared

    war.

    As time moved on the question of occupational health and safety became part and parcel of a

    larger movement of reform which produced results in some countries. Another significant

    area that was inacted at this time was the child and womens labour legislation, as well as a

    host of specific acts regulating working conditions in tanneries, bakeries, foundries, and

    numerous other industries. Also, for the first time, there was a serious attempt to organize a

    more reliable method for collecting statistics on occupational injuries and deaths. By 1915

    the act for workers compensation was passed. This is dealt with in greater detail later on.

    The previous paragraph was the situation in America but as a comparison - in an interview

    with Tsuyoshi Kawakami, an International Labour Organisation (ILO) specialist, he states

    that over a billion people (more than 60 per cent of Asias workforce) are still working in the

    informal economy, with little or no social protection.

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    Workers and the self-employed often work in substandard conditions, being exposed to

    various hazards in the workplace without having appropriate safety and health training and

    information. As far as national labour laws are concerned, they do not always cover the

    informal economy.

    From an Irish perspective, according to the Irish Health and safety Authority the statistics of

    Irish workplaces indicate that the quality of health and safety management has improved in

    various economic sectors. Overall, Irelands health and safety performance is very positive.

    However, the statistics indicate a poor profile for the agriculture sector in respect of both

    health and safety management and outcomes.

    The HSA go on to say that improved safety behaviour yields many benefits for employers and

    employees and the important areas are:

    To reduces the risk of workplace fatalities and serious injuries To reduces the monetary cost associated with accidents To increases morale in the organisation

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    3. The Role of the Health and Safety Authority

    The Health and Safety Authority is the national statutory body with responsibility for

    enforcing occupational safety and health law, promoting and encouraging accident

    prevention, and providing information and advice to all companies, organisations and

    individuals.

    To ensure compliance with the legislation, the authority seeks, primarily, to reduce workplace

    accidents by providing guidance and support to employers and employees.

    The mission of the Health and Safety Authority is to influence changes in the behaviours of

    employers and employees.

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    3.1 Corporate Social Responsibility

    The primary objective of any company is to maximize the wealth of its stockholders.

    However, maximizing shareholder wealth cannot side step the importance of corporate social

    responsibility. There is some evidence that managers with business education or interests

    have different views on fairness judgments and behaviours than other managers (Bian and

    Keller, 1999). A company with a social conscience would be concerned with the health,

    safety, and well-being of its employees.

    3.2 Safety Culture

    The goal of an organizations safety culture is to develop a norm in which employees are

    aware of the safety hazards of their jobs and continually on the lookout for the hazards as well

    as methods to minimize safety hazards. Studies have found that the safety culture of an

    organization is very important in the safety performance of employees, Borstorff et al (2010).

    It is crucial that top management show their support for safe practices because the employee

    will be less safety conscious and will take more risks to get the work completed if the

    management does not support the safety process.

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    3.3 Organisational Cultural

    Attitude and organizational culture together play a very significant part in accidents. The

    basic premise of this safety attitude approach is that a large number of accidents are under the

    control of goals involved in them that is, there behaviours that lead people to have accidents

    are intentionalthey are aware of what theyre doing. This does not mean that people intend

    to have an accident. It suggests that people are aware of the factors involved in a safe and

    unsafe behaviour. Therefore it can be suggested that peoples actions are under their control.

    Safety climate describes employees attitudes and perceptions regarding overall safety within

    the workplace Brown & Holms (1986) and Zohar(2003); it is often used interchangeably with

    safety culture. Safety culture, however, generally describes the attitudes, values, and practices

    at a deeper level than safety climate Clarke(2006) and Flin (2007). One way to explain safety

    culture is that it represents the individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, and

    behaviour patterns that reflect an organisations commitment to workplace safety. Whereas

    safety culture denotes the underlying beliefs and values of an organisation, safety climate is

    safety culture in action.

    Here in Ireland an attempt is being made to change behaviour of health and safety and this is

    set out in the safety, health and welfare at work act, 1989.

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    3.4 Legislation

    Some organisations view accident prevention as an activity imposed upon them by legislation.

    They set out only to achieve the legal minimum standard and to avoid possible fins and

    closure. However, there are two other compelling reasons for organisations to take accident

    prevention seriously. Firstly, there is the humanitarian consideration, and responsible

    employers will attempt to ensure that the wellbeing of their employees is above the minimum

    legal requirement. Secondly, there is an economic reason for preventing access. Direct

    financial losses are usually incurred when accidents happen, and if safety activities are

    ignored indirect costs can result from a deterioration of employee morale and company image.

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    4. Prevention is better than cure

    4.1 Hazard reporting

    An important element of hazard management involves the implementation of an effective

    system of hazard reporting. This can be effectively managed by putting in place a systematic

    system of hazard reporting.

    As discussed by Haemorrhage (2003)well designed accident prevention programs best

    demonstrate the benefits of accident prevention. An integral part of workplace hazard

    inspection is communication between management and employees, to obtain as much

    knowledge as possible about hazards. Similarly, safety analysis sessions between

    employees and management from all areas of the organisation aim to identify any potential

    hazards before new technology or work practices are introduced.

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    5. Behavioural Science and Health and Safety

    Behavioural science and health and safety are the nature of human factors. The main factors

    that focus on human beings and their interaction with products are equipment, facilities,

    procedures and work environments. The emphasis is on human beings and how

    characteristics of the organisation influence employee behaviour. Standards and McCormick

    (1993) state: that a commitment to a system orientation and a recognition that people,

    machines, procedures and the wok environment do not exist in isolation.

    The behaviour based approach suggests that approximately 96% of all accidents, dangerous

    occurrences or near miss events are attributable in some way to human error or behaviour.

    This approach looks at why people behave as they do and how they can be influenced to

    behave in a safer way. Getting people to behave safely, and not by trying to change their

    attitudes, reduces accidents.

    The emphasis of safety systems is often upon the use of discipline and punishment for

    noncompliance rather than rewarding compliance. Taking action should mean setting up a

    problem solving process, similar to the continuous improvement in the field of quality

    management.

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    6. Advantages of Improved Safety Behaviour for

    Employees

    Behavior based safety systems are typically introduced in organizations that already have an

    established safety management system committed to continuous improvement. Barling and

    Frone (2010) argues that changes in safety behaviour would be difficult without considering

    how people are organised, managed, motivated, rewarded and their physical work

    environment. One of the most important ingredients for successful implementation of any

    health and safety program is the direct practical and visible involvement of employees at all

    levels. The following points are just a few we will look at from a long list of interesting

    factors that influence how a Manager can change employees behaviour.

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    6.1 Empowerment

    Employees are involved from the start of the safety system and allowed to make decisions,

    and it is this which generates motivation. Giving employees responsibility is keyto being

    successful in eliciting safe behaviour and positive safe and attitudes and makes the

    employees active stakeholders in workplace-safety activities.

    Light and kellar (1979) demonstrate that the team approach, giving employees greater control

    over their own activities resulted not only in increased production but also in improved

    attitudes to work and safety performance.

    6.2 Ergonomics

    According to Munirathinam and Ramesh, ergonomics is a process that is aimed at

    prevention of work place illness and the development of the best possible workplace design.

    Ergonomics is concerned with designing jobs by integrating socio-technical factors of the

    job and characteristics of job holder. It is the science of balancing between employees and

    the work they do. It provides a safer and comfortable workplace solution for increased

    efficiency and enhanced productivity. This might include redesigning a workstation,

    obtaining more comfortable, more effective, or more available PPE.

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    6.3 Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE)

    Another area that has seen great improvements in health and safety is the introduction and

    use of personal protective clothing. Employees in the past had to carry out their jobs with

    little or no physical protection but with the introduction of PPE many accidents have been

    prevented and in some circumstances lives have been saved. Some examples of PPE that

    benefit the employee can be sourced from the HSA and are as follows:

    Ear protectionlegislation protects the employees stating that noise levels should notbe greater than eighty decibels. The Irish army paid out fast amounts of

    compensation to soldiers for damage to their hearing caused by using loud weapons.

    Respirators employees working in industrial plants are protected by filteringunwanted material that would otherwise have entered their lungs. Countless Miners

    and welders have died from inhaling unwanted gases and carsnegic contaminants.

    Face shieldsuseful for protecting the eye and face area Head protection the construction industry has saved many lives due to the

    introduction of mandatory wearing of head protection, even for its visitors.

    Overallsprotects employees against dirt and Greece and some pvc garments contactagainst acid and chemical contact.

    Glovesprotect against heat, chemicals, cuts and skin diseases

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    7. Advantages of Improved Safety Behaviour for

    Employers

    No matter how small a business is, the employer needs to manage safety. According to the

    Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 every employer is legally responsible for the safety of

    themselves, their employees and any other person that may be affected by their work

    activities. They have a statutory duty to prepare, revise and bring to the notice of all his

    employees a written statement of the safety policy.

    7.1 Safety Statement

    The basis for the management of health and safety in the workplace is the written safety

    statement. The safety statement is a programme for protecting the safety and health of the

    employees and others who may be affected by the work of the company. Preparing a safety

    statement will not in itself prevent accidents and ill health at work but by making a

    commitment to promoting health and safety and specifying the arrangements and the

    resources that are put in place, the safety statement plays a vital part in managing health and

    safety in the workplace. Nobody wants to see anyone get hurt or sick, so its the right thing to

    do. The advantages of managing safety are as follows:

    1. Reducing the chances of an accident in your workplace2. Improving staff morale and motivation3. Reducing absenteeism4. Saving money

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    7.2 Costs of Accidents and Ill-health

    Lost time Lost skills

    Insurance premium hikes Legal proceeding

    According to Manuele there are two types of costs related to workplace accidents, i.e. direct

    and indirect costs. An interesting statistic in Manueles article states that for every dollar

    spent on direct costs, four to ten dollars is spent on indirect costs. Some of these costs include

    lost productivity and lost profits.

    The benefits of effective health and safety management to all businesses are very significant.

    There is clear evidence that effective health and safety management contributes directly to

    overall business success. This is true across all industry sectors and amongst businesses of all

    shapes and sizes.

    Apart from the obvious legal and moral duties an employer has, if we consider the possible

    consequences of a serious workplace accident in business. Trying to manage without a key

    employee while he/she is recuperating following an accident, this is a cost that is hard to

    measure, perhaps using two staff to balance the workload or hiring in a subcontractor with the

    necessary skills, or doing the job yourself due to security risks etc. as well as the increased

    insurance premiums or compensation claims.

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    A positive and proactive approach to health and safety management can minimise the

    potential for financial damage to your business.

    7.3 Reducing absenteeism

    An obvious advantage of having good health and safety behaviour is the reduction in

    absenteeism. Kaiserman estimated workers absenteeism to cost approximately US$80 billion

    (at 1991 prices) by examining earnings data. The author also estimated a loss of

    approximately $10.5 billion from lost future income caused by premature death.

    In an American Productivity AuditStewart (2003) measured lost productive time for personal

    and family health reasons and expressed in hours and dollars. Health-related LPT cost

    employers $225.8 billion/year ($1685/employee per year).

    The advantage to the employer for saving vast amounts of money is obvious when you look at

    the figures from the examples above.

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    7.4 Occupational Health Programme

    According to Munirathinam andRamesh (2011) a safe and healthy work environment ensures

    better working conditions and minimizes the risk of illness at workstations in organizations.

    Ergonomics is one area that is concerned with designing jobs by integrating socio-technical

    factors of the job and characteristics of job holder. It is the science of balancing between

    employees and the work they do. It provides a safer and Comfortable workplace solution for

    increased efficiency and enhanced productivity. The principles of ergonomics are being used

    to improve the man-machine system so that an employee can perform the job effectively.

    Good ergonomics in the workplace results in less absenteeism.

    A safe and healthy work environment that ensures better working conditions and minimizes

    the risk of illness at workstations should be created in organisations. Presently, many

    organisations design health promotion programmes that identify and assist in preventing or

    correcting specific health problems. These programmes include not only disease identification

    but also work style modification. The better an organisation works on employees' health, the

    higher the performance results in the form of increased output. Employers must ensure proper

    occupational health programme in order to:

    Maintain and improve productivity of employees. Ensure quality of work. Improve employees' motivation and morale. Breed loyalty and foster better relationship with employees.

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    Make congenial work atmosphere and reduce stress. Reduce indiscipline among the employees and solve problems at work place

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    8. Health and Safety around the World

    8.1 USA: Introduces workers' compensation

    In a report by Chelius (1982) employees in America benefited when the government made

    workers' compensation laws mandatory. The liability was independent of whether the

    employee or employer was at fault in causing the accident. When an employee was injured, he

    suffered several costs, including pain, lost income, and medical expenses. While the

    obviously important incentive of avoiding pain is not influenced by workers' compensation,

    lost income and medical costs are.

    According to Somers (2011), in 1907 the overall figures of workers who died from

    occupational related accidents were approximately 30,000.

    This legislation was a step forward for employees and employers and had a big influence

    which benefited the workplace by reducing workplace accidents.

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    8.2 Canada: Basic Rights

    In an academic review by Galina (2009), he reports that in 2006 the total costs for one

    workplace injury averaged an estimated CAD $98,000 with about 20 per cent being direct

    costs. A business operating at a profit margin of 6% would have to incur an increased CAD

    1.5 million in additional sales to pay cover costs of a workplace accident. In short from a cost

    perspective alone there is a lot at stake for the individual firm to effectively manage

    occupational health and safety.

    In the case of workplace injury, the key worker benefits are as follows:

    Payment for loss of earnings Compensation for permanent disability Provision of medical, social and vocational rehabilitation

    In 1978 James Ham, a Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of Toronto,

    recommended a basis for the first comprehensive legislation in occupational health and safety

    in Canada.

    Adopted from the Robens Commission in the UK, was Hams innovative core belief that

    labour be guaranteed basic rights including participation in the creation of a safe workplace.

    This notion was to form the basis of the Internal Responsibility System that guarantees

    workers the following rights:

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    The right to participate. This is facilitated through a Joint Health and Safety Committeecomprised equally of management and worker representatives.

    The right to know. Workers need to know how to safely handle whatever toxic material isin the workplace. In order to address this right in a standardized fashion, the Workplace

    Hazardous Materials Information System was created.

    The right to refuse unsafe work. With slight variation, these rights are now common tolegislation in a lot of countries. .

    8.3 European Union: Working Time Directive

    In an article on the European Community Directive on Working Time, Spurgeon et al (1997),

    report that the working time act which should have been implemented in member states of

    the European Community by November 1996. The Act contains several requirements related

    to working hours, including the right of employees to refuse to work more than 48 hours a

    week. The United Kingdom attempted to oppose the Directive, arguing that there is no

    convincing evidence that hours of work should be limited on health and safety grounds.

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    8.4 Scotland: Counting the cost of employee smoking in the workplace

    In an article on smoking in the workplace, Parrott et al (2000) states that employers have

    responded to new regulations on the effects of passive smoking by introducing a range of

    workplace policies. Few policies include provision of smoking cessation intervention.

    They estimate that the cost of smoking related absence in Scotland is 40 million per annum

    and total productivity losses are estimated at approximately 450 million per annum. In

    addition, the resource cost in terms of losses from fires caused by smoking materials is

    estimated at approximately 4 million per annum. In addition, there are costs from smoking

    related deaths and smoking related damage to premises.

    The article goes on to say that evidence shows that workers who smoke are absent from work

    more often than their non-smoking colleagues, which results in a loss of output. Time is also

    lost as workers take smoke breaks or, if permitted smoke on the job, which brings with it

    more risk and then the cost of insurance premiums may be higher as a result of claims for fire

    damage caused by smokers. In addition, tobacco smoke may also result in damage to plant

    and machinery. Also the health implications for fellow employees that have no option but to

    become passive smokers in an unhealthy environment. Scotland are looking to Ireland as an

    example of the first country to introduce nonsmoking in the workplace legislation.

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    8.5 Northern Ireland:Close to Top of UK Absence League Table

    Addley (1999) argues that workplace health promotion is about much more than complying

    with policy and legislation to protect the individual at work. There are also strong economic

    arguments and moral justification for pursuing workplace health promotion.

    He says we need to consider the economic consequences for an organisation, and indeed for

    Northern Ireland as a whole, sickness absence and accidents at work, and the loss of

    productivity with ever-increasing costs of litigation not to mention the demands placed on the

    health service which must pick up the pieces as a result of poor health and safety practices.

    British industry figures during 1997 for lost working days were 187 million working days or

    8.4 days per employee. The average cost per employee was estimated to be 533 representing

    a UK wide total of some 12 billion. Northern Ireland sits close to the top of the UK absence

    league table for both manual and non-manual employees in this report with an annual

    sickness absence bill in the region of 250 million.

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    8.6 Ireland: Statistics

    According to the HSA, one of the most important employers general duties that came into

    effect was preventing improper conduct or behaviour while the employees duties changed to

    include taking reasonable care for their own safety and safety of others. The following are

    some statistics related to Irelands situation throughout the years that had an effect on health

    and safety.

    Pre 1989 only 20% of workforce covered by legislation Post 1989 100% covered of workforce by legislation Safety, Health and Welfare at Work Act, 2005 and General Applications

    Regulations, 2007 are introduced

    After Construction and Agriculture, Transport is the worst industry forworkplace injuries and deaths

    Approximately 10% of accidents are road traffic accident in the course ofwork

    48 deaths in 2010 55 deaths in 2011 8 deaths in Transport and Storage Workplace accidents cost Irish business 3.3 to 3.6 billion a year (Dept.

    Enterprise, Trade and EmploymentIndecon Consultants (2006)

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    The monetary cost is startling but the human cost is the biggest motivation we have to

    change our behavior.

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    9. Conclusion

    Whilst work has the potential to have a negative effect on the health of the individual, it can

    also have a positive effect. It is this positive impact which workplace health promotion seeks

    to capture, not least by encouraging workers to adopt positive health behaviors.

    Creating frameworks for healthy workplaces offers a unique opportunity to bring together

    health and safety professionals, employers, employees and their representatives that involves

    everyone in the workplace.

    A healthy workplace benefits everyoneemployers, employees, individuals, and businesses

    and identifies the health risks and behaviors in order to determine ways to change and

    improve.

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