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TERU SUB-BASIN LAND USE PLANNING STUDY PROJECT
TERU
AWRA
YALO
GOLINA
MEGALE
EREBTI
±
INCEPTION REPORT
NOVEMBER, 2010
BAHIR DAR
33
ContentsList of Figure......................................................................................................................................................37
List of Tables......................................................................................................................................................39
Abbreviations....................................................................................................................................................40
1 CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................................................42
1.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................42
1.2 BACKGROUND....................................................................................................................................42
1.3 Objectives..........................................................................................................................................44
1.4 Description of the project area..........................................................................................................44
1.5 Scope of the reconnaissance survey..................................................................................................45
1.6 Methodology.....................................................................................................................................46
1.7 Limitations.........................................................................................................................................46
2 CHAPTER TWO...........................................................................................................................................46
2.1 PREVIOUS STUDIES REVIEW CONCERNING ON THE PURPOSE OF SURVEY IN ALL DISCIPLINES.........46
2.2 Agro climatic resources & zonation of the lowlands..........................................................................46
2.3 Soil.....................................................................................................................................................49
2.4 Land use/Land cover..........................................................................................................................50
2.5 Watershed management and conservation.......................................................................................51
2.6 Hydrology and water resource assessment.......................................................................................51
2.7 Forestry and Wild life.........................................................................................................................53
2.8 Socioeconomics.................................................................................................................................54
2.9 Agronomy..........................................................................................................................................56
2.10 Environmental issues and Change Detection.....................................................................................59
34
3 CHAPTER THREE.........................................................................................................................................60
3.1 The Reconnaissance Survey Results...................................................................................................60
3.2 Physical Environment.........................................................................................................................60
3.2.1 Agro climatic resource field Survey............................................................................................60
3.2.2 Soils survey................................................................................................................................64
3.2.3 Land-Use /Cover........................................................................................................................72
3.2.4 Hydrology and Water Resource Assessment.............................................................................78
3.3 Biological Environment......................................................................................................................82
3.3.1 Forestry......................................................................................................................................82
3.3.2 Wildlife.......................................................................................................................................91
3.4 Socioeconomic survey.......................................................................................................................93
3.5 Livestock production and rangeland condition................................................................................106
3.6 Animal Health..................................................................................................................................115
3.7 Agronomy........................................................................................................................................122
3.8 Watershed Management.................................................................................................................130
3.9 Environmental Issues and Hazards..................................................................................................138
4 CHAPTER FOUR........................................................................................................................................150
41. .............................................................................................PROPOSED PLAN FOR THE DETAIL SURVEY150
4.1.1 General objective.....................................................................................................................150
4.1.2 Specific objectives...................................................................................................................150
4.2 Soil survey........................................................................................................................................151
4.2.1 Objectives................................................................................................................................151
4.2.2 Scope of the work....................................................................................................................151
4.2.3 Methods to be employed.........................................................................................................151
4.3 Land use land cover assessment and environmental change detection..........................................154
35
4.3.1 General Objectives...................................................................................................................154
4.3.2 Specific Objectives..................................................................................................................154
4.3.3 Scope of the work....................................................................................................................155
4.3.4 Methodology of the Study.......................................................................................................155
4.4 Agroclimatic resource assessment...................................................................................................157
4.4.1 Objectives................................................................................................................................157
4.4.2 The scope of the investigation.................................................................................................157
4.4.3 Methods for Agro-ecological Zoning........................................................................................157
4.5 Agronomy........................................................................................................................................161
4.5.1 The objectives of the investigation..........................................................................................161
4.5.2 Scope of the study...................................................................................................................161
4.5.3 Methodology of the Study.......................................................................................................162
4.6 Watershed Management and conservation....................................................................................163
4.6.1 Objective of the Study..............................................................................................................163
4.6.2 Scope of the Survey.................................................................................................................164
4.6.3 Methods...................................................................................................................................165
4.7 Forestry and wild life.......................................................................................................................165
4.7.1 Objectives................................................................................................................................165
4.7.2 Scope of the work....................................................................................................................166
4.7.3 Methods...................................................................................................................................166
4.8 Livestock production and range land management.........................................................................166
4.8.1 Objectives................................................................................................................................166
4.8.2 Scope of the Study...................................................................................................................167
4.8.3 Methodology of the Study.......................................................................................................167
4.9 Animal Health..................................................................................................................................167
4.9.1 Genera Objectives....................................................................................................................167
36
4.9.2 Scope of the Study...................................................................................................................168
4.9.3 Methodologies.........................................................................................................................168
4.10 Socio-economic survey....................................................................................................................169
4.10.1 Objectives................................................................................................................................169
4.10.2 Scope of the Study...................................................................................................................170
4.10.3 Methodology of the Study.......................................................................................................172
4.11 Watershed management and conservation.....................................................................................174
4.11.1 Objective of the Study..............................................................................................................174
4.11.2 Scope of the Survey.................................................................................................................174
4.11.3 Methods...................................................................................................................................175
4.12 GIS and Remote Sensing Application...............................................................................................175
4.12.1 Objectives................................................................................................................................175
4.12.2 Scope.......................................................................................................................................176
4.12.3 Methodology...........................................................................................................................176
5 Expected Output......................................................................................................................................178
6 Work plan................................................................................................................................................179
7 Staffing.....................................................................................................................................................180
8 Resource requirement for field work.......................................................................................................181
9 References...............................................................................................................................................183
10 Annex.......................................................................................................................................................185
10.1 Annex 1: Questionnaires and Formats.............................................................................................185
10.2 Annex 2: Collected tabular data.......................................................................................................230
List of Figure
Figure 1-1 Map 0f Afar region............................................................................................................................43
Figure 1-2 Project areas.....................................................................................................................................44
37
Figure 1-3 Location of Teru Sub-Basin project area...........................................................................................46
Figure 3-1 Soil texture assessment at the river bank of Awra River using hand feeling method (Teru woreda)...........................................................................................................................................................................69
Figure 3-2 Gully wall full of colluviums and alluvium, Gulina Woreda...............................................................70
Figure 3-3 Surface sealing feature scene (Teru woreda) Rock outcrop coverage(Teru woreda).....................70
Figure 3-4 Termite mounds at Fukisa kebele (Gulina).......................................................................................71
Figure 3-5 the effect of different land limitations on the grazing land decreases the quality and quantity of grazing...............................................................................................................................................................76
Figure 3-6 Mobility as a common strategy to alleviate feed and water problem..............................................77
Figure 3-7 Drainage pattern of Teru sub-Basin..................................................................................................80
Figure 3-8 River Awra Teru woreda...................................................................................................................85
Figure 3-9 Bush land in Golina woreda..............................................................................................................86
Figure 3-10 The Afar communities moving from place to place with caring traditional house constricting materials (bended branches of trees and shrubs)/ on the road Awera to Golina/............................................88
Figure 3-11 Moringa olifora tree and its pods (Shiferaw) Yallo woreda............................................................91
Figure 3-12 Moving during dry season to highland areas and return back during wet season to the previous places.................................................................................................................................................................95
Figure 3-13 Road development in Afar Region /Teru-Awra dry weather; Chifra-Gulina all weather & Mille-Semera main road/..........................................................................................................................................104
Figure 3-14 Local goat breeds (left) &long horn local cattle breed (right).......................................................110
Figure 3-15 Donkeys used as a pack animals (fetching water) - in Gulina......................................................111
Figure 3-16 the skin used as a doom figure.....................................................................................................114
Figure 3-17 Sorghum (left margin); and teff (middle), wheat (right margin) cultivation under rain fed agriculture in Golina (Fukisa kebelle) and Yalo (Kilinagebuli kebelle) woredas respectively...........................124
Figure 3-18 Parthinium (left margin) and Africa bollworm (middle), termite mound (right margin) in Awura (Hida kebelle) and Golina (kelewan kebelle) woredas respectively.................................................................129
Figure 3-19 Gully erosion losing and dissecting the productive land in Golina wereda...................................135
Figure 3-20 Wind Erosion in Teru Woreda (at the Woreda town)...................................................................137
38
Figure 3-21 Stone bunds as hillside terracing in Yallo wereda.........................................................................138
Figure 3-22 Land invaded by prosopis Juliflora at Yalo Woreda......................................................................142
Figure 3-23 Land Invaded by Parthenium Hysterophorus at Awera woreda...................................................145
Figure 3-24 illustrates the morphology of the Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment, and the distribution of Quaternary eruptive centres taken from Yirgu, etal, 2005..............................................................................147
Figure 3-25 illustrates characteristic features of the Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment...........................148
List of Tables
Table 3-1 Soil types in Lower Awash Sub-basin (Afar Regional Atlas, June 2009).............................................66
Table 3-2 Perennial Rivers, crossing kebeles, current uses & irrigation potentials of woreda’s in Teru sub basin..................................................................................................................................................................81
Table 3-3 intermittent rivers in each woreda of Teru sub basin........................................................................82
Table 3-4 No. of deep, shallow, hand dug wells & springs in Teru sub basin woreda’s.....................................83
Table 3-5 Vegetation cover of Teru sub basin/hectare/....................................................................................91
Table 3-6 Common tree and shrub species.......................................................................................................91
Table 3-7 Common mammals and aquatic wildlife in the study area (Teru sub basin)......................................93
Table 3-8 Population Size of Teru Sub-basin project Woredas by Sex...............................................................95
Table 3-9 Population Size by Woreda, Percentage Share and Density..............................................................96
Table 3-10 Number of schools & teachers in each woreda...............................................................................99
Table 3-11 Health Institutions by type and number of health professionals in the study area.......................100
Table 3-12 Access to telecommunication, power, markets & financial services..............................................105
Table 3-13 Type of cooperatives in TSB woreda..............................................................................................106
Table 3-14 Type and distribution of livestock species in Teru sub basin is indicated in the table below;........109
Table 3-15 the type and distribution of the different forage species in the surveyed woredas is indicated as follows.............................................................................................................................................................113
Table 3-16 the grazing pattern and herd movement of the surveyed woredas is indicated below.................114
39
Table 3-17 the distribution of veterinary clinics, post veterinary clinics, pharmacy and professionals related to Woreda and no. of kebels................................................................................................................................123
Table 3-18 the existing crop pattern of the study area under rain fed agriculture (meher) in the area..........125
Table 3-19 the existing crop pattern of the study area under irrigation agriculture (dry season) in the area. 125
Table 3-20 Cropping pattern of the study area in 2005/06-2009/10 cropping season (G.C)...........................126
Table 3-21 Existing crop rotation pattern........................................................................................................127
Table 3-22 Agricultural input type, amount and distribution in the sub-basin (2001/02 cropping season).. . .128
Table 3-23 Major Crop pests currently identified in rain fed and/or irrigation agriculture in the area...........128
Table 3-24 Physico-chemical Analysis Report of water wells in Teru Sub-basin area......................................139
Table 3-25 Woredas of Teru sub-basin invaded by prosopis and status of invasion.......................................141
Table 3-26 Woredas of Teru Sub-basin invaded by Parthenium and Status of invasion..................................145
Table 3-27 Time and location of relocated earthquakes for the Dabbau rifting episode. Depths are fixed at10km............................................................................................................................................................148
Table 3-28 Woredas of Teru Sub-basin affected by flood and rivers cause flooding.......................................149
Table 4-1 Soil survey specifications.................................................................................................................152
Table 8-1Field equipments, Tools and materials for soil survey......................................................................182
Abbreviations
ACZ Agro climatic zone
ADLI Agricultural Development Led Industry
AEC Agroecological cell
AEZ Agroecological Zone
ANRS Afar Nation Regional State
APARI Afar Pastoral & Agro Pastoral Research Institution
ARWDS Afar Range lands And Water Development Study
40
CBPP Contagious Bovine pleuropneumonia
CCPP Contagious Caprine pleuropneumonia
Coops Cooperatives
CSA Central Statistics Agency
EPRDF Ethiopian People Republic Democratic Front
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
FGD Focus Group Discussion
GOs Governmental Organizations
Ha Hectare
HH House Hold
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institution
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ITCZ Inter Tropical Convergent Zone
Kg Kilogram
Km Kilometer
LASB Lower Awash Sub Basin
LGP Length of growing period
LUPRD Land Use Planning and Regulatory Department
LUTs Land use types
MCE Metaferia Consulting Engineers
MNB Multi Nutrient Block
NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations
NMA National Meteorological Agency
PET potential evapo- transpiration
PPR Peste DES Petitis Ruminants
Qt Quintal
SSD Support for Sustainable Development
TB Tuberculosis
41
TLU Tropical Livestock Unit
TSB Teru Sub Basin
TZ Thermal zone
URTI Upper Respiratory Tract Infection
UTI Urinary Tract Infection
WARC Werer Agricultural Research Center
WPARD Woreda Pastoral and Agro pastoral Rural Development
42
1 CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 BACKGROUND
Afar region is located between 39o 34’ up to 42o 28’ E longitude and 08o 49’ up to 14o 30’ N latitude.
It is found to the northeast of the country. Afar region is adjoining by Tigray region in the Northwest,
Amhara region in the West and Southwest, Oromia region in the South, Somali region in the
Southeast, Djibouti Republic in the East and Eritrea in the Northeast.
According to the Atlas of Afar region BoFED, the region has a total area of 9,480,570.2 hectares
(94,805.7km2). Based on the CSA 2007 population data afar has a total population of 1,411,092 with
average density of 15 persons per km2. The peoples of the region are pastoralists and semi-
pastoralists. The region has 5 zones, 32 woredas and 401 kebeles. Among them, zone 01 is the
largest, which covers 36% of the region. On the other hand, zone 05 is the smallest, which only
comprises 6% from the total area of the region. Adaa’r, Kurri and Bidu are recently added woredas by
subdivided from other woredas (See figure1.1).
Eritrea
Djibut
i Rep
ublic
Som
ali R
egio
n
Oromia Region
Am
hara Region
Tig
ray Region
ELIDAR
DUBTI
GEWANE
BIDU
BERAHLE
KURRI
AFDERA
TERU
MILLE
AMIBERA
DALOL
AWRA
CHIFRA
EREBTI
YALO
EWA
ADAA'R
MEGALE
AFAMBO
AYSAITA
ABALA
DULESA
TELALAK
DEWE
GOLINA
AWASH
SEMUREBI
ADELALA
KUNEBA
BURIMODAITU
ARGOBA
DALEFAGE
500000.000000
500000.000000
600000.000000
600000.000000
700000.000000
700000.000000
800000.000000
800000.000000
900000.000000
900000.000000
10
00
00
0.0
00
00
0
10
00
00
0.0
00
00
0
110
00
00
.00
00
00
110
00
00
.00
00
00
12
00
00
0.0
00
00
0
12
00
00
0.0
00
00
0
13
00
00
0.0
00
00
0
13
00
00
0.0
00
00
0
14
00
00
0.0
00
00
0
14
00
00
0.0
00
00
0
15
00
00
0.0
00
00
0
15
00
00
0.0
00
00
0
16
00
00
0.0
00
00
0
16
00
00
0.0
00
00
0Map of Afar Region
±
40 0 40 80 120 16020
km
Figure 1-1 Map 0f Afar region
43
Afar is one of the nine federal regions of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia. Nearly, the whole of the
region lies inside the East African Rift Valley. The famous Afar Triangle found in this region. Almost
more than 80% of the region has altitude less than 1000m above sea level. The region has little
rainfall in autumn and spring. However, the border of the region to the highlands of Ethiopia has
summer rain. Awash is the main river in the region.
The Amhara Design and Supervision Works Enterprise have three project areas; namely, Middle
Awash Sub-Basin, Lower Awash Sub-Basin and Teru Sub-Basin integrated land use planning study
project sites. Among them, Middle Awash Sub-Basin project is given to Oromiya Design and
Supervision Works Enterprise as a sub-contractor. This reconnaissance survey only covers two of
them; Teru and Lower Awash Sub-Basins, which covers a total of 3.2 million hectares of land.
ELIDAR
DUBTI
GEWANE
BIDU
BERAHLE
KURRI
AFDERA
TERU
MILLE
AMIBERA
DALOL
AWRA
CHIFRA
EREBTI
YALO
EWA
ADAA'R
MEGALE
AFAMBO
AYSAITA
ABALA
DULESA
TELALAK
DEWE
GOLINA
AWASH
SEMUREBI
ADELALA
KUNEBA
BURIMODAITU
ARGOBA
DALEFAGE
500000.000000
500000.000000
600000.000000
600000.000000
700000.000000
700000.000000
800000.000000
800000.000000
900000.000000
900000.000000
1000
000.0
00
00
0
1000
000.0
00
00
0
1100
000.0
00
00
0
1100
000.0
00
00
0
1200
000.0
00
00
0
1200
000.0
00
00
0
1300
000.0
00
00
0
1300
000.0
00
00
0
1400
000.0
00
00
0
1400
000.0
00
00
0
1500
000.0
00
00
0
1500
000.0
00
00
0
1600
000.0
00
00
0
1600
000.0
00
00
0
Project Sites of Afar Region
±
40 0 40 80 120 16020
km
Figure 1-2 Project areas
44
1.3 Objectives
The main objectives of this reconnaissance survey were:
To collect baseline data for the detail survey.
To identify the existing land use potentials and problems within the project areas.
To Identify potential land uses such as commercial farming ,various investments industrial
horticultural zones , food crop production , irrigable land, urbanization and settlements, for
parking and wild life reserves, domestic, productive, protective and industrial forest,
livestock grazing area and rehabilitation and conservation of degraded lands.
To propose potential LUTs.
To prepare Land Map Units (base map) for detail survey.
To devise methods and requirements for detail survey.
1.4 Description of the project area
Teru Sub-Basin is found in the Danakil Basin. The major rivers of the sub-basin originate from the
highlands of Eastern Amhara Region. The sub-basin includes 6 (six) woredas, namely, Awra, Golina,
Yalo, Teru, Parts of Erebti and Megale. The area of the project is 1(one) million hectares of land. The
project area lies between 110 46’ to 130 00’ N latitude and 390 48.8’ to 400 45.5’ E longitude (See
Figure 1.2). The project area has an elevation ranges between 133 and 2181 meters above sea level.
Western parts of Golina, Yalo and Megale have high elevation with relative to the other woredas.
Teru, Awra and Parts of Golina have gentle slope with low altitude. The project area shows a
dramatic altitude change from the Western Highlands towards east and northeast direction. It
marginalizes the western escarpment of the Rift Valley. For instance, there is about 1000 meters
altitude change within a distance of less than 10 kilo meters only (See figure 1.3).
No figure name???45
TERU
AWRA
YALO
GOLINA
MEGALE
EREBTI
600000.000000
600000.000000
620000.000000
620000.000000
640000.000000
640000.000000
660000.000000
660000.000000
680000.000000
680000.000000
700000.000000
700000.000000
13
000
00.0
00
00
01
33
000
0.00
00
00
13
300
00.0
00
00
0
13
600
00.0
00
00
0
13
600
00.0
00
00
0
13
900
00.0
00
00
0
13
900
00.0
00
00
0
14
200
00.0
00
00
0
14
200
00.0
00
00
0
14
500
00.0
00
00
0
10 0 10 20 30 405
km
±1:1,000,000
Location Map Teru Sub-Basin
Figure 1-3 Location of Teru Sub-Basin project area
1.5 Scope of the reconnaissance survey
The survey concentrates on collection of secondary data. Based on the proposal and baseline maps
prepared at office, data were collected from federal, regional and woreda offices of the Afar region.
All woredas of the project area were visited except Megale Woreda, which wasn’t accessible during
the survey. Discussions and interviews were run with the woreda officials and experts. At this stage,
documents were reviewed; major data were collected through questionnaires and interviews; and
sample field observations were conducted. The survey covers 6 woredas, out of which Megale and
Erebti have only some part in the project area. The project area has a total area of 1,001,481 hectares.
Even though the numbers of woredas are small as compared to Lower Awash Sub-Basin, it took too
many days from the total 53 days which were used to survey the two projects.
46
1.6 Methodology
The major data collection methods applied was questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaires were
supplied and answered by woreda experts and officials. Interviews were conducted to the respected
bodies. Another method applied was reviewing previous documents. Different literatures and research
works run in Afar region were intensively assessed both in federal and regional offices. The other
data gathering method conducted in the survey was observation of sample areas.
The collected data was analyzed and organized in a way that can be compatible to the survey
objectives. In each discipline, the experts work to exploit the best out of their review and collected
data. Group discussions and technical reviews were conducted at evening time in order to keep
integrity of the whole data collected for the land use planning and for further verification.
1.7 Limitations
There were limitations in the survey. The major problems were inaccessibility (e.g. Megale woreda),
heat stress, expensiveness of food items, lack of data in some woredas, absence of drinking water,
roads and bridges damage (e.g. Erebti, Dewe and Telalak Woredas), Shortage of garages and fuel
stations.
2 CHAPTER TWO
2.1 PREVIOUS STUDIES REVIEW CONCERNING ON THE PURPOSE OF SURVEY IN ALL DISCIPLINES
2.2 Agro climatic resources & zonation of the lowlands
The main factor influencing air temperature in Ethiopia is elevation. As elevation increases air
temperature falls. The lowlands below 1500-m elevation are thus the warmest parts of the country,
with annual mean temperatures ranging from 20 to 25°C (NMA, 1996). For the lowlands, the basic
dichotomy involves unimodal and bimodal systems. In terms of extent of land affected, the most
important unimodal system is found to the extreme north and north-east Afar territory.
The regional variation in temperature and rainfall in the lowlands provides a basis for understanding
climatic variability. This, in turn, yields important differences in vegetation and primary production
47
that influence human ecology and agricultural development potential. For example, very arid climates
tend to occur under unimodal rainfall and warmer temperatures, while the semi-arid climates occur
under bimodal rainfall and cooler temperatures closer to the highland massif (FAO, 1978). Here a
simpler categorisation is used to partition the Ethiopian lowlands into three agro-ecological zones.
The arid zone: has up to 90 growing days per year. It includes the lowest areas such as Dalol in Afar
territory near Djibouti, which has the lowest elevation in the country at 100 m below sea level. The
arid zone makes up nearly 64% of the lowlands, including territories of the Beni Amer, Afar. Range
plant communities have low production potential. Vegetation types include dwarf shrub grassland and
dry thorn bushland. Livestock composition is diverse but tends to emphasize browsing species
(camels and goats) that forage from woody vegetation. Human lifestyles are nomadic, involving
frequent movements of households as well as animals. Social systems tend to be decentralised in
terms of traditional leadership (FAO, 1978). Cultivation is very risky and often confined to early
maturing drought-tolerant grain crops (e.g. sorghum or millet) planted in depressions or flood plains.
The semi-arid zone: has from 90 to 180 growing days per year. This zone clings to the periphery of
the highland massif below 1500 m elevation, except in the west where it occurs below 1000 m. The
semi-arid zone makes up about 21 % of the lowlands. Annual temperatures tend to be cooler than in
the arid zone (20°C isotherm) and rainfall (400 to 700 mm/year) is bimodal. Range plant
communities have much higher potential productivity than those of the arid zone. Plant communities
commonly consist of perennial savannahs and dry woodlands with grasses.
Here People tend to be semi-nomadic, with households sedentary in most years and livestock being
mobile if necessary. Compared with the arid zone, livestock diseases appear to be a more serious
production problem in general.
The sub humid zone: This zone occurs near 1500-m elevation (particularly to the west) and has a
longer growing season (180 to 270) than the driest zones due to higher annual rainfall (800 to 1300
mm) and lower temperatures. Sub humid regions also extend into pockets of the highland massif and
it may comprise a gross area of 15% of the lowlands. Cultivation of cereals (especially maize) is
important and tends to be limited more by soil fertility than by moisture (FAO, 1995). Sedentary,
mixed crop-livestock operations are the norm. Land availability is usually not a major limiting factor
and livestock nutrition tends to be limited by forage quality rather than forage quantity (Jahnke,
48
1982). Common livestock are cattle, sheep and goats. Camels are not typically kept where annual
rainfall is over 900 mm (Wilson, 1985).
More refined approach has been developed by the Land Use Planning and Regulatory Department
(LUPRD) of the Ministry of Agriculture for the preparation of land resources maps (Hendrickson et
al, 1984). The methodology and the input variables of AEZ are scale-independent. In this approach
the major factors considered in assessing land resources are:
The growing period- defines the period of the year when both moisture and temperature conditions
are suitable for crop production. It provides a framework for summarizing temporally variable
elements of climate, which can then be compared with the requirements and estimated responses of
the plant. The calculation of LGP has been developed by FAO (1978) and although it cannot account
for local conditions like runoff during high intensity rains, soil water augmentation from subsurface
drainage, variable soil water storage characteristics, etc. it remains a useful concept at regional and
national levels.
The estimation of growing period is based on a water balance model which compares rainfall (P) with
potential evapo- transpiration (PET). If the growing period is not limited by temperature, the ratio of
P/PET determines the start, end and type of growing period. Assessment of LGP for individual years,
based on the use of historical rainfall data, enables quantification of the level of risk as well as the
potential production under average climatic conditions. Such an approach greatly improves the utility
of the assessment, particularly in areas subject to periodic drought.
From previous works, four major lengths of growing periods are identified in the region; these are
from not possible, very high, medium and low. About 85.50% of the region area LGP is not possible
for crop production in rain fed agriculture, whereas 13.99% are highly suitable. Since the PET is
much higher than rainfall, in general crops cannot grow on most part of the region under rainfed
condition and perennial streams do not originate inside the region. The reason that most part of the
basins belongs to arid climate indicates that irrigation has no alternative to achieve food security at
regional level.
Thermal zone (TZ) - refers to the amount of heat available for plant growth and development during
the growing period and closely related to altitude in Ethiopia. It is usually defined by the mean daily
temperature during the growing period. In regional and national AEZ assessments, thermal zones may
be defined based on temperature intervals of 5°C or 2.5°C.
49
The soil mapping unit is the basic unit taken from the soil map. On small-scale maps, soil mapping
units rarely comprise single soils, but usually consist of a combination of a dominant soil with minor
associated soils.
The land resource inventory is essentially an overlay of climatic and soil information. The resulting
units are the AEZs, which have a unique combination, or a specified range of soil mapping units,
growing period regimes, & thermal regimes. Multiple overlay techniques are particularly applicable
when GIS is used, and the resulting agro ecologic cells (AECs) and zones are more effective planning
units when such information is included.
Unfortunately the Land Use Planning and Regulatory Department (LUPRD) of the Ministry of
Agriculture, low land resource classification is based on relatively scant meteorological information
and on satellite imagery which has not been fully verified on the ground. However, it remains the
most complete and up to date information available for the whole country.
Agro-ecological zoning (AEZ), as applied in FAO studies, defines zones on the basis of combinations
of soil, landform and climatic characteristics. The particular parameters used in the definition focus
attention on the climatic and edaphic requirements of crops and on the management systems under
which the crops are grown. Each zone has a similar combination of constraints and potentials for land
use, and serves as a focus for the targeting of recommendations designed to improve the existing
land-use situation, either through increasing production or by limiting land degradation.
The addition of further layers of information on such factors, as land tenure, land availability,
nutritional requirements of human and livestock populations, infrastructure and costs and prices, has
enabled the development of more advanced applications in natural resource analysis and land-use
planning.
2.3 SoilIn connection with Awash Development Plan and various rangelands development, different studies
have been carried out in Afar Region. During this phase of survey, the following relevant soil studies
have been reviewed.
1. Rangelands and Water Development Study, Volume III, Part II
The Afar Rangelands and Water Development Study incorporates a number of sub-sectoral studies of
which the soil study constitutes one sub-sector. This study report is one of the annexes that form the
final Report of the Afar Rangelands and Water Development Study. This study document is prepared
by METAFERIA CONSULTING ENG. PLC in 2001.
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According to the study the Afar Region comprises the following geological units:
Lava flows (mainly basaltic) often connected to volcanic edifices.
Fissural flows dominantly comprising basaltic lava, subordinate ignimbrites and rhyolites
Basalts along the plateau margin, poorly defined and deeply weathered basalt flows with
scarce tuffs.
Lacustrine and swamp deposits and volcano lacustrine deposits of rift floor.
Allivial and Colluvial deposits on the foot escarpments and plains
2. Afar Regional Atlas 2
This revised Atlas is a joint product of Afar and Amhara National Regional States of Finance and
Economic Development Bureaus in June, 2009. The Main objective of this Regional Atlas is to show
the spatial distribution of regional resources by the help of Maps and description.
The detail objectives are:-
To gives direction for future sectoral development, by showing the existing distribution of
social and economic sectors of each woreda.
To help planners and policy makers on pastoral activity, by showing the needed and the
available animal feed.
To show the pressure/ density/ of human and livestock population on area to compare the
available resource and the existing pressure on that specific area.
Based on this Atlas document, 6 major distinct soil types, which account 88.12 % of the region area,
and other 10 minor soil types, which covers 11.88 % are identified in the Region. The major soils are:
Lithosols /20.60%/, Regosols /18.88%/, Solonchaks /18.72%/, Fluvisols 12.57%/, Rock surface
/9.29%/ and Cambisols /8.06%/,
2.4 Land use/Land cover
Very few but important studies were carried out in Afar region with relation to land use and
watershed treatment. A number of books and documents were assessed in order to analyze the land
use/land cover and to know the way how GIS tools used in the land use planning. The basic guideline
to review was the agreement document signed between ADSWE and MoARD. For both sub-basins,
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the document was very important. It gives a good direction where should be concentrate and which
reference should be reviewed.
STRATEGIC PLAN FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, CONSERVATION, AND
MANAGEMENT OF THE WOODY BIOMASS RESOURCES/January 2004, with different volumes is
the main document assessed. Especially volume 4, which is OUTLINE OF GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND REMOTE SENSING METHODOLOGIES/July 2003, was very
important document. The other one, volume 5, which states the methodology of Land use systems
analysis, was a significant document at preparation and survey stage of the study.
In most disciplines, an important review was done from AWASH RIVER FLOOD CONTROL AND
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT STUDY PROJECT document with various volumes, which is run
by Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR). WORKING PAPER I-VI, Interim Report and Inception
Reports were valuable documents in the collection of the required data. The documents were
produced at different years by Halcrow Group Limited.
2.5 Watershed management and conservation
Water and Rangeland Development (METAFERIA PLC, 2001)
In this study it was indicated that lowlands predominantly constitute the Afar Region with altitudes
generally ranging from 200-1500 meters. The land cover distribution of grasslands, cultivated lands,
shrubs and bushs were in proportion to the area of the region. The types and forms of erosion were
indicated in Regional scale. Flooding as a cause of land degradation and its damages was verified.
Afar Regional Atlas 2
The present landscapes of the region was indicated to be the product of tectonic processes.
Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (2004)
In this study, soil erosion was described. Soil loss by water erosion was quantitatively indicated by
zone and woreda level
2.6 Hydrology and water resource assessment
A. Master Plan for The Development of Surface Water Resources in Awash Basin.
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This report contains the climatic characterstics of Awash Basin and analysis of
meteorological parameters, principally rainfall , are described in the report.The surface
water resources are assessed in the report. This section describes the analysis
undertaken to obtain the data files of flows for input to the simulation and optimization
models and also describes a regional flood frequency analysis of the tributaries of
Awash. In general Appendix A of the report contains description of data bases which
were compiled during the course of the study and describes an investigation into data
quality and makes recommendations for improvments to the gauging networks. It also
contains summary of statistics of rainfall and flow data.
Climate
The climate of Awash Basin comes under the influence of Inter Tropivcal Convergence
Zone (ITCZ). This zone of low pressure marks the convergence of dry tropical eastreilies
and moist equtorial westerilies.According to HALCROW (1989), the seasonal rainfall
distribution within the basin lies in annual migration of the ITCZ across the basin. The
ITCZ starts the its advance across the basin from south in March, bringing the small or
spring rains. In June and July the ITCZ reaches its most northerly location beyond the
basin which then expiriences the heavy or summer –rains throughout.The ITCZ returns
southwards during August, September and October, restoring a drier, easterly airstream
which prevails until the ITCZ resumes its northward migration in March.
The annual rainfall distribution resulting from this cycle is seen most clearly in two
distnict rainy periods which are observed in the northerly plains of the basin. The hills to
the soouth –east of the Basin still display two rainfall peaks separated by periods of
lower rainfall but on the plateau to west , around Addis Ababa , the distribution shows a
continual increase from the spring rain to the summer peak rainfall.The hills extending
northwards and forming the western boundary of the basin display the Bimodal
distribution of lower plains. The distribution of rainfall over the highland areas tends to
be modified by orographic effects.
Potential evapotranmspiration (PET) is also reltated to altitude. The relation between
PET and altitude is developed for Awash and Part of Abay River Basins (Yilma S.,
2002).Therefore; the regional equations developed in his work are used to estimate PET
in areas where there is scarsity of climatic varioables.
Surface Water Resources
53
The hydrological Department of of EVDSA provided the project with a catalogue of all
the flow gauging instalations in Awash Basin and also provided , in manuscript, all
available monthly runoff data at the stations used for the project.
Data Quality ; flow data was checked for anommalies . This consisted of chechking for
artimethetic errors. The data was then inspected for non-arthemetic errors. The study
revealed cases where suddden high and low figures in the data record could not be
reconciled with adjacent figures or records at adjacent stations. In the work basic
statistics parameters were also examined to detect further anommalies in records such
as exceptional floodds.Cummulative mass plot were drawn and examined and
downward shift in trend was not noticed in the records after 1977.
2.7 Forestry and Wild life
To collect the required secondary data or information the following relevant documents and previous
studies reviewed on the following topics.
The forest resource and potential, the type, coverage and description of the natural forest (vegetation)
of the region reviewed from previous studies of
CHDEP consultant (1998), Forestry action program volume 1 ANRS, BoA
Wondimu Asfaw (2001), Forestry development assessment for the proposed regional land use plan.
AWBSP (2004), A Strategic plan for the sustainable development, conservation and management of
woody biomass MoARD
Identification, description and use value of trees and shrubs of the region and their local and scientific
name reviewed frame
Gebru Bonger (2001), Vegetation assessment for the proposed regional land use plan
Azen Bekele (1993), useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia hand book no 6
The wildlife conservation methods, descriptions and potentials of the region, species type, habitats,
scientific and local name of wild animals reviewed from
CHDEP consultant (1998), Forestry action program volume 1 ANRS, BoA
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PDPA (2005), Compendium of notes on wild life conservation and Training manual (unpublished),
Bahir Dar
2.8 Socioeconomics
1. Afar Regional State ‘A Strategic Plan for Sustainable Development, Conservation Management of the WOODY BIOMASS Resource’ Rural Socio-Economic Survey Final report, volume II, 2003
The general objective of the socio-economic survey is to provide the sociological and economic
baseline information required for developing strategic options for sustainable utilization and
management of natural resources, with an emphasis on woody biomass. This information will assist
decision makers and planners in understanding not only the socio-economic implications of policies
related to woody biomass resources, but also the key parameters that should orient policies and
programs at the national and regional levels.
Socio-cultural and economic conditions are well defined: Characteristics such as human
population and livestock density, pressure on natural resources, natural resource dynamics in response
to these pressures, accessibility to roads and markets and, consequently, commodity prices are all
well defined within the farming/pastoral system boundaries.
The study shows that the Afar population settlement pattern and the main ethnic groups live in the
region. The main ethnic groups are Afar (97%), Amhara (1.3%), Argoba (0.8%), Oromo (0.3%),
Wolayita (0.3%), Tigray (0.2%) and Hadiya (0.1%).
As the study shows that, the livelihood of the rural population of the Afar Regional Sate is based
mainly on livestock production, although 18 percent of families are more dependent on crop
production. Extreme variability in and low amounts of rainfall cause the livestock-rangeland system
to be in a state of dis-equilibrium. Years of average to good rainfall lead to a rapid increase in
livestock numbers, which then “crash” after one or two years of poor rainfall. This is in sharp
contrast to the Highland livestock systems, which are in a state of relative (low level) equilibrium. In
Afar Regional State livestock numbers oscillate around the ecological carrying capacity.
As the survey was designed to take into account the four major farming systems in the Afar Regional
State; each farming system can be categorised as follows:
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Farming System 1 - Sedentary rain fed agriculture, growing maize and sorghum. Livestock
holdings are comparatively very small (10 or less cattle and less than 20 ruminants). Herd splitting
does not generally occur. There is little or no movement of livestock.
Farming System 2 - Rain fed agro-pastoral agriculture based on rain fed agriculture cultivating
maize and sorghum. Livestock holdings are large (11 or more cattle and/or 20 or more ruminants.).
Herd splitting occurs. Livestock movements can occur over long distances in search of grazing and
browse. Camels travel the furthest because of their ability to go for long periods without water. The
“dry” cattle herds can travel long distances but must be within a maximum of three days to water.
Goats and sheep generally stay within one day’s travel of the settlement, although goats have a wider
feeding range than sheep because of their ability to consume a greater proportion of browse. Calves
and milking cows generally stay close to the settlement.
Farming System 3 - Pastoralism involving no crop cultivation and large livestock holdings,
generally larger than agro-pastoral families. Herd splitting occurs. Movement of livestock for grazing
and browse are the same as for the agro-pastoralists.
Farming System 4 - Irrigated agro-pastoral agriculture based on irrigated agriculture in the
Awash delta area. Maize, sorghum and sesame are grown. Livestock holdings are large. Herd splitting
occurs. Movements of dry cattle and camels in the wet season are as far as Chifra Woreda. Sheep
graze over relatively short distances along the awash floodplain, whilst movements of goats and
camels occur over much larger distances.
2. Afar region survey, “identified agricultural investment areas”
This revised document is a joint product of Afar and Amhara national regional states of finance and
economic development Bureaus in July 2009. The study shows the potentials and opportunities
available for agricultural investments in the region.
3. Afar nation regional state BoFED regional atlas 2, June, 2009, semera
The Atlas shows that the special distribution of regional resources on the help of Maps &
Descriptions. It shows the pressure /density/ of human and livestock population on area. This helps to
compare the available resources and the existing pressure on that specific area.
4. WARC-APARI SURVEY, 2007, “Assessment made on the potential, constraints and
opportunity on the production system of ANRS”, Case study on selected woredas of zone 1, 4 &
5.
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The study shows that the production system of Afar region is dominated by pastoralism from which
agro-pastoralism is now emerging following some permanent and temporary rivers on which small
scale irrigation is developed. The Afar pastoral communities depend on multi-species livestock
production. However, camels, sheep, goats, cattle, and donkeys constitute the main productive assets
of the local community. They are sources of food and cash, and are important in establishing
relationships, which provide the security, flexibility, and mutual aid essential for Afar. The livestock
products and by-product processing technologies are based on indigenous knowledge, which is
primitive, laborious, time taking and non-hygienic, and need further improvement. The livestock in
the region depends on rain-fed rangeland, which its productivity is declining as a result of recurrent
drought, land degradation, lack of market infrastructure, mismanagement, encroachment of
agriculture, conflict and invasion of weeds.
Semi-nomadic peoples, who are settled along the rivers and streams that flow to the region, practice
crop production as a mixed farming. Parts of the Afar community engaged in such system are
increasing steadily recently. The major crops grown by such group of the community include majorly
maize, sorghum and tef. But, vegetables, fruits, oil crops and root crops are also cultivated in a
limited range as source of food and income. They perform backward and inefficient farming practices
and tools. This leads the farming activity very laborious, time consuming and low productive.
The region encloses potential natural resources that were either under-used or never used while the
Afar community is suffering from severe poverty. With respect to the natural resources, the region is
endowed with plenty of seasonal and permanent rivers that are potential to irrigate tremendous
hectares of land through pressurized pumps and gravity. On the other hand, the, soil types are
transported Fluvisols around the course and Regosols towards the hills. The fertility is found in a
good state except some salinity problem around some river basins. The soils require irrigation water
to produce crop. Similarly, the vegetation and the wild life resources are innumerable in their species
diversity, coverage, and abundance. Insufficient socio-economic services, such as schools, roads,
health facilities, electricity, and marketing services left the afar pastoral community in a very difficult
situation that needs especial attention.
2.9 Agronomy
Worer agricultural research center and Afar pastoral agro pastoral research institute
Assessment made on the Potential, Constraints, and Opportunity on the Production System of Afar
57
National Regional State; Case Study on selected Woredas of zone 1, 4, and 5. This study investigated
opportunities and constraints of crop production which are more or less the same in most part of the
study area, hence present together:
Constraints
Lack of crop production skills
Lack of awareness and experience are the most important bottlenecks of the localities in expanding
the cultivation and productivity of crops. As a result, crop production using irrigation in the woredas
was started very recently. The inhabitants of the study woredas shifted from pastoral to agro-pastoral
desperately by the recurrent occurrence of drought. These discrepancies can be witnessed from their
poor crop husbandry and vast array of crops they try to cultivate in their limited landholding.
Lack of irrigation, drainage structures and unstudied field irrigation water application
In the study woredas, irrigation structure was observed as the most important limitation of irrigated
areas, as the irrigation structure constructed by the regional government in the study woredas is
relatively very less in number and standard, the irrigation water supply to the crop producers is very
unsatisfactory.
Flood and canal damage by siltation
Silt sedimentation was understood as the common challenges of irrigated farm situated along the
Awash River basin and at the start of the river course. Despite the limited availability of irrigation
structure constructed by skilled person, the inhabitants who cultivate crops made a water canal by
themselves. These water canals are constructed from the width of the river course especially during
the dry season and can have a long distance. The irrigation canals either washed away or sedimented
by silt when the river increased in volume or accidental flood occurred in the woredas. In the mean
time of canal damage the producers face shortage of water. On the other hand, the development of
irrigation water from the existing irrigation structures and the maintenance system given to the
irrigation canals is very weak.
Adapted varieties and seed supply Shortage
In almost all study woredas, adapted varieties were hardly available especially in those rain-fed
woredas (Semu Robi, Chifra). Consequently, the producers use local varieties (land races) which are
low yielding. In the past, none of the research centers as well as regional woredas agricultural Bureau
supplied improved and adaptable verities for producers in the woredas. Despite the presence of 58
adaptable crop verities to various agro-ecology developed or released by the research centers in the
country, still the producers of study woredas could not use those varieties. The reason is the
remoteness of the survey woredas which resulted in poor linkage with the Bureau of woredas
Agricultural and less effort to promote the improved varieties. Seed is very important material or
engine in order to get reasonable quality and yield. In fact, it is scarcely available in almost all zones
of the region currently. So the crop production activity in the focus woredas as well other is highly
affected due to seed shortage.
Pest and animal damage
The issue of pest challenge remained ignored agenda in the past times of Agricultural Bureau of the
focused woredas under study. In Awra and Ewa woredas, the pests on major crop maize become more
sever this time. Some of the major pests of maize are locust and beetles (black and yellow winged).
Besides, animals like porcupine and warthog damage maize farms very seriously. In this Woreda as
the producers have little knowledge of crop protection, complete loss of yield due to insect out break
might be caused. At Dewe Woreda, high insect pest infestation on cereals crops was pointed out by
the interviewed group of Woreda Agricultural Bureau experts. The problem is more aggravated by
the poor skill of farmers’ pest management. Supporting farmers who cannot afford immediate
payment for chemicals is mandatory. The other common pest in the study woredas is weed. The
observation made by the survey team identified parthenium weed in all woredas. More critically the
parthenium invasion was observed at Awra and Ewa woredas. At Dewe and Telalak, in addition to
parthenium a number of weed species exist in association with crops. Hence, the yield and quality
loss due to these weeds and their control method should be studied.
Lack of farm implements and trained oxen
The access to trained oxen, oxen driven implements, and hand tools is very limited. Even the concept
of using drought power animals and other farm implements is vague to farmers of focus woredas. In
turn, as observed by the survey team in all woredas there was a big problem of land preparation.
Therefore, specifying drought power animals suitable and trained for traction should be done.
Potentials and Opportunities
Huge amount of flat to almost flat fertile irrigable land.
Some infant starts and know how’s on how to cultivate crops.
59
Perennial Rivers that could be accessed through small scale gravity& pressurized pump
schemes and presence of different seasonal streams.
Presence of NGO’s like SSD, PCDP etc.
The availability of large cultivable land and the existence of several perennial as well as
Seasonal rivers for irrigation and crop production.
The availability of research organizations (both federal and regional) such as Werer
Agricultural Research Center (WARC) and Afar Pastoral and Agro pastoral Research Institute
(APARI) that are fully involved in agricultural research activities in general and crop
production in particular.
The presence of various non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) that involve in agricultural
development activities in the region.
The availability of readymade improved technologies in WARC and other research centers
suitable for semi-arid and arid agriculture.
2.10 Environmental issues and Change Detection
Halcrow, 2006 in the review of the physical environment and its impact on flooding in the Awash
River basin identified the following environmental issues: (1) Population increase, (2) deforestation,
(3) soil erosion and land degradation in the uplands, (4) displacement of pastoralists by irrigation, (5)
land pressure in the lowlands from over grazing, (6) flooding and agradation along the river valleys.
This study was referred and served as a spring board to organize environmental issues that were
identified during the reconnaissance survey. No specific land use/cover change detection has been
undertaken for the Teru sub-basin. However, land use /cover dynamics in Northern Afar rangelands
(Abaala district including a small area in Eastern Tigray) has been conducted by Tsegaye D., et.al. in
2010.
Tsegay D. et.al. Describe the methodology employed (remote sensing data, field observations and
information from local people) to analyze the patterns and dynamics of land use/cover changes for 35
years as follow:(1)Land sat MSS(multispectral scanner) acquired on November2,1972, Landsat
(Thematic Mapper) acquired on January5,1986, and ETM+ ( Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus)
acquired on March12,2007 were collected and used for this study,(2)the MSS and TM images were
geo referenced using the ETM+ as a master image,(3) seven land-use/ cover classes were identified
for image classification based on classification criteria for East African rangelands(Pratt and
60
Gwynne,1977),with minor modification,(4)a total of 570 ground truth points collected from the field
were used for 2007 image classification(285) and validation(285),(5)then, the land-use/cover changes
between the three periods(i.e. 1972,1986 and 2007) were quantified and a change detection between
matrix of ‘ from-to’ change was derived(Braimoh,2006;Pontius etal.,2004) to show land cover class
conversion transitions during 35 year period by overlaying the 1972 and 2007 images,(6) in relation
to the transition matrix, net change and net change-to- persistence ratio(Braimoh,2006;Pontius
etal.,2004 were computed to show the resistance and vulnerability of a given land use/cover type,
(7)image processing and mapping were undertaken using ILWIS open3.7 Remote Sensing and GIS
software, and (8) to further understand the dynamics of land use / cover change, possible major
drivers and consequences of the changes were explored using 35 key informants and group
discussion. In order to design the methodology for the semi-detail activity of the land use plan, the
above methodology with minor modification will be employed to analyze the land-use/cover
dynamics of the Teru sub-basin.
3 CHAPTER THREE
3.1 The Reconnaissance Survey Results
3.2 Physical Environment
3.2.1 Agro climatic resource field Survey
This altitude- rainfall relationship fairly represents the whole afar region except those areas where
their altitude is below sea level. According to the dwellers, the main rainy season of Teru sub-basin
(Teru, Erebti, Megale, Awra, Gulina, and Yalo) is bi-modal in most woredas of the sub basins with
low annual rainfall in the western escarpments decreasing to the arid zones (to the east). In general
the sub basin receives three rainy seasons. The main rain, karma, is from mid-June to mid-
September. This is followed by rainy showers in mid-December called dadaa and a minor rainy
season during March – April called sugum. This is in line with the fact that Afar region gets its main
rainy season in July and August when ITCZ positioned in northern Ethiopian or above it. The small
rain around April is generated from the high pressure system over the gulf of Aden-Indian Ocean by
south east wind. The annual rainfall distribution resulting from this cycle are two rainy periods in the
region namely the major rains in July- August and minor in March-April.
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The sub basin is highly characterized by low rainfall zone. The rainfall of the region is highly
associated with altitude and vegetation cover of the area. Relatively high altitude area such as all
western part of the sub basin (zone two and four) receive sufficient rainfall for crop production, but it
covers too small portion of the project area. Whereas, most parts of zone two receive low rainfall.
Disruptions on the performance of any rainy season will impact on the availability of pasture and
water as well as the overall food security situation of the pastoral and agro-pastoral communities.
The climate of the basin belongs to semi-arid and arid in such a way that aridity increasing from
south to north. Most part of the region receives low amount of rainfall whereas the escarpment area
and southern part of the basins gets better rain fall. The net work of climatic parameters particularly
those useful for the calculation of PET are not available in the basin. Daily data, (rainfall, temperature
min and max) of 13 stations in and near the study area have been collected from NMA.
Climatological data outside but near the boundary of the basins have also been collected. Those data,
though they are not in the project area, are very useful to determine the climatic characteristics of the
basin.
Temperature and altitude also have a direct relationship in the basin. As dwellers mentioned,
temperature in the basins is generally high, especially in the month of June all woredas have high
temperate condition. There are areas in the northern part of the Teru basin around Erebti and Teru that
have much higher temperature. It is believed that these areas are one of the hottest places in the
world. North West part of the region has normal temperature which is suitable for different
agricultural practices. However it covers too small portion of the study district.
As per the discussion with government officials held on woredas, most of them explain that the bi-
modal nature of rainfall at average condition, and the rare existence of rain in March & April make
rainfall characteristics as uni-modal. Certainly rainfall is reliable only for two months, July and
August, which is sufficient for growing of grasses but not crops. This might be one of the reasons
why the Afars are traditionally pastoralist instead of tillers.
Moreover, Woredas found in Eastern and northern parts of the basin (Teru, Erebti and Megale) are
those in which the rainfall on a given area of land is not adequate for regular crop production.
When we assess ,the major crops cultivated in the basin are cereals (maize, sorghum, beans, wheat),
pulses (field peas,), oil seeds (sunflower, sesame, groundnuts, etc), (pepper, garlic,), fruits (banana,
papaya, mango, avocado, orange), sugarcane, fibres (cotton is typical in most woredas), vegetables
(onion, tomato, cabbage, etc), root and tuber crops (potato, sweet- potatoes) and date palm. The
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Productivity of the Crops varies from zone to zone based on the existing climatic condition and
fertility of the Soil.
According to the discussions with dwellers, we found that the frequent and main climate-related or
hydro-meteorological hazards affecting pastoral and agro-pastoral communities common in every
year are all types of drought, sometimes flood, moisture stress, high temperature spell, pests, locust,
infestation, bush encroachment diseases, human diseases (mostly malaria), and livestock diseases.
Drought and famine are not sudden events rather the end result of long-term degradation of the
environment due to poor land use and irrational exploitation of natural resources. According to
communities and government officials at the Pastoralist, Food Security and Disaster Preparedness
Offices in the basin, so far drought frequency in the region has been every 6-8 years, but has now
increased to every 1-2 years. Since 2005, at least two major droughts (in 2006 and 2008) have strike
most of the woredas in the Teru sub basin. Especially 2006 and 2008 drought, which causes the death
of people and weak animals, was severe, impeded pasture and crop growth. The worst years in Afar
region in terms of drought were 2007 and 2008 with community’s loss of their cattle, sheep, camels
and goats. This shows that different livestock types have different resilience to climate hazards and
livestock loss may be in part related to rainfall amount and distribution.
The rangeland and livestock were on the process of recovery from the effects of the drought.
Unfortunately the two main rains Kerma and Sugum were below average and the third short rain,
Deda (December) was missing in most areas. The drought affected the whole region but it appeared
to be very serious in Zone 2. People and livestock have also migrating to neighbouring highland
woredas in Amhara and Tigray regions.
Crops grown by agro-pastoral communities are also affected by drought. Agro-pastoralists mentioned
the failing of crops during drought/dry years and some are even questioning the suitability of
agriculture in view of changing climatic conditions, i.e. decreasing rainfall predictability, shorter
rainy seasons, increasing drought frequency and increased rainfall intensity. As stated by one
government officials in Dubti woreda “Since 2005, rain has been erratic, and when it comes, it is too
much and destroy our crops.” On the other hand, pastoralists are slowly introducing and expanding
farming activities to support themselves on times of drought.
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In the discussions with government officials drought impacts include decreased pasture availability
leading to pasture shortage, overgrazing, and land degradation; decreased water availability leading to
water shortages and travel over long distances by women in search of water; decreased livestock
disease resistance decrease livestock productivity in terms of milk and meat; emaciation and death of
livestock decreased livestock prices and household incomes; crop failure in agro-pastoral areas, food
insecurity and malnutrition mostly affecting children, pregnant women and old people; abnormal
community mobility increased school drop-out due to community migration in search of pasture and
water; interruption of development activities increased human diseases and death.
As government officials in the study district woredas and kebeles found near river banks, flood
is among the most devastating natural hazards. In the district the excessive rain
triggered flood, crop damage and contributed to the spread of disease such as malaria, dengue
fever, and cholera. While abundant seasonal rain favored crops and pastures, it also triggered
severe flooding.
They told us that in the period from 2004 to 2006 flooding afflicted several areas of the region,
damaged crops, killing and displacing people with their livestock, but flood coming from highland is
advantageous for some woreda.Flood protecting mechanism is essential to prevent communities.
Self-help for long-term mitigation should be encouraged. At present, the accuracy and lead times of
flood forecasts in Ethiopia is limited or questionable. Thus, training and investigation should place
emphasis on the prevention of floods. New study and collaborative efforts are needed to advance
flood management in the future.
Extreme heat was mentioned as a major hazard and severs in Teru sub basin. So an increase in
temperature has greater negative impacts sometimes exceeding the temperature threshold of livestock,
crops and humans. It is observed that the impacts of extreme temperatures are similar to that of
droughts including decreased pasture availability; increased water evaporation leading to water
shortages, emaciation and death of livestock which decreased livestock disease resistance and
productivity, decreased livestock prices and household incomes, crop failure in agro-pastoral areas,
food insecurity and malnutrition, increased human diseases, decreased human labor productivity, and
increased conflicts over scarce resources. This in lined with the statement heat stress and drought are
likely to have further negative impacts on animal and human health and disease resistance (IPCC,
2007).
64
Community coping strategy: The response of the Afar community to the declining availability of
water and fodder for their livestock include Herd Splitting in which Male animals and dry cows are
separated from the herd and sent to other areas (permanent rivers), selling of animals starting from
male, collecting wild fruits and cutting trees for livestock, moving livestock to higher grounds, early
selling of weak and old animals while livestock prices are still good.
Communities are observing significant negative impacts of drought and extreme heat events on
natural resources such as pasture, water sources, farmland and tree growth as well as pod and leaf
production. Also, coping strategies undertaken by communities in time of drought (such as firewood
and charcoal selling) lead to increased deforestation rates. Tree planting (or reforestation) does not
seem to be a common activity in the project areas, and very few community groups and governmental
officials mentioned it as a potential adaptation strategy in the face of future climate change.
Donating and supporting people suffered by different climate hazard, For instance, distributing
chemicals for crop diseases, informing and looking for assistance from the government and external
agencies, is other coping mechanism. Many government officials mentioned that existing coping
strategies are not adequate to withstand future climate changes and that additional external support
will be needed. Moreover, there is a strong cultural belief among the pastoralists that drought and
famine are acts of God against sinful human actions .so they try to solve through pray.
Continuous monitoring and investigation is needed for better understanding of climatic impacts and
adaptation and how they are evolving over time. Due to the lack of long-term and/or continuous
meteorological records in many parts of the study district as well as the lack of scientific projections
at more localized scales, scientific information is often insufficient for analyzing local exposure to
climatic characteristics of the district. As a result, scientific information must build upon and be
complemented by an analysis of local-level climate observations through consultations with
communities and other local actors who are on the frontlines of climate. All aforementioned are
feedback for characterizing agroecological zones for land use planning in the basin.
3.2.2 Soils survey
Climatic conditions and sparse vegetation are the prominant factors for poorly developement of soils
in Afar National Regional State. The region is composed of very young geological formations and the
pedological development soils is very much restricted. This is evidenced by the wide spread
65
occurrence of Leptosols and Regosols in the region. Salinity, sodicity and alkalinity are the common
insidences observed in most areas of the region.
The soil survey in Teru sub-basin land use planning project is conducted to identify the different soil
types, to describe their characteristics and predict their suitability for different land use types in the
sub-basin. This reconnaissance survey is carried out at a scale of 1:250,000.
The soil survey in Teru sub-basin involved identification and description of physical soil
characteristics that influence or affect soil fertility, soil formation, erosion hazard, water holding
capacity, infiltration, organic matter content, root growth, etc. These physical soil characteristics
include land form, slope, texture, structure, soil depth, drainage, surfacial characteristics
(stoniness, vegetation cover, rock out crops, coarse rock fragments, surface sealing and surface
cracks), parent material and erosion conditions.
For the purpose of agricultural development activities in the future, potentials as well as the
limitations of the soils are roughly identified. Other soil chemical properties like salinity and sodicity
conditions are described based on the information provided by woreda experts reinforced (followed)
by limited field observations. Questionnaires were used to collect the necessary data within the
woredas of the sub-basin. Moreover, data were collected based on previous studied documents, and
periodical technical verbal reports of the woredas. Besides this, field observations are carried out at
randomly selected kebeles in each administrative woreda.
Soil reconnaissance survey in Teru sub-basin is carried out in six administrative woredas namely
Gulina, Awra, Yalo, Teru, Erebti and Megale.
Major soil types of the Teru Sub-basin
The reconnaissance soil survey of Teru Sub Basin enabled to visual identification of major soil
groupings namely Fluvisols, Leptosols, Regosols, Arenosols, Andosols, Solonchaks, Solonetz,
Vertisols, and Calsisols.
66
Table 3-1 Soil types in Lower Awash Sub-basin (Afar Regional Atlas, June 2009)
woreda
Soil type Coverage in%
woreda
Soil type Coverage in
%
Awra Eutric Regosol
Eutric Vertisol
Haplicsolonchacks
Lithic Leptosol
Rock outcrop
Sand
3
2
36
51
6
2
Megale Clcaric Fluvisol
Gleyic Solonchaks
Haplic Solonchaks
Lithic Leptosols
Rock outcrop
12
5
19
62
2
Erebti
CalcaricFluvisol
GleyicSolonchacs
Lithic Leptosol
Rock out crop
Sand
1
11
28
59
1
Teru Gleyic solonchacs
Haplic Solonchaks
Lithic Leptosol
Rock outcrop
Sand
17
2
4
65
3
Gulin a
Eutric Vertisol
HaplicSolonchaks
Lithic Leptosol
Rock outcrop
7
1
25
13
54
Yalo Calcaric Fluvisol
Gleyic Solonchaks
Lithic Leptosol
Rock outcrop
Vertic Cambisol
9
17
50
9
15
67
Vertic Cambisol
Land form and slope:-The land form in Gulina, Awra, and Teru woredas is categorized into plain
which covers about 75%, undulating and dissected plain, escarpment, hilly and mountainous land
features covering about 25% of the total area. Based on field observations and information from
woreda experts, the slope gradient of the majority plain areas of Gulina, Awra, and Teru woredas
ranges from 0–3% and to a lesser extent from 3-8%. Whereas, the gently undulating, hilly, and
mountainous areas, the slope ranges from 8-15, 15-30%. Land located in bordering areas of Amhara
National Regional State namely Gulina and Awra woredas the slope is relatively higher. In the same
manner, land form in Yalo and Erebti woredas consists of dominantly hilly and mountainous lands
that cover about 65% with a slope gradient of > 30%. Chain of rugged hills and mountain land
features predominate the area. The plain area covers about 35% of the total area with a slope range of
0-8%.
Parent material:-The responsible parent materials for the formation of soils in Teru sub-basin are
due to in-situ weathering of basalt and sedimentary rocks, Aeolian and alluvial depositions. Volcanic
lava flow of basaltic origin covers an extensive area of land in Teru woreda. This extrusive rock is
formed by the outpouring or volcanic eruption of lava all along escarpments, ridges, hills and
mountainous areas, covering almost all parts of the escarpment and the crest areas of the sub-basin.
Basalt and igneous rocks are the most common varieties of volcanic rocks found in these areas. The
soils in Erebti are derived from in-situ weathering of mostly volcanic rocks, and partially of
sedimentary rocks. Soils of the plain land have mostly alluvial origin while that of the foot slopes do
have colluvial and in-situ poorly developed soils. Alluvial deposits are found extensively around the
flood plain areas.
Texture:-Most part of the plain land of Teru sub-basin has diversified soil texture it is more of
medium textured, dominantly sandy clay loam, to some extent salty soil and even clay loam texture.
However, the uplands including the hills and mountainous regions are covered by coherent hard
rock’s of volcanic origin, full of gravel and unweathered and disintegrated rock fragments. The valley
68
floor of Teru woreda and the vast plain of Didiksala area have sandy, salty soils of alluvial and
Aeolian origins.
Figure 3-4 Soil texture assessment at the river bank of Awra River using hand feeling method (Teru woreda)
Drainage:-Regarding the drainage condition of the plain area of Teru sub-basin, water is removed
from the soil readily but not rapidly. Based on our physical observation and secondary data collected,
there is no evidence of seasonal ponding and inundation within the area.
Soil depth:-The soil depth in the plain area varies from moderately deep to very deep but in some
cases very shallow soils are also found. On the basis of the data collected using formats,
questionnaires and field observations at gully walls and road cuts, soil depth in alluvial plain areas
varies from moderately deep (Gulina and Yalo woredas) , to very deep ,(Awra, Teru, and Erebti
woredas). Whereas, the rugged, hilly and mountainous areas are characterized by lithic phase of
which the feature is covered by unweathered coherent hard rock.
Incised gully channels like this along the alluvial plains of the sub –basin are common. The fragile Soils are being eroded and move along the flowing water and joins lagoons and streams leaving behind the infertile subsoil. Showing the need to take an immediate measure before it is too late, and before the land dies.
69
Figure 3-5 Gully wall full of colluviums and alluvium, Gulina Woreda
Surface characteristics:-The dominant vegetation types of Teru sub-basin are open shrub land and bush land
dominated by thorny and drought resistant acacia species. In some places such as the flood plain of river
banks of alluvial deposition like that of Awera river , rich in humus and dense vegetation cover reveals that
the surrounding environment has very fertile soil.
There is an extensive rock out crop and coarse surface fragments in escarpments, hilly and mountainous areas
in the sub-basin that can limit the use of modern mechanized agricultural equipments. According to the data
collected from woreda, the relative abundance of the rock out crop in Erebti Yalo and to some extent Gulina
ranges from about 15-40% and in areas around the crest foot slopes and mountainous areas of Teru woreda
the abundace is 40-80%. According to woreda natural resource experts, medium to extremely wide surface
cracks and potholes are evident in the plain areas of Teru, Gulina and Awra woredas., Surface crusting due to
salinity and sodicity problem is also prevalent in alluvial plains.
Figure 3-6 Surface sealing feature scene (Teru woreda) Rock outcrop coverage(Teru woreda)
70
Figure 3-7 Termite mounds at Fukisa kebele (Gulina)
Erosion conditions: Water erosion is common phenomenon within the sub basin as a whole.
However, the degree and intensity of erosion varies from place to place depending on the soils
susceptibility to erosive agents. Amongst the widely known types of erosion, sheet erosion is the most
serious type within the basin, as this form of erosion is responsible for the wearing a way of top soil,
followed by gully and river bank erosion types. Overgrazing, high livestock population associated
with trampling, poor organic matter content, lack of vegetation cover, Poor soil structure, and lack of
appropriate soil and water conservation measures are the major factors which escalates the soils
erodibility.
Wind erosion is a severe problem next to water erosion in Teru sub-basin responsible for the loss of
topsoil, especially in Teru, Awra and some parts of Erebti woredas. In comparison from the other
woredas soil erosion by wind is very severe problem in Teru woreda. Wind turbulences blowing
towards Teru from the north eastern cost of the region blows away the loose soil material to a great
distance with a vast area of coverage. As a result of this catastrophic event, large area of land loses its
top soil forming sand dunes and moving soil mass from one place to the other. In general this
condition has a negative impact in the soil development of the surrounding environment.
71
Darkness at noon! Clouds of dust high up in the
the atmosphere at Teru woreda. The dust
usually spreads out (horizontally and vertically)
up to 20-30kms in the air. The organic matter,
clay, and silt in the soils are carried great distances
by the wind. Many tons of top soils are being
blown away at a single blow. Sand and heavier
materials drifted/moved against houses, fences,
domestic animals and any physical obstructions.
Movement of sand grains by the wind causes formation of micro reliefs like sand dunes, which you
may not find them in the same place the next day.
Any one of us has knowledge of trees waving to and
fro, bending down their heads; drop off their leaves
while wind blows. This reality may not always be true
in the case of Teru woreda where you see the wind
blowing towards you with hand full of dusty materials
to damp on your face.
High wind waves, seasonal over flooding hazards, Long and recurrent Drought, overgrazing, lack of
vegetation cover and lack of appropriate soil conservation measures are the major causes of severe soil
erosion that are also responsible for the degradation of natural resources in the Teru sub-basin.
According to the information gathered from woreda’s natural resource department, experience of SWC
measures are minimal with an exception of few Area closures and check dams in Teru woreda and
construction of Stone bunds, moisture harvesting structures like trench, micro basins, and gabion check
dams in Yalo woreda. In addition, few Soil bunds in Awra woreda and micro basins, check dams
construction, and biological gully treatments in Gulina woreda are started to control soil erosion.
72
In general,this reconnaissance study has its own limitations due to limited field observations and crude
secondary data. However,at this phase of study the following major soil potentials are identified, such
as:-
alluvial soils along the leeves and deltas of several major streams,
the biodiversity coverage,
convenient land form for agricultural food crops(maize,sorghum, etc),
suitable land resource for horticultural crops(datepalm,mango,banana,orange,papaya
etc),
suitable land resource for cash crops (cotton,sugarcane,tobacco,sunflower,sesame etc),
sourse of different minerals
access to irrigation intervention are some of the potentials.
In the same manner, soil limitations of the sub-basin like
severity and extent of wind and water erosion
drought & mosture stress occurence
absence of erosion control measures
frequency and degree of damage due to overflooding
degradation due to overgrazing
salinity,alkalinity, and sodicity problems
extent of rock outcrop coverage
deforestation
poor drainage problem in certain areas
infertile sub soil deposition (coming from other place) at the surface
very shallow soil depth (truncated) over a considerable area thus, both potentials and
limitations need further verification and investigationas during the preceeding detail study.
3.2.3 Land-Use /Cover
Land Use
The major land cover system of the basin is natural that is closely, related to rainfall and temperature
factors. As being the local community pastoral, the natural land cover system is not distributed. There
is no man induced land cover system, with the exception of few plots of cultivated lands .It is true
that the dominant land use activity in the region is grazing with cultivation confined mainly to areas
73
adjacent to the banks of perennial rivers in a few woredas. According to Metaferia CE 2001, the land
cover of the region was described as cultivated land, grassland; shrubs and buses lands of the region
constitute 2.33, 77.88, 1.35 and 22.5 respectively. Of course this land cover distribution is summary
of the region and it may not directly describe Teru sub-basin. Existing data on the land cover
distribution is scare at by wereda in the basin; we used woody Biomass Inventory and strategic
planning project document (2003), available data, by wereda, at regional and federal level, for the
different land use categories.
1. Cultivated Land: Refers to the land which is being cultivated. Even though the basin has vast area
of cultivable land, it is only a small proportion has been cultivated. A considerable experience of
cultivation is present in Golina Woreda, which accounts the highest share from other woredas;
whereas the remaining are still on the way of start.
2. Grazing Land: Is most important land use system for the pastoralists in the basin. This land covers
uses as the major source for grazing. It extensive areas of grass land is mainly found on the wide
plains of the basin. As we have seen in our reconnaissance survey, the low lands plains of Golina,
Awra. & Yallo Woredas has a good surface cover of grazing materials in rainy season, due to the
possession of higher rain.
3. Bush and Shrub Lands. This vegetation type is found more or less in all woredas of the basin. It
is often inter mixed with woodlands and grazing lands. This land use covers the largest part of the
low land plains of the basin. The most common shrub type exist invading the basin is prosopis
juliflora.
4. Woodland, Riverine Forests and Natural Forests: This land use system is found in all woredas.
According woody Biomass, Teru Woreda shares the highest proportion of woodland coverage of the
basin where as Golina Woreda have highest Riverine forest cover. Natural forests are almost nil in
most woredas except Erebti wereda.
5. Exposed Rock Surface: This land cover is obviously found in Teru Woreda, where the mountain
ridges and hills are the product of tectonic processes. This wereda accounts the highest contribution
of rock land of the basin. on the other hand; the remaining woredas contribute mountains and hills
formed from shallow and stony soils as rock lands.
74
6. Exposed Sand Surface: This land use usually named as bare land the second most land unit of the
basin next to shrub lands. This land predominantly exists in Teru land Erebti. The low lands and
plains are bare lands exposed sand surfaces.
The different land use (land cover) distribution by wereda
S.N Zone Rainfed cultivate-ion (ha)
Irrigated cultivation (ha)
Grass land
(ha)
Shrub land
(ha)
Wood land
(ha)
Natural forest (ha)
Reverie forest woodland (ha)
Water (ha)
Wetland (ha)
Exposed Soil, Sand (ha)
Rock (ha)
1 Erebti 0 7613 44939 5 245 0 0 0 50044 122735
2 Megale 0 52185 80919 150 0 0 0 0 34466 28902
3 Awra 0 68356 135959 3917 0 76 511 35 44962 47536
4 Golina 0 19652 82101 3727 0 690 6 0 9508 9508
5 Teru 0 36946 104895 8204 17 0 101 0 55747 159654
6 Yalo 0 29311 99948 1616 0 0 0 0 19059 32034
Total 428 0 234063 548761 17619 262 766 618 35 213786 400369
Source: Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (2004)
According to FAO classification of 2005, Afar Region has four major land covers. These are Bare
soil, Sparse grassland, Open grassland with sparse shrubs, and crop lands. There are also water
bodies.
Lower Awash sub-basin has these all classes. However, there is also forest cover in the project area.
Majority of the eastern part of the sub-basin has dominantly bare soil and sand dunes, except
following the valley of Awash River, which has dense vegetation cover. Woredas found in this area,
Dubti, Ayssaita and Afambo, has basically such sandy bare land. But, along the Awash River valley,
trees and crop lands are common. This valley has evergreen riverine forests.
Whereas, the western part has good vegetation cover which slowly sparse towards the middle.
Specially, Dewe, Telalak, Adaa’r, Ewa and Chifra woredas have trees with sparse grassland. Some
crop lands are also found around this area adjoining foot slopes of the Central highlands.
75
TERU
AWRA
YALO
GOLINA
MEGALE
EREBTI
600000.000000
600000.000000
620000.000000
620000.000000
640000.000000
640000.000000
660000.000000
660000.000000
680000.000000
680000.000000
1320
000.0
00
00
0
1320
000.0
00
00
0
1350
000.0
00
00
0
1350
000.0
00
00
0
1380
000.0
00
00
0
1380
000.0
00
00
0
1410
000.0
00
00
0
1410
000.0
00
00
0
1440
000.0
00
00
0
1440
000.0
00
00
0
Land Cover Map of Teru Sub-Basin
±
Legend
Agricultural land
Exposed rocks (Intermidiate)
Exposed rocks (Older)
Exposed rocks (Younger)
Sandy fields
Vegetation
Water bodies0 10 20 30 405
km
Figure 2-8 land use/land cover map
Identified existing major land utilization types
In the Teru sub basin the following major land utilization types were identified and selected for description
1. Agro pastoral- Rain fed cropping2. Agro pastoral- Irrigated agriculture3. communal grazing land4. Natural Forest Vegetation 5. Settlement
76
Description of major existing land utilization types
1. Agro pastoral rain fed agriculture
Since the rainfall amount, reliability and frequency is very low in the sub basin, rainfed agriculture is
hardly seen except few woredas of Gulina, Yallo and Megallie which is characterized by low input,
low yield and poor management practice (very less weeding practice). Due to high temperature,
hence, high evaporative potential, the moisture amount in the project area is minimum; as a result it is
not able to support plants with high water requirements.
Maize is the dominant crop followed by sorghum. Sesame, groundnut, tomato, Red pepper and onion
are also produced. The market orientation is mainly toward subsistence, very limited amount is sold.
Capital intensity is low under traditional technology; the present cropping is confined to bush clearing
prior to cultivation. Some simple hand tools with animal traction are used. In other way, more
households own cows than Oxen. This shows that has high emphasis on milk and herd reproduction
and has strong preference for goats over sheep. Natural communal grazing land is the common feed
resource for their animals.
2. Agro Pastoral – Irrigated Agriculture
In the sub basin, this land utilization type is found in irrigated areas (woredas) of Awra and Megallie.
During the survey, the Woreda experts told us, there is difficulty in obtaining sufficient irrigation
water they required because of low water level in the river. Maize, sesame, sorghum, onion, tomato
are mostly produced. The market orientation is mainly toward subsistence, very limited amount is
sold. Capital intensity is low under traditional technology; the present cropping is confined to bush
clearing prior to cultivation. Some simple hand tools with animal traction are used. Natural grazing
land is the most feed source for their livestock. Livestock holdings are very large. The herd
composition and grazing management patterns and herd movement systems are largely determined by
seasonal patterns of rainfall and surface water.
3. Communal Extensive Grazing land
Land as whole, grazing and browsing lands is communal in the community and belongs to the tribe
(clan). Anybody who is the member of the clan can feed his herd in the grazing and browsing land.
77
The brief description of extensive grazing land is made below in terms of primary (range land and
feed development) and secondary (live stock production conditions).
Extensive grazing, as a major land use can be sub divided in to three land utilization types, each with
their own specific produce and management, namely nomadic pastoralism, sedentary and
transhumance pastoralism .
Nomadic form of grass land utilization involving the regular movement of herds & flocks with the
whole families of the households to seasonal grazing is found. According to Belayhun Hailu Mamo
study 2005 the pastoral nomadism moves up to 30-40 k.m per day in search of grazing for animals. In
addition to extensive grazing on range lands, animals graze around fields where crop residues, stable
and weeds are accessible. In semiarid and arid range lands where the overall vegetation density is
low, the forage supply and its quality vary greatly over time. When combined with periodic shortage
of drinking water for the livestock, these great fluctuations force the herders to roam continuously
with their herds of camels, cattle, donkeys, sheep and goats in nomadic existence. This diversity of
animal species permits maximum exploitation of the sparse vegetation, and decimated by drought,
diseases or others circumstances largely beyond the herders control. The life of a nomad is entirely
dependent on his livestock. Cows and goats are the most important, principally for their milk. Camels
and donkeys are so essential for transport. Nomadic pastoralism is the least common system of
extensive grazing.
In sedentary grazing (e.g. Awra woreda) women and children may be left near the water points (as the
result of irrigation canals from Awra river, few people divert the flow of the water from the canal in
to the grazing lands). To grow crops. Small animals may be herded in the vicinity while the main
herd goes to specific distant grazing lands
In Trans humans- herders take advantage of seasonal vegetation growth by moving their animals
between two or more separate areas. Livestock’s are first grazed in semi arid or montane areas, which
have short growing seasons because of low rain fall, and are then moved for wetter areas or that
milder witness for the remainder of the year. Transhumance takes advantage of the good quality herbs
and grasses that grow seasonally. At the end of the season, as drinking water diminishes, the herd’s
men are forced to seek other areas.
78
Further detailed land evaluation and planning studies have to be made of these levels and be based on
the concept of land utilization type.
Primary Level of Production- Range Land & Feed Development
Definition: Range land is uncultivated land that will support grazing and browsing animals. Range
lands are primarily arid and semi arid land where other land uses such as agriculture are not
economically feasible but they may also areas that have in the past or may have in the future be used
for cultivation or forestry (Holochek, et, al. 1989). Here, the description is made in detail giving
attention the present socio economic situations prevailing in the sub basin.
Livestock production in the sub basin can be increased qualitatively through increasing the output per
animal and the productivity per unit area of the grazing land. A major factor in increasing live stock
productivity will be the improvement of animal nutrition and feed supplies. Disease and parasitic
control, breeding and management also need attention. But initially a major emphasis must be placed
on providing better nutrition and then the management aspect. The sub basin has a significant number
of livestock populations. However; the products are very low, being limited largely by nutrition, poor
disease control, traditional system of management by pastoralist and over grazing of range lands.
Thus, live stock development schemes which do not first improve the (traditional system) feed
recourses, may cause further problems due to increased animal numbers without increasing forage
resources.
The relationship between stocking rate and production must be described in detail studies for range
land improvement and management, including the effects of stocking rates on range land, as
dependent variable of seasons and mobility pattern. The yield of range land under natural conditions
is affected by a range of factors influencing growth of plant species, the quality (nutritive value) and
the yield.
The main factors which affects extension pasture growth & yield are:-
a. Climatic factors: temperature, humidity, wind and Rainfall
b. Soil factors: Chemical and physical properties, soil moisture content
c. Range land species: genetic potential for yield & nutritive value, adaptation to the
environment, enchromcment of exotic thoring bush species /Prosophis guliflora)
79
d. `Range land management: Stocking rate and stocking system used, type of animal grazed
weed control
Figure 3-9 the effect of different land limitations on the grazing land decreases the quality and quantity of grazing
80
Secondary Level of production-Livestock Production
The sub basin has ample resources of livestock (cow, sheep, goat, camel, donkey etc) and wild life animals
(Orex, Bushduiker, Soemmrings gazel, warthog etc). If properly managed and controlled it was observed that
some of the sub basin woredas especially Awra and Yallo are untouched (relatively undisturbed) areas for wild
life development. At present, the cultural trend of the rural communities is more over very interesting that not
attack the wild life animals.
Since unlike plants, livestock’s are mobile (so do the owners, herders) and are often able to find feed
over a wide area. In the sub basin animal mobility is a common strategy employed to minimize feed
and water limitation. It applies to each of the land utilization types of extensive grazing, because in
each case live stock use different parts of the range land throughout the year. Mobility causes some of
the key attributes of extensive grazing land utilization types to vary over the different grazing
seasons.
Figure 3-10 Mobility as a common strategy to alleviate feed and water problem
Thus, the first and most fundamental consideration in any appraisal of pastoralism in the sub basin
should be its essential diversity and variety. The most common division is in to ‘nomadic’ and “semi
nomadic” by which it is usually implied that the former community has no fixed home while the later
has a home base of an identifiable nature. Both of them derive their subsistence entirely or partially
81
from the recurrent products of their animal’s milk and meat. Almost in all woredas of the sub basin
the by product’s skin and hide is not properly marketed with the exception of using it locally.
It was observed that movement of pastoralists is matter of necessity arising from the level of technology
prevailing in the community and the circumstances of the physical environment.
So any developmental efforts in the sub basin, has to pay due attention to the knowledge, attitude, real
situation, and immediate needs of the community even in the specific area of anticipated developmental
interventions.
Natural Forest Vegetation
The vegetation cover of the area is mostly characterized by the aridity tolerating characters such as
small leaves, thorns and stunted growth in their physiology. Land utilization type of natural dry land
vegetation in which animal feed, fuel and construction of local home and directed primarily at the
needs of the local community are of its main usage. The most common species are like Acacia
Abyssinia, Acacia Oerfota, Acacia seyal, Acacia Senegal, prosopis julifora and other bushes. This is
formerly based on collection from natural vegetation with little or no deliberate cilviculture. The level
of capital investment is very low. Management is by the community clan. On the other hand planting
of tree species and managing it is not as such practiced with the exception of planting of limited tree
species like Asanderachta indica (true neem), Millie Indica (false neem), Moringa Olifera,
Sesbania .This is because of the cultural life of pastoralists (which is movable), moisture stress, luck
of extension service and others related factors are the main reasons of less practice in afforestation.
As what has been mentioned from the Woreda experts, there was no trend of cutting especially live
trees (good culture). But now adays, the people are cutting trees in some woredas for charcoal
production. The produce especially charcoal is marketed to the main road neighboring towns. This
situation put the resources to be endangered.
Vegetation change over time clearly affect the level of biodiversity, conservation status and
productivity of rang land. So pastoralists and extension workers need to know what these changes are
so that they are better equipped to respond to and utilize them as wisely.
82
Settlement
The settlement pattern is characterized by villages made up of cluster of houses and organized in to
clan /kinship/ groups. The houses are typically constructed from local acacia trees and grasses.
Villages are sparsely constructed with two or more houses. They settle around water points and
grazing areas. So availability of water and feed for their animals is the two most criteria for selection
of settlement areas by pastoralists. This sparse settlement makes less labor availability.
Generally, there are two types (ways) of settlement pattern practiced by pastoralists. Fixed and
temporarily way.
The fixed type of settlement is in such way that mostly aged fathers and mothers with babies wait for
and cannot leave their surroundings. Whereas the temporary way of settlement is commonly practiced
at dry season by medium aged families of the household. They move temporarily in search of feed for
animals. This problem of displacement of the pastoralists calls an integrated solution
3.2.4 Hydrology and Water Resource Assessment
Hydrological study practices of the developing countries like Ethiopia is very poor. Hydrology for
land use planning is also a new concept in Ethiopia. According to the Afar regional state there is no
such type of studies except some rough hydro geological & geological surveys. But hydrological
studies & water resource assessment are very important concept for land use planning.
This section of the report (inception report) deals with the hydrology and water resource assessment
of Teru sub basin in afar national regional state. In this study level all the secondary data’s are
collected i.e. both surface and sub surface water resources.
The surface water resources such as perennial rivers, intermittent rivers, lakes and artificial ponds (in
some extent) are assessed in the sub basin. Concerning with the sub surface water resources, data’s
about deep wells, shallow wells, hand dug wells and spring sources are collected in the Sub basin in
each woreda under kebele level. Besides of these the conditions of the wells are identified. The details
of the wells are annexed at the back the report document.
The rain fall pattern of the study areas is erratic. But the runoff from Amhara Mountains is very high
results flooding of many areas and destructing structures such as bridges and eroding river courses
83
(banks). The reconnaissance survey results of the Teru sub basin and the secondary data’s collected
during the reconnaissance survey are presented below.
TERU
AWRA
YALO
GOLINA
MEGALE
EREBTI
580000.000000
580000.000000
600000.000000
600000.000000
620000.000000
620000.000000
640000.000000
640000.000000
660000.000000
660000.000000
680000.000000
680000.000000
700000.000000
700000.000000
1320
00
0.0
00
00
0
1320
00
0.0
00
00
0
1350
00
0.0
00
00
0
1350
00
0.0
00
00
0
1380
00
0.0
00
00
0
1380
00
0.0
00
00
0
1410
00
0.0
00
00
0
1410
00
0.0
00
00
0
1440
00
0.0
00
00
0
1440
00
0.0
00
00
0 Drainage pattern of Teru Sub-Basin
Legend
River
Teru Basin
Teru_Basin 0 10 20 30 405
km
±
Figure 3-11 Drainage pattern of Teru sub-Basin
A. Surface water resources
The surface water resources in Teru sub basin include rivers/streams i.e. both perennial & intermittent
and artificial ponds. Awra River is the main perennial river in the sub basin, even if there are other
perennial rivers in Megale woreda. There is no lake in Teru sub basin.
Generally all the perennial & intermittent rivers end their path at Teru deep ration in Teru woreda.
Teru woreda is the hottest woreda and found in lower elevation compared to the other Teru sub basin
woredas. Because of this many rivers flow into Teru woreda and sips there. Some of the rivers that
flow in Teru woreda are Awra, Gulina, Megale, Wantabo, Faro/asabara/ & Uletabaa. Taro/Asabara/,
Wantebo & Uletabaa are hot waters/rivers/ that drain during rainy season for a short period of time.
Gulina & Awra Rivers are joining at Namahara kebele in Teru woreda. After that they continue as the
name Awra until it sips in Teru deep ration. In general the abutments of the rivers are very weak
results changing the morphology from time to time at different places.
84
There are also many intermittent rivers that drain for a short period of time in all woredas of in the
sub basin. These streams where get their source majorly the precipitation from Amhara highlands and
a little bit from direct precipitation around the study area itself.
Almost all the rivers that found in the Teru Sub Basin used for irrigation and drinking purpose for
animals & humans, except few intermittent rivers, they are used any of the three purposes or two.
There are also different artificial ponds in the sub basin. For example, in Awra woreda 4, in Yallo
woreda 8 & in Teru woreda 12 ponds are available.
All the rivers that found in the study area are presented with their different description in tabular
forms below.
Table 3-2 Perennial Rivers, crossing kebeles, current uses & irrigation potentials of woreda’s in Teru sub basin
s/n Woreda name
Stream Crossing kebeles Current uses
Irrigation potential of the woreda
remarks
1 Erebity No perennial river
No an agricultural practice
The irrigation potential of the woredas are taken from basic agricultural data study document prepared by Afar regional agricultural office. The hectare explained here is not the potentials of the corresponding rivers.
2 Megale Megale, Timuga, Ginizil, Erosselea, Bubushiota and Eriarkiaro
No data For animals &humans drinking
3,250ha
3 Yallo woreda
No perennial river
>> - 4413ha
4 Gulina woreda
No perennial river
>> - 6140ha
5 Teru woreda
No perennial river
>> - No irrigation practice
6 Awra woreda
Awra river >> For animals &humans drinking
14,264ha
Table 3-3 intermittent rivers in each woreda of Teru sub basin
85
S/n Woreda name Intermittent rivers
Current uses Remarks
1 Erebity woreda Mingia, Waledo, Undergolo, Leiadd
for Humans & animals
2 Megale woreda Mekebushi &Demonumema
for Humans & animals
3 Yallo woreda Gorisso, Anduli, Dibnoli & Walee rivers
For Humans & animals
4 Gulina woreda Gulina, Alena, Derytu, Yebekenu, Wanasa, Mersi, Gelebitinaboteni & Genu
Humans, animals & for irrigation
Diversion weir were constructed at Alena river
5 Teru woreda ` Awra, Gulina, Megale, Wantabo, Faro/asabara/ & Uletabaa.
animals & for irrigation
Taro/Asabara/,Wantebo & Uletabaa are hot waters
6 Awra woreda Hida , Aseala, Deriytu, Amomoleyta, Woeli, Motalsa, Subulale, Begaraga, Hantilale, Leliale & Sokayta
Humans, animals & for irrigation
B. Sub Surface water resources
The sub surface water resources that assessed in the reconnaissance survey include deep wells,
shallow wells, hand dug wells and springs. Many bore holes were drilled in the past even if some of
them were not functional currently because of different reasons. Generally the ground water potential
of Teru sub basin woredas is good except Erebity woreda & most part of Teru woreda. The water
qualities of the wells are also good in the limit of drinking standards. The wells that found in Erebity
woreda are not functional. On the other hand in Teru woreda at Digdiga kebele five deep wells were
drilled and they are functional. Digdiga kebele is accessible & rich in ground water potential as
compared to the other kebels. NGOs & Minstry of water resource tries to drill deep wells in Teru
86
woreda at different kebeles such as Awdi, Nemehara & Yewdlul kebeles. But they are all failed due
to the absence of water and the geological conditions of the soil structure.
Spring sources are found in Erebity around Erebity town and in Megale woreda. The sub surface
water resources are summarized in tabular form below.
Table 3-4 No. of deep, shallow, hand dug wells & springs in Teru sub basin woreda’s
s/n Woreda name Name of schemes Remark Deep wells Shallow
wells Hand dug wells
springs
1 Erebity 2 1 2 1 All well not functional
2 Megale 1 4 - 13 Yallo 7 4 2 -4 Gulina 6 4 - -5 Teru 5 -6 Awra 6 9 - -
3.3 Biological Environment
3.3.1 Forestry
Forest cover
The forest resource of the afar regional state is source of diversified forest products such as fuel
wood, construction material and fodder; and it is very important for supporting human life and
livestock population of the region. More than 90% of the population is predominantly pastoralists
depend mainly on animal husbandry and have a wide tradition of practicing and using the existing
trees, shrub and herbs for their livestock and other uses.
The distribution of the forest cover in the region mainly influenced by climatic factor such as
temperature and rainfall distribution within the region; the forest or vegetation coverage of the afar
regional state were assessed by different governmental and nongovernmental organization and they
mention different information or data on their report. These un matched reports indicates the
importance of verification of data’s by conducting a detailed survey of vegetation cover of the region
in particular of the study area Teru sub-basin.
87
From previous studies; the one which was lately conducted is the WOODY BIOMASS
INVENTORY STRATEGIC PLAN document prepared by Federal MoARD for Afar Region in 2004
is categorized the region vegetation cover in to five groups as mentioned below.
Grass land ………………………………...…….1, 409,426 ha…30.52%
Shrub land……………………………………….3, 005,719 ha…65.08%
Woodland……….………………………………….164, 152 ha….3.55%
Riverine /Riparian/ forest wood land……………….28, 721 ha….0.62%
Natural forest…………………………………….….10, 379 ha….0.22%
The above data indicate that the total vegetation cover of the region is 4,618,397 ha. Of this the forest
land covers 3,208,971 ha. that is 33.68% of the region land covered by different forest types. Based
on the above source data, the study area Teru sub-basin approximately covers 147742 ha of forest
(excluding Irrebeti and megale woredas) that is 14.75 % of the basin area coverage is covered by
forest. As it is mentioned above, the actual coverage and forest type of Teru sub- basin needs
conducting a detail study or survey.
Teru sub- basin is very distinctive with regard of its harsh climate for its low and erratic rainfall
distribution, high temperature and wind turbulences. As mentioned by woreda expert due to this harsh
climatic condition and human interferences or influence on the existing forest or vegetation, the area
become decline both in quality and quantity; The remaining riverine /riparian forest wood land, shrub
and bush land, and woodland forests subjected to steady degradation.
Tree and Shrub Species
The type and distribution of vegetation resources or plant species in any environment is a direct
image of the area climatic condition; that is temperature and rainfall distribution of that particular
area. The study area Teru sub-basin lies with altitude range between 133mt.asl. And 2181mt asl; most
of the high lands are located in the western part of the sub-basin on the boundary of Amhara regional
state. These climatic variations determine the type of forests or trees, shrub and bush species found in
the study area. During reconnaissance on filed observation and woreda experts’ mentioned the
following trees and shrub species are grown in different forest types.
a. Riverine /Riparian/ forests
88
Riparian forest is a plant community with a complex or variable vegetation either seasonal or permanently grown along river, water banks, stream and the like. (WBISP, 2004). There are numerous perennial and intermittent rivers in the study area Teru sub-basin.
Figure 3-12 River Awra Teru woreda
The main Riverine /Riparian/forest wood lands in Teru sub-basin are Awra, Gullina and Yallo water ways with
variety of Acacia species /A.tortilis(Behebay/Eibeto), A.oerifora (Gerento ), A.melifera
(Merkeato),A.senegal(Adaho)/ and other Balentis aegyptica(Udda) , Grewera villesa(Gerawaito/Habeli),
Grewera ferugginea ( Hidaito)etc….such types of forests are an important sources of fodder for livestock
during the dry season, and are sources of fuel and construction material and also home to many plant and
animals.
b. Shrub lands.
Shrub land are stands of shrubs, usually not exceeding 6 m in height with a canopy cover greater than 20%
( ANRS FAP 1998 ); The main characteristic of this semi arid vegetation is often irregular density, wide
spacing of the shrubs with a few large trees 3-10 m. high story (Wondimu Assefaw, 2001).) In the study area
Lower Awash sub basin such type of forest observed in Yallo, golina and Awera woredas. Consists mainly
Acacia species(Acacia miliflora, A.oerifora (Gerento), A.senegal(Adabo), A.horida (Eibeto) ) and other
Prosopis juliflora /Weyanie/Dergi hara/, Balentiies aegyptica /Udda/, salvadore perisica /Adaito/ mostly this
forests are used as permanent grazing area for pastoralists.
C. Bush land
Low growing plants mainly cover bush land area with many woody teems coming up from the roots and a
canopy cover about 20% with a single or layered (Wondimu Assefaw 2001), ), such type of forests are found
in the low altitude areas of Lower Awash sub basin, Teru, Irrebeti, Golina and Awra woredas, consist of a
severely degraded Acacia bush lands and scrubs vegetations on highly eroded land with rock out crops evident
every were.
89
Figure 3-13 Bush land in Golina woreda
During reconnaissance survey as mentioned by woreda experts and filed visits such type of forest
land uses observed almost in all woredas of Teru sub-basin , and dominated by trees and shrubs of
Acacia miliflora, A.oerifora (Gerento), A.senegal(Adabo), A.horida (Eibeto), Salvadore perisica,
(Adaito)Codiinea sens (Mederto ), Balenties aegyptica(Udda)etc…are observed.
d. Woodland
Wood land forests are lands covered by an open stand of trees up to 20 mt. height and a canopy cover
more than 20% (EFAP, 1994). During reconnaissance Woodland forests with scattered trees up to 8
mt. in height with the dominant trees species like Acacia toritalis (Behibay/Eibeto),A.nilotica
(keselto), A.aetibica(Eibeto), Balentes aegyptica (Udda), Ziziphes spain-chrust (Kusraito ) etc…are
observed in Golona, Awera, and Yallo weredas. This wood land forests serve as grazing land for wild
animals and livestock.
e. Prosopis juliflora
In addition to the vegetation type and species composition described above, Prosopis juliflora
becoming an aggressive plant rapidly colonizing vast area of the Afar regional state land scapes.
Prosopis juliflora is a thorny shrub but can become a shapely tree to 15 m. though usually 3-5 m.
height. It grows well in arid regions with altitude range of 400-1600 mt.asl. , producing deep roots
and tolerating sandy, rocky or poor and saline soils, in most cases it has got a pair of thorns up to 5
cm. (Azene Bekele, 1993 )
Concerning our study area Lower Awash sub-basin; in time of field observation prosopis juliflora
observed with spreading over large area, due to lack of proper management and its behavior of 90
tolerating moisture stress, sandy rocky or poor and saline soils. Teru and Yalo woredas of thirteen
kebeles as mentioned by woreda experts and field observation specially following Awera river and
other water ways and road sides are highly invaded by Prosopis juliflora. Prosopis by nature it has
money advantage and disadvantages that are mentioned on page ……. of this document. For
minimizing its invasion and disadvantage a serious management strategies must be design with detail
studies.
Tradition of natural forest management and utilization
The existing forest resource in the study area used by the local community for fire wood, charcoal,
building material, food for livestock, and medicine for man and animals. Due to such importance of
plants with spatial uses highly appreciate and protected by the local community and they have also
their own traditional rule to administer the forest. No one cut trees without valid reason, in the case of
utilizing the forest individuals should make clear to all members of the clan or the clan leaders.
As mentioned above the existing forests are the main source of fuel and construction wood for the
local community; During reconnaissance as woreda and some knowledgeable peoples mentioned
traditionally the Afar people collect any dry and dead trees and shrubs species for fire (fuel) wood;
now a day this tradition of collecting dry and dead plants can‘t exist as it was, as the number of
peoples increases, getting dry and dead plants become difficult to collect nearby and the people have
began cutting living trees.
Similarly the existing forest, in Teru sub-basiun is the main source of construction material for
traditional house of Afar community. This house constructed from bending branches of trees and
shrubs and easy to move from place to place during seasonal migration and it requires less volume of
wood in relation to non-traditional houses. The most common species used for construction purpose
Tamarix aphylla (Segento), Acacia abysinica (keselto), Acacia tortilis (Behebay/Eibeto /Eeb), A.
mollefera (Merkeato).
91
Figure 3-14 The Afar communities moving from place to place with caring traditional house constricting materials (bended branches of trees and shrubs)/ on the road Awera to Golina/
Concerning other non-wood forest products from natural forests; during reconnaissance as woredas experts and
some knowledgeable persons indicate the common woody species like Acacia Senegal (Adabo), Acacia Siyal
(Adequate) and Acacia mellifera (Merkato) used as source of gum, (Etan) and Commiphora (kurbeto)
species used as incense; collected by the local people from the forest for domestic use and supply to the local
market in Irrebeti, Teru, Yallo and Gulina woredas. This products in particular gum producing woody plant
species traditionally used for adhesive, constitute for making ink, medicinally taken orally for cough and
diarrhea and also to treat wounded bodies. Apart their gum production due to increasing the demand for fuel
and fodder in the study area these woody plants highly affected and cut by the local people
As Woreda Experts mentioned even though the Afar community not cut trees without valid reason
and have traditional rule that governs the community, the natural vegetation of the study area highly
disturbed and the resource improvement through active management and tree planting has never take
place in the region in particular the study area Teru sub-basin.
Based on the above saying of woreda experts and knowledgeable persons; the main constraints in
forest development and conservation are mismanagement practice or improper utilization of the
natural forest area, climatic condition, high growth rate of live stocks, flood problem, water erosion,
expansion of Prosopis juliflora in riparian forests and lack of people’s awareness has contributed to
the degradation of forest cover and biodiversity. Generally overstocking or frequent trampling of the
92
area by livestock minimize the natural regeneration potential of the natural forest and also seasonal
movement or nomadic nature of the pastoralist community increases cutting of trees for various
reason / fire wood, constricting traditional houses and crushes for their livestock, etc…/
Agro- forestry and the Afar community
Agro-forestry is a land management technique in which woody perennials (trees and/or shrubs) are
deliberately used on the same land management unit with crops and/or animals. In Agro-forestry
mostly the main components are trees/shrubs, crops, pastor and livestock together with environmental
factors of climate, soil and land forms.
In the case of Afar, Traditionally the Afar pastoralists and semi pastoralists have been selecting,
managing and protecting naturally growing useful food and fodder tree and shrub species. This
natural stands of tree and shrubs have always played a supportive role for both the pastoralist and
agriculture.
During reconnaissance study observed that traditionally the nomadic pastoralists of all woredas of
Teru sub basin practiced silvo-pasyoral land use system (production of trees and/or shrubs with
animal pastor or range land) in such land use system trees and shrubs which forms a more- or- less
open canopy on grass land and according to their site condition supply a substantial fodder for
livestock spatially for goats and camels.
Apart from this silvo-pastoral land use system in Teru sub-basin; other like Agri-silvo-pastor
(production of trees and or shrubs with animal and agriculture) and Agri-silvicultur (production of
trees and or shrubs with agricultural crops) land use systems not practiced by the community. Some
of the reason for lack of interest in agro forestry development is: - The nature of nomadic life does
not allow for active participation in planting trees. Traditionally nomads are not plant trees, Lack of
water is the most limiting factor, lack of extension and institutional support , ownership right and
land tenure land is owned by clan leaders and individuals have no private land etc.
93
Plantation forest and tree planting activities
Plantation is a tree planting activities made artificially to satisfy the shortage of woods for fuel and
construction and it could also establish to relive serious soil erosion or reclaim degraded hillsides.
Depend or based on objectives of plantation can be categorized in to community wood lot plantation,
industrial wood plantation, home stead plantation, etc…
During reconnaissance surveyobserved that community tree planting and plantation forest activities
not adopted in Teru-sub basin woredas except some insignificant home stead plantations introduced
in the urban areas of Yallo, Awera and Gulina woredas, the common exotic species introduced are
Moringa olifera (shiferaw), Azanderacta indica (Neam), Millia azanderachta (false neam); when
comparing the exotic tree species plantation in such woredas to the over-all land mass of the area is
insignificant. But, on the way field visit almost in all woredas observed that there exist degraded and
bear lands that can be used for establishing plantation forest depend on peoples need and site
condition/quality.
The major constraints of adopting practicing tree planting, mentioned by the Woreda experts and
officials; lack of people awareness, lack of supporting institutes work on forest development,
Absence or shortage of nurseries producing seedling The major constraints for adopting or practicing
tree planting as mentioned by the Woreda experts and officials:- the nature of nomadic life does not
allow for active participation in tree planting, traditionally the nomads are not tree planters, lack of
water is the most limiting factor in tree production, ownership right and land tenure lands are owned
by clan leaders individuals have no their own private land, lack of people awareness, lack of effective
extension and supporting institutes working on forest development, Absence or shortage of nurseries
producing seedling etc…
94
Figure 3-15 Moringa olifora tree and its pods (Shiferaw) Yallo woreda
Table 3-5 Vegetation cover of Teru sub basin/hectare/
No Woredas name
Grass land
Shrub land
Wood land
Natural forest
Riverain forest
Total Remarks
1 Teru 36946 104895 8204 17 1500622 Irrebeti 27613 44939 5 245 - 72802 Not all area in the sub basin
3 Gulina 19652 82101 3727 - 690 1061704 Yallo 29311 99948 1616 - - 1308755 Awera 68356 135959 3917 - 76 2083086 Megallie 52185 80919 150 - 2 133256 Not all area in the sub basin
7 Total 234063 548761 17619 262 768 801473Source: - WOODY BIOMASS INVENTORY STRATEGIC PLAN document prepared by Federal MoARD for Afar Region
in 2004
Table 3-6 Common tree and shrub species
Scientific name Common name/Afar/
Scientific name Common name/Afar/
Acacia abysinica Keselto Commiphora spps. KurbeitoAcacia nilotica keselto Cyprus obtusiflorus GodeytoAcacia siyal Adequento Datura spps Bouta-HaraAcacia senegl Adabo Delonix elata Addo-habitaAcacia totillis Behibay/Eibeto Dichrostachyes cinerea KukusaAcacia oerfera Gerento Dobra globra GersaAcacia Mellifra Merkeato Ehertia cymosa WulugaAcacia etibica Eibeto Ficus sycomorous Subula
95
Acacia horrid Eibeto Grewia Villosa Habeli (Garauaito)Acacia oliveri Tikilbay Grewia feruginea HidaitoAcacia ehrenbergiana Mekani Indigefera articulate ElaitoAcacia breuspica Hamersa Parkinsonia aculeate GarawantoAerua juvanica Oila Prosopis juliflora Weyani/dergi-haraBalenties aegyptica Udda Sema alexanderina SanuBalenties orbicularia Alaito Salvador perisca AdaitoBelpharis perisica Yamarukta Tamarindus indica SegentoBoswelia papyrifera Yetan zafe Tephrosia OliatoCordia sinensis Mederto Tamarix aphylata SegentoCadaba rotundifolia Adangalito Ziziphus mukrinata KusraitoCambratum collinum Adalito Ziziphus spaina-chrest KusraitoCalatropis procera GeleatoSource:- vegetation survey for the proposed land use plan(Thematic report)By Gebru Bonger (NRMRD,MOA) Bureau of agriculture Afar national regional state January 2001 A.A
3.3.2 Wildlife
The Afar region wildlife resource is high and diverse compare to other regions of the country. The
secrets of this diversity are the occurrence of diverse habitat from high land form to low land from
highly arid form to wet land; now a day these potentials become source of foreign exchange earning
to the country as well as the region and also become potential for maintaining ecological stability.
Hence in the region to keep these potentials and conserve the diverse habitat and wildlife resource
two national parks, four wildlife reserve areas and two controlled hunting areas established. Among
these the following conservation areas located in the study area Lower Awash sub-basin. Understood
Yangudi-Rassa National park (NP)
Gewanie and Milla serdo wildlife reserve areas (WR)
Gewanie ,Chifra and Telalak Dewie controlled hunting areas.
During reconnaissance as Regional, Woreda and Park natural resource and wildlife experts mentioned
the following wildlife species commonly found in each conservation areas.
Among all these conservation areas of the region any one is not located in Teru sub basin, but during
reconnaissance as Woreda experts mentioned the following wild life species
Struthio camelus (ostrich) inErebeti, and Awera, woredas
Phocochoerus aethiopica (warthog ) Erebeti,Teru,Awra,and Golina woredas
96
Gazella soemmuring’s (soemmuring’s gazela,Erebeti, Teru, Yallo and Awra,
woredas
Panthera paradus (Leopard ) in Gulina and Awera woredas
Oryx beisa (Orix ) in Golina and Awera woredas
Lepus habessinicus ( Hare Abyssinian /Rabits) Gulina, Yallo and Erebeti woredas
Canis mosomelas ( common jakal) in Gulina and Yallo woredas
Sylulocupra grimmia (Bush duiker) in gulina Woreda
Panthera lio (lion) in Awera Woreda
Based on the reconnaissance survey result of Teru sub-basin woredas observed or understood that
there is no any clear and tangible information about the distribution and potential of wildlife
resources; and during reconnaissance on the way of field visit, a number of different species of wild
animals observed when they are searching their food, making themselves free from attacked by their
enemies or predators, and sharing lands to satisfy their food requirements with domestic animals,
Golin, and Awra woredas. This indicate that in the study area Teru sub-basin there exist a great
potential of wildlife resource that could be a source for foreign exchange earnings and at the same
time to maintain ecological stability and life support by conserving this wildlife resource.
Though, to utilize these resources efficiently and establish additional conservation area ( NP, WR,
CHA ) ; It is necessary conducting a detail study on ,identifying the wildlife potential areas and their
economic importance of conserving, need identifying the existence of favorable habitats for wild
animals and the biodiversity potential both in flora and fauna, assessment to understand the local
community’s attitude and awareness towards wildlife conservation, opportunities and potentials to
make the local community participant and beneficial from conserving and utilizing the existing
wildlife resources.
Table 3-7 Common mammals and aquatic wildlife in the study area (Teru sub basin)
No Common /English name Scientific name1 Oryx Oryx beisa2 Soemmering’s gazelle Gazella soemmering’s3 Bush duiker Sylulocupra grimmia4 Wild ass Equus asinus5 Klipspringer Oretragus oreotragus6 Ostrich Struthio camelus7 Lesser kudu Trgelaphus imberibis
97
8 Bushbuck common Tragelaphus scriptus9 Guenther’s Dikdik Rhynchotrgus strepsiceros
10 Warthog Phacochoerus aethiopicus11 Golden jakal Canis aureus12 Black back jakal Canis mesomelas13 Baboon Anubis Papio Anubis14 Lion Panthera leo15 Hare Abyssinian Lepus habessinicus16 Leopard Panthera pardus17 Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibious18 Crocodile Nile Crocodylus niloticus19 Serval Felis serval
3.4 Socioeconomic survey
A.POPULATION & SETTLMENT PATTERN OF THE STUDY AREA
Population issues are very wide and too important for development planning. It has different
parameters to measure the conditions of population in many angles for different planning and
development purposes. The population data for this reconnaissance survey is limited in its extent
since the source depends on secondary information which has limitations in itself. A very highlight
and limited extent shall be discussed in this report mainly focusing on sex compositions, densities,
settlement conditions at woreda and sub basin level; the seasonal migration trends; housing
conditions shall briefly assessed in this report.
1. Settlement pattern & population size in the study area
According to CSAs 2007 census, the region has 86.6% and 13.4% of the population live in rural and
urban areas respectively; and the main criteria to delineate kebeles are clan based as compared to
geographical ones. The settlement patterns is structured along clan or sub-clan with settlement area
usually preferred to be in areas of accusers to abundant pasture for grazing and water resources. Clan
is the most firmly bound group structure and strongest social organization. Grazing area, water
pointes and other natural resources are communally owned and used by clan members. The social
structure of the Afar people is linked as Tribes → Clans → Sub clan → Lineage → Family.
The study area has a total population of 272,686 with 96.5% live in rural areas /most of them are
mobile/ while 3.5% live in urban areas /i.e. permanently settled/. The majority of the population have
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not permanent house, rather they have temporary shelter which is easier to handle during camping
and decamping.
Figure 3-16 Moving during dry season to highland areas and return back during wet season to the previous places
The main reason for seasonal movement from place to place is searching water and feed for their
animals. It indicates that their livelihood is dominantly dependent on animal husbandry and the main
economic activity performed in this area is pastoralism.
Table 3-8 Population Size of Teru Sub-basin project Woredas by Sex
Name of woredas
Urban + Rural Urban Rural Town
Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female
Afar Region
1,411,092
786,338
624,754 188,973 100,915 88,058 1,222,119 685,423 536,696
Semera
Erebti 36,233 20,365 15,868 749 441 308 35,484 19,924 15,560 Lakora
Megale 28,106 15,335 12,771 703 373 330 27,403 14,962 12,441 Megale
Awura 35,755 19,644 16,111 1,649 914 735 34,106 18,730 15,376 Derayitu
Terru 75,342 43,826 31,516 1,838 1,058 780 73,504 42,768 30,736 Alelu
Yallo 47,459 27,313 20,146 789 436 353 46,670 26,877 19,793 Gubidora
Gulina 49,791 28,256 21,535 3,924 2,135 1,789 45,867 26,121 19,746 Kelewan
Basin Total
272686 154739 117947 9652 5357 4295 263034 149382 113652
Source: CSA’s 2007, population censes
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The other aspect of the composition is the sex ratio at various age segments of the population. The
sex ratio is usually calculated by dividing the number of males to the number of females within the
same population age group. It is expressed as the number of males per 100 females. The calculation
can give the picture of the compositions and will suggest ideas where development interventions
should be made on the population issues. It has influence on gender division of labor, and therefore,
has importance for socio-economic development planning. In the study area sex composition the
male population constitutes 154,739 or 56.7 percent and the female counterpart is 117,947 or 43.3
percent of the population. Regardless of the age segments the sex ratio in the survey rural area is that
there are 131 male populations for 100 female populations. Where as in the urban areas there are 125
male populations for 100 female populations. The ratio is important indicator there should be further
investigation at household level to find the actual sex ratio at different age group particularly in the
reproductive age segment (15 – 45 years) in the study area.
2. Population Density
The Afar region average population density is 15 persons per km square; it shows that the region has
relatively low density. In the study area the population density is 21 people per km square. In this
regard Awra Woreda has lower density and Gulina Woreda is densely populated, 13 and 43
persons/km square respectively.
Table 3-9 Population Size by Woreda, Percentage Share and Density
Region/Zone/Woreda
Total Population % Share from Total Population
Population Density [person/km2]
Erebti Woreda 36,233 2.57 16
Megale Woreda 28,106 1.99 14
Awra Woreda 35,755 2.53 13
Teru Woreda 75,342 5.34 22
Yalo Woreda 47,459 3.36 28
Golina Woreda 49,791 3.53 43
Basin Total 272686 19.3 21
Source: CSA’s 2007, population censes & ANRS BoARD reports
3. Land Tenure
100
According to WARC-APARI Survey, 2007, like any other nomadic pastoralists, land is owned and
utilized by the woredas clan community. It is a communal property. Of course, there is a territorial
unity for the exclusive use of respective clan. The clan has the right to utilize the land and resources
available on the land communally. Some years back, however they have reached consensus at
regional level that each and every clan would have the right to graze its livestock in any clans
territory provided that it respects the territorial supremacy of the other clan though it has a difficulty
to practice it in reality. The change in the land tenure system may require the establishment or the
integration of livestock farming with the direct participation of the community. In areas where the
confrontations of tribal conflicts with the adjacent regions prevail, the community opts for communal
ownership of land.
Conflict over resource like grazing lands and water points is the main problems that hamper
development in the woredas. In some part of the survived areas there was a conflict over grazing land
with Awra woreda and the neighboring Amhara region Kobo Woreda. At this time the conflict
becoming smooth and solved by the two regions common agreement in resource utilization and
management.
4. Economic activities of the study area
The production system of Afar region is dominated by pastorals from which agro pastoral activity is
now emerging following some permanent and temporary rivers on which small scale irrigation is
developed.
a. Livestock production
As it has been indicated before the major livelihood source of the region’s population is the livestock
sector where cattle, shoat and camel do have a significant contribution both as a source of food and
cash. Though the livestock sector is the dominant sector in the region, its productivity is less even
compared with the national average because of shortage of forage due to various reasons, inferior
breeds, livestock disease prevalence, poor & traditional livestock management, the traditional values
given to cattle such as prestige values, poor & insufficient veterinary services etc.
The sector is not operated in a competitive way to get advantage of the increasing demand both for
beef and meat, though there are some development endeavors by the region. The average weight
cattle in the region don’t meet the minimum requirement of the meat industry as compared to other
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pastoral areas. More over poor marketing infrastructures in the region make the sector less
competitive.
b. Crop Production
According to Afar Region Survey, 2009, the Afar region is endowed with an enormous potential of
fertile agricultural land with adequate water resource that could be exploited. The potential of the
region for irrigation is estimated about 165,545 hectares. Of which a total area of 45,931 hectare was
developed by state farms previously. But following the change of the Government, the majority of the
developed irrigated land was handed over to the pastoralists. Most of the potential of irrigated land is
found within lower and Middle Awash Valley which is suitable & ideal for production different types
of crops.
The types of crops that could be successfully produced in the selected investment areas are Cotton,
Maize, Sorghum, Sesame, Groundnut, Tomato, Onion, Mango, Banana, Papaya, Sugarcane and Date
palm. In addition, though they are not yet well adopted by the local people /WARC-APARI, 2009/.
Table 3: Number of kebeles & rural population HHs employed in pastorals
S/N
Name of woreda
Name of admi/zone
Number of kebeles Number of house hold heads
pastorals Semi-pastoral
Town Total pastoral Semi-pastoral
Town Total
1 Erebti Kelbitiresu 13 0 0 13 11449 0 0 11449
2 Megale Kelbitiresu 5 3 0 8 3978 702 0 4680
3 Yallo Fentiresu 7 1 0 8 5854 146 0 6000
4 Gulina Fentiresu 6 2 0 8 4321 879 0 5200
5 Awra Fentiresu 10 1 0 11 4866 858 0 5724
6 Teru Fentiresu 12 0 0 12 9420 0 0 9420
Total 53 7 0 60 39888 2585 0 42473
Source: compiled the collected data & Afar BoARD reports
S.
N
Name of
Woreda
No. of Schools No. of teachers in 2002 e.c
Alterna ≤ 12th grade Certificate Diploma Degree
M F T M F T M F T M F T
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tive 1-8 9-10 11-12
1 Erebti 12 7 - - 8 0 8 22 9 31 8 0 8 1 0 1
2 Megale 12 13 - - 5 0 5 29 17 46 17 6 23 0 0 0
3 Awra 11 9 - - 3 0 3 22 12 34 5 0 5 0 0 0
4 Gulina 4 15 1 - 7 1 8 26 21 47 15 1 16 7 0 7
5 Teru 24 10 - - 14 0 14 30 5 35 8 0 8 0 0 0
6 Yallo 4 16 - - 17 1 18 31 17 48 13 3 16 0 0 0
Total 67 70 1 - 54 2 56 160 81 241 66 10 76 8 0 8
B.SOCIAL SERVICES
1.EDUCATION
In general terms, education is a key to bring about socio cultural, economic, and political transformations and
overall development. Education is a means to sustain and accelerate over all development through creating
effective and conscious citizens. The education policy of Ethiopia adopts forced education at primary level for
all citizens within the school age population. According to the information collected from woreda education
offices in the study area, there are 70 primary schools. There is only one highschool /9-10/ at Gulina Woreda
Kelwan town. The information obtained from Regional Education Bureau annual report shows that, the overall
education coverage in the region found to be first level (grade 1-8) 57.8%, second level (9-12) 10.7% and non
formal education 18.4 percent.
The major problems regarding in formal and non formal education are high rate of drop outs because of the
existence of droughts and water shortage, absence of secondary schools in most rural areas, the presence of
early marriage, lack of community awareness, shortage of education materials like text books, etc.
Table 3-10 Number of schools & teachers in each woreda
Source: ANRS Education Bureau
2.HEALTH
The reconnaissance survey has tried to overview the health conditions of the people in the survey
area. Some indicative data have been collected at woreda level health office and some other regional
level data. Health being one of the fundamental social development indicators has to be one of the
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areas to be covered in the land use planning process. This due mainly the fact that the health situation
of an area inevitable affected with the intervention of development program or development of an
area is possible through the full participation of healthy and physically, mentally and economically
sound people. On the other hand getting health service is part of human right, and without it
economic development of a country becomes inconceivable.
According to the data collected from Health Bureau of the Region and Afar Region Survey (2006),
in study areas malaria is the major endemic disease of the region though many other diseases such as
upper respiratory tract infection , phenomena , water born diseases and other parasitic diseases are
existent as of elsewhere. The current health coverage of the Afar region is 78.7 percent. The
establishment of health centers based on the number of population to give services on the
assumption one health center for 25000 people and one health post for 2000 people. However, the
health coverage is not uniform across the study districts. All the studied districts have health posts
and health centers.
The number of health institutions in the survey area is found to be 36 health posts constituting about
81.8 percent of the total institutions which is significantly higher in the area. The number of health
centers is 6 about 13.6 percent of the total institutions, 1 clinic which covers 2.3% and only one
district hospital at Gulina Woreda Kelewan town which upgraded in 2002 E.C.
Table 3-11 Health Institutions by type and number of health professionals in the study area
Zone Woreda Health institutions by type Health professionals Remark
Hospital
Health center
Clinic
Health post
Total Male Female Total
Two Erebti - 2 - 8 10 32 7 39
Megale - - 1 1 2 - - -
Four Gulina 1 - - 11 12 34 22 56
Yalo - 1 - 3 4 21 10 31
Awra - 1 - 8 10 41 1 42
Teru - 2 - 5 7 26 3 29
Total 1 6 1 36 44
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Source: Data collected from Woreda health offices
The data collected from woreda health offices indicates that malaria followed by pneumonia,
diarrhea, URTI, UTI, anemia, infection wounds, intestinal parasites, AFI and trauma is the top
diseases that affect the health of the local people in the study area. Many other studies are also
indicating this pattern of the human diseases.
The major problems regarding the health service are, shortage of drugs and medical equipments,
shortage of skilled man power, lack of infrastructures /like health institutions, transportation facilities,
road accessibilities, water and power access/, the existence of malaria incidence and water born
diseases, weak performance of health extension workers and lack of motivational mechanisms for
better performed workers and insufficient budget allocation etc.
3. Water Supply
Water scarcity is a critical issue for many developing regions in general and for those of arid and
semiarid areas in particular. The surveyed Woreda have very limited access potable water supply. For
nomadic pastoralists, easy access to water differs significantly by seasonal variation. During the rainy
season, they have an opportunity to have relatively accessible water for human and livestock
consumptions and vice versa during the dry season. The major sources of water for pastoral and agro-
pastoral community and their livestock’s are Rivers, ponds, stagnant waters during the rainy seasons,
hand dug wells, motorized deep wells. The quantity and distribution of existing surface and ground
water supply schemes developed in the woredas are insufficient. It is more assessed on the
hydrogeology and water resource section.
C.GENDER ISSUES
The increased participation of women in productive income generating activities strengthens
economic independence and contributes to individual self-reliance. In line with country needs and
with the international development priorities and targets, women related result indicators of
programmes and projects relating to generation of employment of women, gender related skills
development.
The gender roles of men and women in the sample Woreda society may differ from one place to
another. The concept of gender recognized that women and men are not homogenous group.
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Differences in age, class, race, ethnicity, and disability status cut across human society and affect
status, power and access to resource.
In the study area the values and ideas related to gender construction have undergone challenges,
which differ according to socio-economic status, clan and ethnicity in the surveyed kebeles. But there
is resistance to change in gender power relations though there is a little effort made. Like most
pastoral group in Ethiopia, in the surveyed Woreda the community is a male dominating community,
women are working for long hours. They are involved in childcare, husbandry of small ruminant and
milking cows, feeding the family and supporting agricultural activities in the agro-pastoral kebeles
and other productive and reproductive activities. However, their role in decision-making is very low
and development relief support interventions most of the time are targeting only men.
Marriage and partner selection is also made by their parents and it is based on cross-cons marriage
/locally it is called ABSUMA/. They believe that this type endogamous marriage has the effect of
creating a strong linkage and a cohesive social system.
D.INVESTMENT
Today the country as well as the region is in the way of free market. This market economy incites
investment in the region. Based on the regional potential, most of the region investment is in
agricultural sector, mainly in Cotton production and limited number in Broom Corn production.
According to Investment office data, the regional investment activity is concentrated in 6 wereda
namely Amibara, Gewane, Assayita, Dubti, Mile and Awash. 58.10% of the regional agricultural
investment is covered by a single wereda i.e. Amibara.
Agricultural Investment practice
The middle and lower awash areas were known for a number of state farms operating specially on
cotton plantation during the past regimes. During the Dergue regime these farms were operational
mainly because of subsequent subsidy on production losses. After the fall of Durgue, the EPRDF's
structural adjustment and free market economy policy many farms were abandoned and were
privatized. After many steps and policy measures were taken by the federal government of Ethiopia to
encourage and promote investment in every sector the Afar National Regional State on the way to
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take similar steps to encourage investment especially on adopting the investment proclamation and
changing the land tenure system. These have opened the door to facilitate smooth and suitable flow of
investment in the region. According to the regional investment office data, in the Afar region there
are 50 commercial farms cultivating an estimated area of nearly 54,000 hectares. These investors
have no any clear legal attachment with regional executive offices. This is because investors leased
the land from the clan leaders (Afar Region Survey, 2009).
Major challenges in the study area
Though the selected investment areas are suitable and ideal for the production of the above
mentioned crop types, rural land is still under the ownership of clans, which makes the
investment more complicated. Besides this irrigation crop production in the region will
most likely be constrained by irrigation water shortage especially during dry season when
the amount of Awash River drops down.
The regional land tenure system is not attractive because of the inability to implement the
land use policy.
Agricultural investment promotion and regional investment office are not given more
attention to attract investors in the region.
In some districts, there are poor infrastructural developments. This will create difficulty to
assess the potential of the specific area for the type of investment it suits.
The sparse settlement of the population created scarce labor in the study areas. Getting
adequate labor force one of the challenges that the investors will be facing. In such
condition, additional labor could be obtained from highly populated areas of the
neighboring regions provided them with good incentives
The dominant productive land of the study area soil pH was alkaline.
E.INFRASTRUCTURS
1.Road
Road construction plays a significant role in realizing economic development and for the expansion of
investment. In line with the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization policy of Ethiopia in
particular the role of construction of roads, which foster the spreading out of the transportation sector,
107
is crucial for sustainable development. Progress in activities of agriculture trade and other service
areas goes flourishing strictly with achievements attained in road development. Road construction also
lays foundation for cultural exchange. Road development is essential with the perspective of saving of
time, minimizing travelling expenses and improving services in trade, education and health sectors
and so on. For the realization of sustainable social and economic development building new roads,
maintaining and upgrading of the existing ones is vital.
Afar regional state has made massive efforts to expand access to transportation services through
construction of all weather and dry weather roads. So far, the region has 454 federal paved asphalt
road, 441 km federal gravel road, 409 km of regional gravel roads and 43km regional earth road with
the extension of the main highway that connects itself with Tigray, Oromiya, Amhara regions and
Djibouti republic (Afar Region Survey, 2009).
Figure 3-17 Road development in Afar Region /Teru-Awra dry weather; Chifra-Gulina all weather & Mille-Semera main road/
The total road network of the region is about 3,391.5 km, which makes the regional road density to be
21.72 km per 1000 km2. This implies that quite a number of people, especially in rural areas, are still
travelling long distances to reach the main roads in order to get transportation services. In addition,
farmers are unable to get inputs timely and sale their products to better markets and it is much difficult
to obtain social services. However, considerable improvements have been made in the recent years.
2. Telecommunication
From the existing modern communication technology, telecommunication is one. It enables
information exchanges easy and faster, in this respect it is a key factor for development. Today the
country coverage of this technology is fast and trying to access remote area. The data collected from
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the Woreda administrative show that Gulina and Awra towns have access to microwave system. Teru,
Erebti, Megale and Yallo have access to VSAT and wireless telephone.
1. Electricity
For modern communication and industrial development electricity service is one of the crucial
service. But in the region, like other social and economic infrastructure electricity service is very
limited. Today only three woredas get hydro electric power. The three hydro electric power are
distributed in Erebti, Awra and Yallo towns where as the others have not access to hydro electric
power.
2. Bank service
Bank is one of the economic sectors that should exist in the region. Like other, it is also not well
distributed in the region. In the study area there is no banks, as a result, such woredas of the region
use bank services outside the region such Banks as Mekelle & Alamata in Tigray Region and Weldya
& Bati in Amhara region.
Table 3-12 Access to telecommunication, power, markets & financial services
District Telecommunication service Hydro-electric power
Financial institution /CBE/
Microwave VSAT Wireless telephone
Erebti - x - x --
Megale - - x - -
Awra x - x x -
Gulina - - x - -
Yallo x x - x -
Teru - x - - -
Source: Data collected from each Woreda and Afar Region Survey, 2009
3. Market Service
Markets are of fundamental importance in the livelihood strategy of most rural households, rich and
poor alike. Markets are where, as producers, they buy their inputs and sell their products; and where,
as consumers, they spend their income from the sale of crops or from their non-agricultural activities,
109
to buy their food requirements and other consumption goods. Because of this, rural poor people in
many parts of the world often indicate that one reason they cannot improve their living standards is
that they face serious difficulties in accessing markets. Low population densities in rural areas,
remote location and high transport costs are the present real physical difficulties in accessing markets.
The rural poor are also often constrained by their lack of understanding of the markets, their limited
business and negotiating skills, and their lack of an organization that could give them the bargaining
power they require to interact on equal terms with other, larger and stronger market intermediaries.
Though endowed with enormous livestock resource, the afar pastorals have not benefited much from
it. In most of the surveyed areas, there is lack of market places. Given the magnitude of livestock,
market centers are few in number forcing pastoralists to travel longer distances. Distances to the
markets are too far for animals, which results highly exhaustion or even die up on arrival. Lack of
feed and water compels distressed sells of livestock at low price (especially at dry seasons). Livestock
prices fall during this time. While traders continue to visit markets, few cattle’s are available for sell
and generally not available due to massive out migration to the adjacent regions. . Low market price
of the cattle further deters pastoralists from selling.
In the study area there is no main market at Woreda centers. Such woredas use markets Aysaita,
Chifra, Ewa, Abala and Logia towns in the region and adjacent woredas of Amhara and Tigray
regions out of the region.
F.COOPERATIVES AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS
In the surveyed area there are some cooperative organized by the communities. Some of the
cooperatives are water users association, animal health association, "Hulegeb" association and
association on saving and credit. The associations are cooperated by GOs and NGOs. However, in
those areas there is lack of cooperative on livestock and livestock products marketing.
Problems such as lack of market information, potential buyers, market centers and price fluctuations
can be solved using cooperative on livestock and livestock products marketing on some organized
conditions.
Table 3-13 Type of cooperatives in TSB woreda
110
Wore
da
Marketing coops
Purchasing coops
Milk &milk products
Service coops
Saving & credit coops
Animal feed pr
No
of
Coo
ps
No
of
Coo
ps
No
of
Coo
ps
No
of
Coo
ps
No
of
Coo
ps
No
of
Mem
bers
Coo
ps
num
ber
1 Erebti 0 0 27 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 Megale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 Yallo 34 1 30 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 Gulina 0 0 74 3 0 0 67 3 0 0 0 0
5 Awra 0 0 53 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 Teru 31 1 0 0 0 0 50 2 0 0 0 0
Total 65 2 184
6 0 0 117
5 0 0 0 0
Source: Afar region Pastoral & Rural development Bureau Annual Report
NGO’s
The participation of local and International NGO’s in the development activity will strength the
regional capacity in different development interventions. In the study area about 6 NGO’s are
participating in developmental issues. Some of NGO’s intervention area is regional but most of them
are area specific.
3.5 Livestock production and rangeland condition
According the study of MCE, 2001 livestock of the Afar region is estimated to be 11,437,226 of
which cattle 4,993,977; sheep 2,352,365; goats 2,908,976; camels 991,478 and donkeys 190,430 and
about 95% of the pastoral household depends on livestock husbandry with cattle, sheep, goats, and
camels being the main species.
People move from place to place together with their animals in search of feed and water for the
livestock and no shelters are made for livestock in the Region. At night they are kept in the
enclosures or corrals. When livestock migrate to the seasonal area, they stay in the open air. Cattle
and camels stay in the outer perimeter of the corrals as they can better defend themselves from
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predator’s .Sheep and goats are put in the inner section of the temporary corrals during the night.
Sometimes different partitions are made for the different classes of livestock .Cattle, donkeys, calves
and camels are kept on their own separate enclosures. Sheep and goats have a common space in the
corrals and similarly, lambs and kids are kept together.
Livestock production is a function of good grazing area and watering points. The production and
productivity of livestock is directly related to bad or good years. Therefore during drought periods
livestock particularly cattle are victims of the event while camels and to some extent small ruminants
can cope up as they can browse on shrubs and trees and can provide few liters of milk.
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Livestock population
Table 3-14 Type and distribution of livestock species in Teru sub basin is indicated in the table below;
Types of animals woredas
cattle
Shoats Equines camels Sub total poultry beehives
sheep goats donkeys horse mules traditional modern
Gulina 11,235 70,053 122,210 271 - - 25,806 229575 - - -Awira 86,094 114,951 131,040 3,748 - - 34,141 369974 50 - -Yalo 19,372 17,752 58,707 1,919 - - 11,855 109605 - 80 22Teru 131,32
5209,552 233,093 7,726 - - 29,668 611364 - - -
Erebti 40,334 40,889 76,377 3000 - - 10,899 171499 50 100 30Megallie 38,992 54,982 17,159 4,221 - - 16,946 132300 - - -TOTAL 327,35
2508,189 638,586 20,885 - - 129,31
51624327 100 180 52
TLU 229146.4
50518.9 63858.6 10442.5 - - 129 315
483281.4
%TLU 47.41 10.45 13.21 2.16 26.76 100
Source; WPARD annual reports -19982001, ( ).
Table 14 above shows the livestock in the surveyed woredas of the sub basin includes cattle 327,352; sheep 508, 1889; goats 638,586;
Equines especially donkeys 20,885; camels 129,315; and 100 poultries and 232 bee colonies. But 47.41TLU, 26.76 TLU, 13.21TLU,
and 10.45TLU represent cattle, camels, goats and sheep respectively.
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Breeds
The livestock of the sub basin especially cattle, shoats (sheep and goats), and camels (single humped) are
indigenous. The majority of the cattle are long legged with medium to large body size and with varied coat
colors of brown, black, grey and a combination of them .Most of the herds have long and large horns known as
’’ Sanga’’ type(Boss Longiferons). The other type is with heavy, short horns known as Zebu type (MCE, 2004).
According to the woreda experts, there are also 12 Barka breeds in Hida, Alibermesgid, Lekura and Lekuma
kebeles of Awira woredas. There are also Boran breeds provided by the support of SSD project. The coat color
of the sheep is mostly fawning and is known for their fat tailed while the coat color of the goats is mixed, black
and white color. Poultry production is not popular but few numbers are raised by town dwellers of Awira and
Erebti. Both traditional and modern beekeeping is practiced in Yolo and Erebti woredas.
Figure 3-18 Local goat breeds (left) &long horn local cattle breed (right)
114
Purposes of Livestock
Livestock are kept for various purposes with milk and milk products being the primary items. Cattle are used
for milk, meat, cash and hides and unlike the Lower Awash boys are benefited from the milk especially during
the dry season. There are traditional practices that livestock are used to dispute when there is a disagreement
between clans or peoples and slaughtered when peoples die. The skin and hide is not mostly brought to market
but is used to prepare different utensils (bed, seating, water holding etc). Sheep and goats are mainly sources of
cash but milk, meat and hides are also important. Kids are mostly slaughter in their younger age and are locally
called’’ Bekel’’ Camels are important for milk, meat and transport. Unlike the Lower Awash sub basin there
is a cultural taboo of camels’ milk selling because the camels are considered as a common wealth. Equines
especially donkeys are mostly used as pack animals According to the woreda livestock experts, the average
daily milk yield of a cow, goat, and camel is 2, 0.65 and 6.65 liters respectively..
Figure 3-19 Donkeys used as a pack animals (fetching water) - in Gulina
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Livestock Feeds and Water
Feeds
The livestock husbandry system of the Region is mostly pastoralism (especially transhumance and
nomadic) that includes seasonal herding of animals grazing extensively on communal range lands. The
major sources of feed for livestock are natural pasture, crop residues, aftermath grazing Industrial
byproducts and improved forages. In low rain fall woredas like Teru in which crop production is not
practiced, crop residues are provided by the support of FAO from other regions. There is stock exclusion
area in Mulina-asale kebele of Gulina woredas (greater than about 40 ha) which has been used
communally by cut and carry system. There is little practice of forage crop production under irrigation in
Awira and Gulina woredas by the help of SSD project. These forages include Rhodes, Buffle and
Panicum from grasses and Alfalfa, cowpea and Lablab from legumes.
Water source
According to the woreda experts, two sources are mentioned for surface water availability. These are
surface runoff from neighboring highlands and runoff from the Region. The major sources of water for
livestock in the surveyed woredas include rivers, springs, lakes ,ponds ,river intakes, wells and sand
filters locally called ‘’Ella’s’’. Awira, Gulina, Me gale, Timuga & Ginzil rivers are important permanent
sources of water for livestock.
Ponds & river intakes are sources of water in all the surveyed woredas except in Erebti and Teru Deep
wells in exception of Megalle, Erebti and Teru woredas and shallow wells (except Teru) are also
important sources of water for livestock. The problems associated with water in the basin are shortage,
remoteness and water borne diseases.
Range Land Condition
According to the study of MCE(2001),bare lands cover 70% of the Region and the vegetation area(20%
of the Region) includes grass lands, shrubs, bushes & riparian wood lands. The rest are water bodies and
wet land. The Afar range lands occupy the vast area of which grasslands 1,409,426 ha, shrub land 3,
005,719 ha. The land utilization type is extensive type of grazing in which the animal feed comes mainly
from range lands and over which the animals roam extensively.
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Range lands is a tract of land currently used for grazing by livestock or wildlife, where natural
vegetation is the main forage resource(Gils,1984).The livestock husbandry system of the Region is
mostly pastoralism (especially transhumance and nomadic ) that includes seasonal herding of animals
grazing extensively on communal range lands.
Unlike Awira, Gulina and to some extent Yolo (which have batter range lands), most of the range lands
are totally degraded and the quantity of feed available in the range lands is almost nil. There is no/little
Prosopis Juliflora in the surveyed woredas except Yolo and Teru.
Table 3-15 the type and distribution of the different forage species in the surveyed woredas is indicated as follows
Grasses Shrubs/ TreesAfar/vernacular Name
Scientific Name Afar/vernacular Name
Scientific Name
Melif Andropogon cenchriformis schumach
Bunket Tribulus terretiris L.
Musa Brachiaria eruciformi Humbucto Abutilanfruticosum Guill& per.
Durfu Chrysopogon plulmulosus Hochst Killaito commiphora Africana Surukto Chloris phycnotrix Trin Udaito Balanites aegyptica(L.Del)Aiso Chloris roxburghiana schult Gernto Acacia oerfota Benth. Irareyta Cynodon dactylon Trin Keselto Acia niloticaAfaramole Dactyloctenium aegyptium
Beauv.Hidaito Grewia tenax
Aiso Digitaria milinjina Rendles Merkato Acacia melliferaAitaydoita Tetrapogon cenchriformis Adaito salvadora persic Randa Panicum maximum jacq Eibto Acacia asak Hyn Afaranole Lintonia nutans Stampt. Mederto Cordia Sinesis LamGorob Andropogon canaliculatus
schumachSegento Tamarix
aphylla(L.)karstenSardoita Cynodon plectostachyus pilge.r Eibto Acacia tortolisSerdo Cynodon dactylon Adanglita Doberaglabra forssk.
Hanti anunus Cenchrus ciliaris(L.) Geleato Calotropis Procera(Ait.)
Donhito Eragrostis cylindriflora Mekani Acacia Seyal Del Eibto Acacia horrid L.wild Alaito Balanites orbicularis
Source: ARWDS by MCE, 2001.
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Most of the sub basin woreda range lands especially Gulina and Awira range lands are dominated by Bunket (Tribulus terretiris L.).According to the pastoralist interviewed on field in Teru woreda, Dille, Dodob, Musa and Donicto grass species are decreasing and almost distinct.
Mobility Pattern
Livestock move from place to place in search of pasture and water. During the dry season from January(Tir)
to June (Sene), livestock especially cattle from Awira, Gulina, Yalo and Teru move to Western part of Yalo,
Gulina, Ewa Chifra and Mille and stay in the Eastern parts of the woredas during wet season from July
(Hamille) to December(Tahisas).
Table 3 - 16 the grazing pattern and herd movement of the surveyed woredas is indicated below
Woreda Grazing pattern & herd movement
Awira, Gulina, Yalo, Teru Dry season; to Western Yale ,Gulina, Ewa, Chifra & Mille
Wet season; to Teru ,Awira and Eastern parts of Yalo,
Gulina, Chifra
Erebti ,Megallie Dry season; to Dalol,Kuneba,Berhalle,Amala,Megalle
Wet season; to Erebti and Afidera
Source: ARWDS
Male animals that are borne during mobility, especially calves, are mostly killed immediately after birth
and the pastoralists use the skin as a doom figure while milking and the reason for this is to reduce feed
shortage during drought period. The animals that are more affected by feed shortage are cattle, sheep, goats
and camels in order of increasing resistance. Cattle are herded by young boys and sheep and goats by
young girls.
Figure 3-20 the skin used as a doom figure.
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Conflicts over Resources
Conflicts over natural resources has a long history and like the lower Awash sub basin the conflicts over
natural resources in the Teru sub basin could be initiated internally or externally but to a lesser extent. .
Internal conflicts are caused by differences of interests among the Afars regarding the use of communal
grazing land and water. External conflicts are observed between Afars and the neighboring escarpment
area settlers of Amhara, Tigray, and etc. regions.
Opportunities and Constraints of Livestock Production and Range Lands
The followings are some of the opportunities in the sub basin:
High priority of livestock production by the Regional government.
Presence NGO’s working on livestock.
Large area of grazing and browsing.
Availability of different adapted animal species.
Start of forage development practice by the woreda pastoral and agricultural and rural development
offices
Proximity of rangelands to the populated areas etc.
And the followings are the constraints;
Climatic limitation, rainfall being the key factor.
Feed shortage.
Low productivity of local breeds.
Inter and intra-tribal conflict; which occur over water and grazing.
Communal way of animal grazing.
Large livestock number owned by pastoralists and agro pastoralists.
Expansion of cultivation.
Traditional range and livestock management system.
Absence of feed preservation and conservation techniques and etc.
Bush encroachment mainly by Acacia species and to some extent by Prosopis Juliflora
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3.6 Animal Health Animal Health
Most of Africa’s enzootic and economically sever animal diseases are found in the teru basin of Afar
region including areas of Golina,Awra,Teru,Yalo Megale and Erebti districts . The most common
diseases and outbreaks in the study area are CBPP, Bovine pasteurellosis, Ovine pasteurellosis,
PPR,CCPP, goat and sheep pox, anthrax, Black leg, Trypanosomiasis, internal parasites and external
parasites.These different types of diseases greatly affect the health of different animals such as
cattle,camel,goat,sheep and donkey. Manegenment system, Birth complexity, mechanical injury,
veterinary service, type of treatments, amount of vaccines and amount of treatments also affect the
health of the above animals directly and indirectly.The diseases and other associated health problems are
major hurdle to livestock productivity such as decrease in milk and meat production,decrease in
reproduction, reduced working ability,low quality hide and skine and death of animals. The movement of
animals to search feed and water also play a great role in distribution and acquiring of new diseases.
This makes the very severe problem to prevent and control the diseases in the study area.
In this inception report the diseases found in the area are explained on species level. Emphasis has been
given also to birth complexity, Mechanical injury, veterinary service (institution, man power, pharmacy
and laboratory) and amount and type of treatments and vaccines delivered.
Cattle Diseases
Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP):-A highly contagious pneumonia generaly accompanied by
pleurisy. It is caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp mycoides. susceptible cattle become infected by
inhaling droplets coughed out by affected cattle.the plasenta and urine can be sources of infection.
Susceptible herds may show up to 100% morbidity and mortality may reach 50%. Tewenty-five percent
of recovered animals may become carriers with chronic lung lesions in the form of sequesra of variable
size. Since carriers may not be detectable clinicaly or serologically they constitute a serious problem in
control programs.The out breaks of CBPP have caused havoc among cattle herds in teru basin and
causes large number of cattle death. All districts are affected by the disease. Some efforts have been
exerted on the epidemics using monovalent CBPP vaccines but not succeful due to migration of animals
to look for feed and water.
Bovine Pasteurellosis (shiping fever, transit fever.):-It is a bacterial respirtory disease of cattle and
caused by Pasteurella haemolytica and pasteurella multocida.The disease is very common in the study
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area and re-occurs each year when the animals are under journey, nutritional and environmental stress .
all ages of cattle are susceptible but sever respiratory disease associated with pasterella spp generally in
younger animals followng shipping ,thus, it is often called shipping fever.
Especially during at the movement of animals to look for feed and water, the disease may affect the herd
and the pastoralists may loss 1-10% of herd and 50% of herd may reqire treatments. Outbreaks are often
sporadic in nature and vaccination campaigne are often launched to contain the out breaks.
Blackleg:-An acut febril disease of cattle and caused by clostridium chauvoei (feseri) and characterized
by emphysematous swelling, usually in the heavy muscles.
The disease is prevalent throughout the teru basin. The disease affects young and fat animals. Thise
results a great economical crisis and poverty in pasturalists. When outbreaks are encountered ,all
susceptible cattle are vaccinated and treated prophylactically with penicillin to prevent the new cses in all
destricts.
Anthrax (splenic fever, charbon, milzbrand):-An acut,febril disease of virtually all warm-blooded
animals,including man,caused by bacillus anthracis.This disease is common in some districts like Teru,
Golina and Megale. It has been reported as cause of numerous livestock deaths among pastoral herds of
the above districts.prevention and control is done by massive vaccination against anthrax.
Internal Parasites:-Gastro-intestinal parasites account for the highest production loss in cattle and affect
the whole age groups. Internal parasites are haemonchus,strongyls, tapworm,trichuris, e.t.c are prevalent
in the teru basins. Commonly Gastro intestinal parasites are treated by broad spectrum anthelmintics
such as albendazole, fasionex and ivermectine.
External Parasites:-This is very common in each Woreda. Ticks and mange mite are a very common
external parasites and these parasites causes decrease in livestock production. External parasites also
greatly affect the quality and grade of hide. The pastoralists control the external parasites by diazinon
60% and ivermectin injectiuon.
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Camel diseases
camel Trypanosomiasis
It is a fatal disease of camel caused by trypanosoma evansi and transmited by biting flies. The disease is
very common in Teru. Camel trypanosomiasis is by far the harshest camel health problem. It causes
economical losses through mortality, poor milk and meat output and reduced working ability.
Internal Parasites:-It is prevalent in all study areas. Common Internal parasites are nematodes,
(strongyls and haemonchus )cestodes, and protozoans(balantidium spp and coccidia oocyst) and cause
production loss and reduced working ability.
External Parasite:-It is also a very common disease in the study area. Ticks and mange mites are the
most common external parasites and cause weight loss, restless production loss and expose the camel to
the secondary diseases. The pastoralists control external parasites using ecto-pars. There is also
unknowen camel disease prevalent in Awra, Teru and megale. The cause of the disease is not known
and economically very important disease. The camels show the clinical signs, Such as loss of appetites,
depressed, respiratory problem, recumbency and finally death.
Goat and Sheep Diseases
Peste Des Petitis Ruminants (PPR):- Peste des petits ruminants(PPR) is also called pseudorinderpest of
small ruminants ,pest of small ruminants,pest of sheep and goat,Kata,stomatitispneumoenteritis
syndrom,and pneumoenteritis complex.It is an acute and sub acute viral disease caused by a
morbillivirus of family paramyxoviridae and affects goat and sheep characterized by fever,necrotic
stomatitis,gastroenteritis,and pneumonia. The disease is prevalent in all districts and causes large number
of goats and sheep death. Sometimes the disease may eliminat the goats and sheep in a village and the
pastoralistes may become poor and dependant to the government. Massive vaccination Campaign against
PPR is done to prevent and control the outbreaks in all districts before and after the incidence occures.
Sheep and Goat Pox: - Serious, often fatal, disease characterized by widespread skin eruption. It is
caused by poxviruses of sheep and goat (capripoxvirus). sheep and goat pox is an important and widely
spread viral disease of goat and sheep. The disease is prevalent in all districts in the study area. It causes
production loss, death and exposes the sheep and goat to the secondary diseases. it also affects the
quality and grade of skin.
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Ovine Pasteurellosis:- Ovine pasteurellosis is caused by pasteurolla haemolytica and rarely by
pasteurella multocida.The disease is very common in the study area and reoccurs each year when the
animals are under journey, nutritional and environmental stress. It causes high production loss and
death. Outbreaks are often sporadic in nature and vaccination campaigns are often launched to prevent
and control of the outbreaks.
Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (ccpp):- an acut pneumonias in goats are caused by
mycoplasma mycoides subsp mycoides and mycoplasma mycoides subsp capri. The disease affects goats
and may have 100% morbidity and 60-100% mortality. The disease is very common in all districts and
causes high production loss and death. The outbreak is controled by massive vaccination.
Internal Parasites:- The internal parasites accounted for the highest production loss in small ruminants.
Internal parasites in sheep and goat are haemonchus, contortus, trichostrongylus colubriformis
oesophagostom colombianum and trichuris ovis. these internal parasites are common in all areas. The
parasite is controlled by anthihelementics in all districts.
External parasites :- It is prevalent in all districts. Ticks and mange mite are the most common external
parasites and it affects the skin. It causes weight loss, irritation, and expose to the secondary diseases, In
addition to this it affects the quality and grade of the skin.
Equine Diseases
Internal and External Parasites:- These parasites are very common in the study area. Despite equine
contributes to the national and local economy;little attention has been given so far to the problem of
helminthosis in equine as compared to other livstock species. These parasites cause weight loss and
reduced working ability in equidae.
Birth Complexity
Still Birth: - Still birth occurs when the fetus has died in the uterus during labor or delivery. Some
possibilities of the causes of death are: bacterial infection, birth defects, especially pulmonary hypo–
plasia. still birth becoming less common as care for pregnancy improves. Still birth is very common in
all Teru basins.
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In these areas still birth becomes very worst because of two main reasons:
1. Cultural Problem: - The pastoralists prefer treat their animals by local medicine to treating
animals in veterinary clinics. This is is not effective because still birth treatment is given after the
cause is known.
2. Remoteness of the area: The pastoralists move very far away from clinics to search feed and
water to their animals and some kebeles are very far from clinics.
Dystocia:- Dystocia is difficulties at parturition may result from: myometral defects, hypocalcemia,
uterine torsion or rupture, primary or secondary uterine inertia, in inadequate pelvice canal, insufficient
dilation of the cervix vagina, or vulva, fetal hormone deficiency (fetal corticosteroid deficiency), fetal
over size, fetal death, or abnormal fetal presentation.
Dystocia is common in all species of mammals and in all districts and it affects greatly animal
production. Dystocia is very worst in these areas due to two reasons.
1. Cultural problem: Most pastoralists prefer treating the animals by local medicines to
veterinary clinics.
2. Remoteness of the area: These pastoralists live very far away from clinics and also they move
very far distances to look for feed and water for their animals.
Mechanical Injury
Branding:- Branding is very common in cattle and camel in the whole study area. Branding is an act of
marking cattle and camel with fire heated iron to identify the owners of the animal or clans. This practice
become particularly widespread in Teru nation and with large cattle and camel grazing regions. The
unique brand meant that; cattle and camel owned by multiple ranches could then graze freely together on
the open range. In these area branding causes stress, injury and a great damage in quality and grade of
hide.
Harnessing Problem:-Harnessing problem is very common in Teru basin. The Camels and equines are
more exposed to this problem and cause injury, expose the animal to the secondary disease and reduced
working ability. The pastoralists have limitation of using saddling during transporting household goods
and pulling carts.
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Horn Torn:-Horn torn is very common and study area and it is high in cattle. The Teru cattle have
genetically long, sharp and strong horn. The sharp, large and strong horns cause hernia, mechanical
wound, abortion, loss of eye and somtimes death. `
Bush torn:-Bush torn is also very common in the study area and very serious in cattle, camel and donkey
respectively. Especially prosopises causes eye loss, and mechanical trauma in cattle, camel and donkeys
in golina. In addition to this prosopes causes bloat and death in cattle camel and donkeys and also by
tighting expose animals to hyena and other pridators.
Hyena and Fox bite
Hyena Bite:-The hyena bite is very common problem in the study area. Hyenas are scavengers and hunt
in groups and usually at night time and once a kill is made they eat very quickly.
The hyena attacks when the animals are more in individual, scattered, and weak. In pastoralists the
management system is very poor and freely living of animals expose the animal to hyena bite.
Fox bite:-It is also a very common problem in areas of study especially very high in lambs and kids. The
management system in this area exposes more to fox bite
Veterinary Service (Institution, Man power, Laboratory and Pharmacy)
Veterinary clinics and post veterinary clinics are built based on the ministry of Agriculture and rural
development strategy. Based on this one veterinary clinic is built at Woreda level and one post veterinary
clinic delivering for three kebeles or covers 7KM--- 10km radius from the clinic. It is possible to build
more than one post veterinary clinics in three kebeles, if the kebeles are very wide and having
geographical problems. All woredas have one veterinary clinic at the center of each Woreda except in
teru. Post veterinary clinics are very important institution in the pastoral area. In Teru basin, some post veterinary
clinics are not following the strategy of the agriculture and rural development strategy. This is because some post
veterinary clinics are built by NGOs and they built post veterinary clinics where they want. But at this time, the
post veterinary clinics are built based on the Agricultural strategy either built by the government or NGOs under
the control of regional Agriculture office. Except Yalo all districts have post veterinary clinics in kebele level. In
some kebeles post veterinary clinics are not functional because of different reasons
1. Wind destruction
2. cultural influence
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3. Remoteness
4. Movement of pastoralist and their livstock at the time of scarcity of food and water.
Veterinary clinics and post veterinary clinics have man powered by well educated and experienced professional.
The veterinary clinics and post veterinary clinics don’t give laboratory service. Veterinary clinics and post
veterinary clinics are not well equipped by laboratory equipments.
Private veterinary clinics and pharmacy are not common in the area. Private veterinary service delivery is very
hard to compite with governmental organization. The main reason is medicines and veterinary service is delivered
to pastoralists by the government and NGOS without payment.
Table 3-17 the distribution of veterinary clinics, post veterinary clinics, pharmacy and professionals related to Woreda and no. of kebels.
No. Name of Woreda
No. of kebeles
Vet.Clinic Post vet. clinic Professionals Remark
Urban Rural Functional Non Functional
DVM AHA AHT
1 Golina 1 8 --------- 4 14
2 Awra 1 7 ---------- 4 8
3 Teru 0 1 3 2 9
4 Yalo 1 ------------ --------- 1 2
5 Megale 1 2 ----------- 1 1 ?
6 Erebti 1 1 ---------- 1 3 6
Source:- from data collected at the field survey(woreda veterinary clinics)
Type and amount of Treatments and Vaccines
Different types of treatments and vaccines are provides by regional agriculture Bereu to Teru Basin
districts. When we look the last three years the provision of treatments and vaccines show an
improvement. But the amount of treatment and vaccines is not very enough related to the number of
animals. There is also limitation in type related to different species of animals and different nature of
disease.
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3.7 Agronomy
Nowadays, due to the presence of exploitable crop production potentials, the past experiences shared
from state farms and neighboring woredas of the other regions, presence of a number of NGOs and GOs
intervening in crop production and recurrent drought reducing livestock holdings, the farming system the
study area except Teru and Erebiti is transforming to agro pastoral mode of product ion (WARC and
APARI et al., 2007G.C.). In line with this, pastoralists find themselves sliding into poverty unless they
engage in crop production activities. Crops can be raised without irrigation during rainy season in most
parts of Ethiopia but they suffer from moisture stress during normal rainy season in the study area.
According to WARC and APARI investigation in the year 2007G.C. communities are not benefited from
rain fed and irrigation agriculture and crop production activities are not well studied in detail and
documented scientifically for each land units in Teru Depression.
The objectives of this study therefore to survey and document the existing and the potential areas for
food and market crops with their limitations and crop LUTs with their main agronomic activities like
cropping pattern, cropping systems, cropping calendar, agricultural input use, agricultural extension
services and training, and crop protection practices in both rain fed and irrigation agriculture.
Rain fed agriculture
The spatial and temporal rainfall variability, high intensity and monomodal rainfall, maximum daily PET
and moisture stress render rain fed agriculture though the impossibility or possibility of rain fed
agriculture is not ascertained scientifically for each land units (WARC and APARI et al., 2007G.C.).
Therefore, agro pastoralists fear rain fed agriculture unless they use supplementary irrigation.
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Figure 3-21 Sorghum (left margin); and teff (middle), wheat (right margin) cultivation under rain fed agriculture in Golina (Fukisa kebelle) and Yalo (Kilinagebuli kebelle) woredas.
Irrigation agriculture
Although the irrigable and cultivable potential is large especially along rivers drained to Teru sub-basin,
crop production under irrigation at present is young and spate, at subsistence level, highly influenced by
occasional drought and floods. Under such conditions, irrigation is promisingly taken as primary means
for realizing food security at household level, raising the rural populations’ living standard and creating
employment opportunities in the area (WARC and APARI, 2007G.C.).
Agronomic practices in rain fall and irrigation agriculture
A. Cropping pattern- It is the temporal and spatial distribution of crops. It is mainly determined by
factors like abiotic factors (suitability of the soils, adaptability to the prevailing climate (rainfall,
temperature, altitude and other climatologically aspects); length of growing period, food and economic
value, farmers’ preference and experience in the production of the crop); and biotic factors (crop pests).
Table 3-18 the existing crop pattern of the study area under rain fed agriculture (meher) in the area
s/n Crop type Cultivated land(ha) Production(qlt) Productivity(q/ha
Cereals 416 6,174 15
1 Sorghum 140 2,100 15
2 Maize 186 3,714 20
3 Teff 60 180 3
4 Barley 30 180 6
5 Sesame 2.63 17 6.46
4 Vegetables and 2.34 199 85
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fruits
Grand total 421 6,390
Source: Afar regional and Woreda Pastoral Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, 2010G.C.
As shown from table 1, 99 %of the total land is allocated to cereals (staple foods) of which maize,
sorghum and teff share 44 %; 33% and third 14% respectively. Of the total cultivated land
ccommunities in Yalo and Golina are engaging most in maize, teff, and sorghum cultivation.
Table 3-19 the existing crop pattern of the study area under irrigation agriculture (dry season) in the area
s/n Crop type Cultivated land(ha) Production(qlt) Productivity(q/ha
Cereals 163 2,908 18
1 Sorghum 70 1,051 15
2 Maize 93 1,857 20
3 Sesame 1.2 8 6.7
4 Veg &fruit 1.2 99 82.5
Grand total 165.4 3,015
Source: Woreda Pastoral Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, 2010G.C.
As table 2 manifests, 98%of the total land is allocated to cereals (staple foods) of which maize and
sorghum share 56% and 42% respectively. Vegetables, fruits and sesame which are the most
productive and valuable crops are cultivated traditionally through small scale irrigation. Of the total
cultivated land ccommunities Awura and megale woredas take the largest shares.
Table 3-20 Cropping pattern of the study area in 2005/06-2009/10 cropping season (G.C)
Years 2005/06 2006/07 2007/2008 2008/09 2009/10
Farming systems
Culti
vate
d la
nd(h
a)
Prod
uctio
n(ql
t)
Culti
vate
d la
nd(h
a)
Prod
uctio
n(ql
t)
Culti
vate
d la
nd(h
a)
Prod
uctio
n(ql
t)
Culti
vate
d la
nd(h
a)
Prod
uctio
n(ql
t)
Culti
vate
d la
nd(h
a)
Prod
uctio
n(ql
t)
Av.P
rodu
ctivi
ty(q
/ha)
129
Irrigation - - 588 6,971 299.5 4,953 - - 165.4 3,015 20
Rain fed - - 321 3,805 1,095 17,905 - - 421 6,390 10
Total 423 6,345 909 10,776
1,394.5 22,858 748 12,989 586.4 9,405 15
% 1 2 3 1.5 3 3.2 1.5 1.5 1.1 1.1 -
Source: Afar regional and Woreda Pastoral Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, 2010G.C.
As table 20 shows; agricultural density, crop production and productivity under irrigation are increasing
and better than that of rain fed agriculture, however, the ratio of the number of semi pastoralists to
pastoralists and agricultural density are currently 6.5% and 0.22HH/ha respectively in the study area.
Maize, sorghum, barley and teff are the dominant crops which are grown and can be grown under rain fed
and/or irrigation agriculture in the study area like the tradition in Megale woreda.
B. cropping systems-These types of systems are identified according to the major crops, their shares in
land utilization, and income generation. Based on resource utilization and spatial and temporal
distribution of crops, some of the cropping systems are:-
Continuous cropping-This type of practice is somewhat exercised within the sub-basin, however, the
landholding size is large enough. Hence, fallowing and shifting cultivation are not common practices in
the area.
Crop rotation –Growing of different crops on the same land one after the other gives higher yields than
when the same crops (monoculture) are grown. Crop rotation practices are designed to prevent
anticipated crop pest problems and allopathic effects that might arise from continuous cropping system.
Scientifically, the most common crop rotation patterns are: long rooted crops followed by shallow rooted
crops; leguminous crops (pulses) followed by non-leguminous crops; and heavy feeders (exhaustive
crops) followed by moderate feeders. However, the traditional crop rotation pattern practices identified
within the three woredas of the sub-basin are described below.
Table 3-21 Existing crop rotation pattern
Woreda names
Growing seasons/years
Season 1 season 2 season 3 season 4
Golina Maize Sorghum Teff Maize
130
Yalo Maize Teff Sesame Maize
Awura Maize Sorghum Maize Sorghum
Source: Woreda Pastoral Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, 2010 G.C.
Intercropping-It is a system of growing two or more crops having different growing periods that grow
simultaneously on the same field at the same time. This practice is not common in the sub-basin except in
Yalo Woreda practicing crops like maize in association with cowpea/bean and in the same manner teff
with cowpea/bean.
C. cropping calendar-It is determined by the communities’ preferences, existing farming systems, time
for land preparation, labor availability, marketing time, planting and harvesting time, length of growing
period and rainfall pattern. On the basis of WARC and APARI study in the year 2007 G.C , the
variability of rainfall pattern is the most influential factor for crops not / to cultivate according to their
cropping schedules. Based on this information and field observations, it can be said that none of woredas
in the study area are cultivating crops following crop schedules.
D. agricultural input use - Agricultural inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, seed varieties, motor water
pump, motorized cultivator, tieridger, etc. can boost up and/or maintain crop productivity ,however, they
are not widely applied in sub-basin due to their provision, distribution, and utilization problems.
Table 3-22 Agricultural input type, amount and distribution in the sub-basin (2001/02 cropping season).
Share to Teru sub basin and region
Agricultural inputs
Motor pump(pcs.)
Pedal pump(pcs.) Small agri-tools(pcs.)
Seeds(Qlt) Pesticides Sprayers(pcs.)
Liter Kg
Teru sub basin 15 16 547 16 50 - -
Region 37 18 3,567 860 3,400 300 22
Source: Woreda Pastoral Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, 2010G.C.
E. crop protection- These are techniques of safe guarding growing crops and their products from crop
pests. Crop pests are biological agents that bring 20-30%yield losses on field crops and storage grains
(Reddy & Reddi, 1993G.C.) though the amount of yield loss, identification, and control measures of
crop pests are not well-known in the area.
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Table 3-23 Major Crop pests currently identified in rain fed and/or irrigation agriculture in the area.
s/n
crop pests
Vernacular/local name(A) Common name(E) Scientific/Botanical name(L) susceptible host(s)
1 Insect pests
Yetef til Teff red worm Mentaxya ignicolis Teff
Fenta Devills grasshopper Aiolopus semilatrix/cataliopus spp Sorghum, teff, sesame
Deyre Army worm Spodoptera exempta Sorghum, maize, teff
Misit Termite Isopteran spp. All crops and range lands
Ageda korkur Stalk borer Busseola fusca/Chilopartellus Sorghum, maize
Anaytu Tree locust Gleditisia triacanthos/Robina pseudoacia
Tree sp., cotton
Yeshinkurt tirips Thrips Thrips tobaci Onion, potato, cotton
Yetit tirips Cotton thrips Coliothrips sp. Cotton
Yegomen afid Cabbage aphide Beruicomne brassicacae Cabbage
Yetef til Teff red worm Mentaxya ignicolis Teff
Yetit afid Cotton aphid Aphis gossypii Cotton
Yeselit jasid Cotton jassid Empoasca spp. Sesame
Yeberha anbeta Desert locust Schistocera gregaria All crops
2 Weeds
Democracy Congress/carrot/partienium/white top weed
Parthienumspp.(P.hysterophores,P.aspera,P.asiatica,P.latiracea,P.euphrasiode)
Sorghum, maize, teff, sesame, Sugar cane
Purslane Portulaca olerace Maize
Abkita Abutalium Maize, vegetables
Pricky lettuce Lactuca inermis Sorghum
Yeweyane zaf Prosopis Prosopis juliflora All crops, grazing land
Source: Afar regional and Woreda Pastoral Agricultural and Rural Development Offices, 2010G.C.
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Figure 3-22 Parthinium (left margin) and Africa bollworm (middle), termite mound (right margin) in Awura (Hida kebelle) and Golina (kelewan kebelle) woredas.
As table 6 and figure 2(field observations) show crop pest problems are becoming the most limiting
factor to increased crop production in the sub-basin. As crop intensification increases, the magnitude
of the problem in the future will be higher unless careful management is in place.
Crop production potentials and limitations
Despite large irrigation and cultivable potential, its produce couldn’t feed communities at sustainable
basis. Based on field observations and investigation of WARC and APARI in the year
2007G.C. the following potentials, limitations which are similar in most parts of the study area are
currently identified in rain fed and/ or irrigation.
Potentials and/or opportunities
Fertile cultivable and irrigable plain land for large scale and small scale farming system
A number of exploitable water resources
Suitable climatic resources
Presence of a number of NGOs, WARC and APARI
Constraints and/or limitations
High evapotraspiration losses and soil moisture stress
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loss of top soil by wind and water erosion
sedimentation ex. Awura woreda
problem of provision, distribution, and utilization of agricultural inputs and tools
P roblem of water harvesting, pre- and post harvest technologies adoption
poor extension services and lack of trainings
problem of planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating of agronomic activities
problem of assessment, identification and controlling measures of crop pests,
assessment problem of potential irrigable and cultivable land
Irrigation water application and management
3.8 Watershed Management
1. Watershed
The rational for using the watershed as a basic unit for integrated planning of land resources utilization is
that watershed is an independent hydrological entity, defined by important natural resource ,water,
contributing runoff at a single point and is considered as an ideal unit for most effective and gainful
management of natural resource.Sustainable development requires watershed based integrated approach
which is not only optimizes the production but also ensures the protection of natural resources or
production base with active participation of users concerned.
2. Watershed Delineation
A suitable watershed size is required for effective planning of conservation and maximum production.
Efficient management of watershed resources is possible through an appropriate unit so that the resources
are managed and handled effectively, collectively and simultaneously.
Teru sub-basin could be sub-divided into a number of watersheds. However, the basin is not familiar with
watershed delineation activities and watershed based integrated approaches. Even studies on watershed
management are rare; watershed study documents were in available as we observed in our reconnaissance
survey. Since the sub-basin should be sub-divided into different sized watersheds to enable effective and
gainful management of natural, resources, we divided the sub-basin into five watersheds using GIS
tools.
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600000.000000
600000.000000
620000.000000
620000.000000
640000.000000
640000.000000
660000.000000
660000.000000
680000.000000
680000.000000
13
00
000
.00
00
00
13
00
000
.00
00
00
13
30
000
.00
00
00
13
30
000
.00
00
00
13
60
000
.00
00
00
13
60
000
.00
00
00
13
90
000
.00
00
00
13
90
000
.00
00
00
14
20
000
.00
00
00
14
20
000
.00
00
00
Teru Sub-Basin River Catchment
±
0 10 20 30 405
km
Legend
DrainageLine
Awash Catchment
Golina-Awra Catchment
Lower Catchment
Megale Catchment
Yalo Catchment
The watersheds are delineated centering the main rivers aimed at effective soil conservation and water
resource development the names of the watershed are accomplished in the detail survey. Watershed
nomination is usually better done by the community, the watershed to get recognition. Even the size and
shape can be filtered in the detail survey.
3. Topography
The development of land forms and landscapes change over time as a result of various dynamic factors.
The factors include tectonic movement, weather, erosion and gravity. The present landscapes of the
region is very much a product of the tectonic process, continuing episodes of rifting and volcanism
(regional atlas, 2006)
The basin consists of various land forms generally with flat low land plains to very steep slope gradients
of hills and altitudes generally ranging from about minimum 133 to maximum 2181meters asl. Low
lands and plains predominately constitute Awra, Golina and Teru woredas. In Awra and Golina woredas,
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mountain ridges aren’t common rather isolated hills are located in sparse pattern. Even these hills occupy
a very small are. Mountainous ridges and hills are have also a considerable proportion in Teru Woreda;
these mountain ridges and hills are formed from rocks which are the product of tectonic processes like
volcanism. Yallo and Erebti woredas, bordering Tigray region, constitute relatively major mountain
ridges and hills. This mountain chains and hills are degraded land units having shallow and stony soils.
5. Soil Erosion
Land degradations not a new phenomenon on the region. The disastrous soil degradation, which is the
main type of land degradation, in the basins is caused by water and wind erosion. . Soil erosion caused by
both water and wind agents is a common phenomenon becoming a major constraint to agricultural
development in the basin as a whole Almost all part of the basins is subjected to water and wind erosion.
Soil degradation is described by decline of organic matter, depletion of nutrient, Stalinization and drying
up of rivers and lakes. However the degree and intensity of erosion varies from place to place depending
on the soil types, and intensity of erosion agents
5.1 Water Erosion
Soil erosion by water is recognized as the principal cause of land degradation and a major constraint to
the development of agriculture. Water erosion is experienced in all parts of the basin. Most part of the
basin is subjected to all forms of water erosion. Every rain storm, though it is not, frequent, is seen
eroding soil. During our reconnaissance survey, we observed dark run off at all water courses In the
basin, almost all the water courses are large river; there rivers, after every rainstorm, experience large
volume of flow for long period of time. The soil resource of the basin is not exploited due to pastoral
agriculture system; It is a reserved resource from agriculture, but is not reserved from erosion, and it is
more series in the basin area bordering the highlands of Amhara Region, Awra, Golina and Yallo because
of relatively higher slopes higher population density of both human and livestockand more rain.
5.2 Forms of Water Erosion
The most important processes of soil erosion which occur in the basin are:
1. Sheet Erosion
2. Rill Erosion
3. Gully erosion
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4. Road &Stream Erosion
Sheet Erosion: Sheet Erosions is the removal of thin layer of soil and. it is unnoticed because of the total
amount of soil removed in any storm usually small. However, it has series determinately effect on soil
fertility and productivity since it removes lighter soil particles and soluble nutrients. Sheet erosions the
dominant form of erosion occurring in all parts of the basin. It is the most widely destructive erosion
process. However, it is obvious that sheet erosion is more series where the surface cover is little.
Rill Erosion: Rill erosion is the next noticeable form of erosion. In all areas where sheet erosion occurs
we can observe the symptoms of rill erosion. The symptom of rill erosion is the occurrence of rills or
small channels on different land units. Rill erosion occurs in all parts of the basin and is considered as the
second destructive form of erosion. The intensity of rills varies with in the basin; rills are observed
frequently in areas of having relatively high slopes and frequent rain, Awra, Golina and Yallo.
Soil erosion on crop land by erosion class (ha)
S.N Zone 0.25mm/yr 0.25-0.5mm/yr 0.5-1mm/yr 1-2 mm/yr 2-4 mm/yr
1 Zone 2 807 1352 203 80 9
2 Zone 4 701 45 105 173 37
Total
Source: Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning (2004)
Gully Erosion: Soil erosion has been an ignored series problem. Because of this neglection, gullies are regularly expanding. Gully formation is a symptom of functional disorder of the land. Different land units are dissected into many plots by gully erosion. gully is becoming a common event in, Awra, Golina and Yalo Woredas because of relatively higher slopes on and more rain. In this woredas gully erosion causes loss of productive land.
137
Figure 3-23 Gully erosion losing and dissecting the productive land in Golina wereda
Most of the gullies occurring can be grouped to small and medium sized gullies with a potential to
develop to large gullies by channel erosion, down ward scoure of top soil, and upstream movement of the
gully in width and depth if left untreated. All the gullies are active; this is related to desertification effect
of the basin and of the region. Not only the gully surfaces but also the gully offsets are bare of vegetation.
4. Road and Stream Erosion
4.1 Stream Erosion
Stream bank erosion is also a threat on productive land units adjoining rivers. It causes loss of productive
mass of soil in most parts of the basin and destroys infrastructures as bridges and culverts. The area
affected by stream bank erosion may be small as compared to other forms of water erosion and treatment
is not usually made because this land is considered as marginal land; however, it is causing damage to
land adjacent to rivers.
Figure 2:
Stream bank erosion at Awra river in Teru wereda
4.2 Road Erosion
Road s from Awra to Yalo and Kobo suffer high erosion because of improper drainage system of the road
and absence of conservation these roads are adjoining with long and active gullies. The soil is fragile plus
the road has no drainage system, ditches. so run off collected and flowing along the road is eroding the
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functional land forming small to medium sized. This type of erosion damage both the productive land and
the road
5.2 Wind Erosion
Wind erosion may be as series as water erosion. In Teru Woreda, where the vegetation cover is very
sparse and nil; wind speed is higher and low rain, wind erosion is potential a very series problem. Wind
events prevail most part of the year in most areas of the basin. However the wind erosion of Teru seems
unique in the basin even in the region. Wind turbulences blowing towards Teru from north eastern cost of
the region blows away the loose soil material for a great distance with vast area coverage.
Figure 3-24 Wind Erosion in Teru Woreda (at the Woreda town)
This type of wind blow is common and regular. Every day nearly at regular time, wind blow a common
event. The degree of the blow varies in that it causes moderate darkness to complete darkness of the area
the blow covers.
Wind erosion, where it occurs, is detrimental to health, land resources in general and different economic
set ups. Some of the onsite damages caused by wind erosion include nutrient removal , long –term loss in
soil productivity, sand blasting of plants , burial as well as blowing out of crops. Off- site damages
include air pollution ,sediment deposition on and around infrastructures such as
schools ,clinics ,wells ,roads ,loss of grazing land and crop land as a result of deposition of vast quantities
139
of sand in the form of sand sheets or dunes ,respiratory diseases of human and livestock ,abrasion of
machinery , reduced visibility, mental stress ,etc.
6. Soil and Water conservation
The soil and water conservation trend in the basin the region as a whole is nil as compared to other
regions. The semi pastoralists are not accustomed with traditional as well as scientific soil and water
conservation activities. There is a trial of adopting scientific measures assisted by some development
programs (NGO’s) and regular program (government). However, the effect is little or none.
Figure 3-25 Stone bunds as hillside terracing in Yallo wereda
In some parts the basin, we are told that different physical and biological soil and water conservation
measures has been constructed and established but quantitatively they can be considered as sample trials.
As the local community is pastoral NGOs development programs are in titled on semi-pastoral
agricultural development.
Soil and water conservation achievements
S.N Soil and water conservation Measures
Unit Calendar (E.C)
2002
I Physical
1 Soil bund Km 14
2 Stone bund Km 30
3 Microbasin No 804
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4 Cutoff drain Km 9
II Biological
1 Area closure Ha 106
3.9 Environmental Issues and Hazards
The study team during the reconnaissance survey identified different environmental resource bases such
as climatic, soil, hydrological, forest, wild life and range land resources. These are the opportunities that
the environment provides for the land use development process and treated independently in the above
sections. Whereas the constraints that the environment provides for the land use development process
particularly the major environmental issues and hazards are treated in this section.
The major environmental issues or hazards that are identified in the project area during the
reconnaissance survey and that should be integrated in the land use planning are: water pollution,
Invasion of Alien species, Range-land and water resource conflict, and geologic and atmospheric hazards.
Water Pollution
The sources of water pollution can be natural sources (inorganic substances, trace metals, radioactive
elements, and organic compounds) and anthropogenic sources (agriculture, urbanization, mining and
industrial activities).Generally the major sources of water pollution are of human origin however, a
pollution source for this project area is a natural origin rather than human origin.
The Teru sub-basin land use planning project area has a high potential for salinity of ground water
because of high temperature, very little and scarce rainfall. High evaporation by high temperature
produced high salt concentration in the soil as well as in the ground water; the percolating water can
easily dissolves the salt from the soil during its movement towards the saturated zone. The non-point
anthropogenic pollution sources from the water-shed is not as such significant since agricultural practices
using chemical fertilizers and pesticides, industrial practices and high urbanization are not intensive.
Table 3-24 Physico-chemical Analysis Report of water wells in Teru Sub-basin area.
Physico-chemical Parameters
Analysis Result of Sampling Site
Awra Yalo Teru Golina Megale Erebti
141
Deraytu (Reg. 2) Dlbina Faro
S. # of Sampling Site
01 01 04
Laboratory: AAWSA
Sampling Source: Deep Well Well Deep Well
Sampled by: WWDE WWDE
Date of Sampling 02/02/98(GC) 1/8/08(GC) -
Date of Analysis 21-22/02/98(GC) 30/4/08(GC) 14/01/03
Physical
Taste Non-object. -
PH 8.23 8.13 8.43
TDS 342 810.0 450
Conductivity µs/cm 499 µs/cm 1238.0 644.0
Hardness:
Total Hardness 216 31.5 158.4
Alkalinity:
Total Alkalinity 234 286.0 220.0
Cations:
NH3+ 0.30 0.13 0.21
Na+ 250.0 90.0
K+ 6.0 3.0
Anions:
Cl- 1.5 61.57 32.98
F- 0.90 1.89 1.18
NO3- Nil 21.99 38.5
NO2- Nil 0.625 --
PO43- 0.564 0.41 --
SO42- 46 214.2 79.12
Source: - ANRS Water Resource Bureau, 2008
The result of the physiochemical analysis of water wells showed that PH value of the three woreda range
between 8.13 to 8.43.The highest value of the result is observed in Megale (8.43). The PH value of those
woreda satisfies both the WHO guidelines (6.5 to9.5) and Ethiopia guidelines (6.5 to 8.5) of drinking
water standards.
TDS value is in the range 342 to 810 mg/l .The highest value of the result is observed in Yalo(810mg/l)
where as the lowest value is in Awra(342mg/l).The TDS value of two woreda i.e. Awra(342mg/l) and
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Megale (450mg/l are less than the WHO guide line for drinking water standards(500mg/l) whereas, the
TDS value of Yalo(810 mg/l) is greater than the WHO guidelines for drinking water standards(500mg/l).
The fluoride value varies between 0.90 to 1.89 and the highest value is identified in Yalo(1.89) and the
lowest value in Awra(0.90).The sample of water wells of those three woredas has also showed that low
level of nitrite, ammonia and phosphate. This could be ascribed to the absence of application of fertilizers
in the Teru sub-basin.
Invasion of Alien/Exotic species
Invasive plant species, introduced deliberately or accidentally to different parts of the ecology/habitat,
can cause important economic, environmental and social losses.
Prosopis Juliflora
Prosopis juliflora is one of the alien species invaded seriously the Afar region in general and our study
area in particular. Prosopis juliflora is a multipurpose dry land tree or shrub native to South America,
Central America and the Caribbean. However, despite its qualities and uses in its natural range, prosopis
becomes a serious invading weed when introduced in to non-native areas. In the Ethiopian context,
prosopis juliflora was wrongly introduced in the 1970s by ministry of Agriculture to high quality pasture
lands and irrigable areas, including the Awash river basin in the Afar National Regional State (ANRS) 0f
north east Ethiopia (Pasiecsnik etal., 2001 cited in DubaleAdmasu,2008).
In our reconnaissance survey, concerning the problem of invasion of alien species a multiphasic question
which contains the scientific and common name of alien species, woreds and kebeles invaded by alien
species ,areas coverage in hectare ,previously covered but currently removed by different methods,
advantages and disadvantages of alien species were included in the checklist but we couldn’t get data on
total area coverage in hectare invaded by alien species at the woreda and kebele levels and area coverage
previously covered but currently removed. The invasion of prosopis in Teru sub-basin is not intensive as
compare to the middle and lower Awash sub-basin areas .Woredas invaded by prosopis and the status of
invasion are presented in the table below.
Table 3-25 Woredas of Teru sub-basin invaded by prosopis and status of invasion.
Name of Alien species Invaded Invaded Kebeles Status of invasion
Scientific Name Common Name
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Woredas
Prosopis Juliflora
Woyana-Hara Yalo 8 kebeles Severely invaded
Prosopis Juliflora
Woyana-Hara Teru Berentu,wedelule&Asaberi Partly invaded
Figure 3-26 Land invaded by prosopis Juliflora at Yalo Woreda
As we got information from our field observation, interview made with concerned experts and local
communities, the environmental/ecological and economic significances of Prosopis Juliflora are
summarized as follow:
(1)Aesthetic value. In the project area, particularly in highly saline soils and water logging areas no
vegetation cover except prosopis Juliflora since it can tolerate saline soils and water logging
environment. The prosopis forest creates green areas and increases the aesthetic value of the desert and
semi desert area of the project site.
(2)Erosion control and wind break/shelter belt. Prosopis juliflora controls soil erosion by running
water. Apart from control of soil erosion by running water, it acts as a wind break /shelterbelt. Luckily,
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prosopis juliflora can grow in saline soil areas which are highly exposed for wind erosion since it is
saline tolerant species. So prosopis Juliflora is more effective for reducing wind movements.
(3)Shedding Effect/Contribution for climate stability. Vegetation has a moderating influence on local
climates and may create quite specific micro-climates. Since prosopis invaded arid and semiarid areas of
the sub-basin, it serves as a shedding for livestock as well as livestock keepers.
(4)Carbon Sequestration/Reducing global warming. As the co2 content of the air continues to rise,
nearly all of earth’s plants, including various forest ecosystems, will respond by increasing their
photosynthetic rates and producing more biomass. These phenomena will allow long-lived perennial
species characteristic of forest ecosystems to sequester large amounts of carbon within their wood for
extended periods of time (Chambers etal;1998), which could ultimately counterbalance co2 emissions
produced by mankind’s usage of fossil fuels. Since prosopis juliflora is a perennial tree species, it can
sequestrate large amount of carbon with its wood and contributes to reduce the rate of global warming.
Although the significances of prosopis juliflora are not yet well studied, it has the above economic and
environmental/ecological significances/services, but it is being destroyed regardless of all this advantage.
Moreover, the Afar region and woreda experts, the communities as well are complaining of its fast
invasion and its consequence such as loss o f indigenous trees, decline in livestock production, health
problems to animals and they are highly requesting that prosopis juliflora has to be cleared/removed
totally.
As we got information from our field observation and, interview with concerned experts and local
communities, the disadvantages of Prosopis Juliflora are summarized as follow:
Loss of indigenous trees, shrubs and grasses due to the invasion of prosopis juliflora.
Decline in the livestock production and productivity due to the loss of dry season grazing areas to
prosopis plants. Palatable indigenous pasture species such aschrysopogon plumulosus, cenchrus
ciliaris and setaria acromelana have also declined in the rangelands due to the invasion.
Health problems to animals such as constipation, dental disfiguration and reduced over all
productivity. Local people call the disease in cattle Harmeko.
People and livestock suffer from injuries from the sharp and poisonous prosopis thorns.
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Predators(Hyena,Jackles, Lion and Leopard) attacks on livestock have increased since the
prosopis invasion.
The malaria invasion probably aggravated by the invasion of prosopis. Since prosops plant is
water logging tolerant species, it can grow and reduces the flow of water and creates stagnant and
moist micro climate in prosopis invaded areas provided a favourable environment for mosiquito’s
multiplication.
In reality, it is difficult to reach decision i.e. whether prosopis juliflora should be removed totally or
continue to exist with proper management without undertaking detail study. In order to reach such a
decision, detail study such as environmental Resource Valuation and Environmental Impact Assessment
should be conducted. The social, economic and environmental advantages and disadvantages of prosopis
should be identified and evaluated. And if the disadvantage of prosopis is easily manageable and minimal
as compare to the advantage, we may reach decision prosopis has to be continued to exist but its
expansion should be managed. On the other hand, if the disadvantage of prosopis is unmanageable and its
significance is minimal as compare to its disadvantage, the reverse will be decided.
Parthenium Hysterophorus
Apart from the invasion of prosopis juliflora, parthenium is now also spreading in Teru sub-basin.
Parthenium is an annual herbaceous member of the Asteraceae, with a deep root and an erect stem. It has
bi-pinnatfied and pale green leaves covered with soft fine hairs. Parthenium is an aggressive weed and
therefore poses a serious threat to the environment and biodiversity owing to its high invasion and
allelopathic effect which has the capacity to rapidly replace the native vegetation. Parthenium root of
decayed plant release soluble sesquiferpene lactones, mainly partenin (Parasanta et al., 2005 cited in
Shashie Ayele, 2007). Those chemicals inhibit the germination and growth of plants including pasture
grasses, cereals, vegetables, and other plant species (Navie etal., 1996 cited in Shashie Ayele, 2007).
In Ethiopia, parthenium has become a notorious weed since its discovery in the 1980’s. It has been
spreading from the eastern route of Ethiopia along Dire Dawa, Addis Ababa railway presumably between
1974 and 1980. Currently, parthenium is spreading at an alarming rate in Eastern Ethiopia: the centrasl
rift valley, and neighboring localities of Afar Region, East shewa,Arsi,Bale and in southern
Ethiopia( Shashie Ayele, 2007).Woredas of Teru sub-basin invaded by parthenium Hysterophorus and
status of invasion are presented below.
146
Table 3-26 Woredas of Teru Sub-basin invaded by Parthenium and Status of invasion
Name of Alien species Invaded Woreda
Invaded Kebeles Status of invasion
Scientific Name
Common Name
Parthenium Democracy Awera Heda, Lakora, Alibarimesgied,
Layikoma & Derayetu
partly invaded
Parthenium Democracy Golina Partly invaded
Parthenium Democracy Yalo partly invaded
Invaded
According to the respondents of woreda natural resource experts, parthenium reduces the carrying capacity of the
grazing land by reducing the composition as well as the diversity of palatable species; adversely affect the quality
of milk and meat, and a harmful effect on human as well as animal health.
Figure 3-27 Land Invaded by Parthenium Hysterophorus at Awera woreda
Range Land and Water Resource Conflict
In the Teru sub-basin conflicts arise between Afar lowlanders and neighboring Tigray highlanders. In the
case of the conflict between Afar and Tigray, those who came into frequent interaction with the Afar are
the wajirat and Raya people. Relations between Afar and Tigrayan communities took the form of
economic exchange, bond- friendship, cross territory resource sharing, and share cropping. On the other
hand, there have also been incidents of conflict. Conflicts mostly relate to competition over resources
147
such as grazing land and water points. Competitions often include series of raids and counter raids
Yayneshet Tesfay and Kelemework Tafere,2004)
During the last century, particularly in the period prior to the Italian occupation, the Afar experienced a
series of raids from the Tigrayan highlanders generally the Wajirat and the Raya community in particular.
In what they locally called the Gas(Gad) expedition, Tigrayans mobilized hundreds of villagers for the
raid, which resulted in a considerable loss of lives and property from both sides. Historically, there was
also times in which, Afar raided as most highland areas enjoyed a concentration of government units and
perhaps a natural protection as well(Yayneshet Tesfay and Kelemework Tafere,2004)
Conflicts between the Afar and the Tigrayans continue to arise even today. But in the past conflicts were
in large group but at present conflict is confined to individuals. At present both the Afar and Tigrayans
seem keen not to prolong hostilities and prefer to live in a peaceful co-existence.
The Gereb is mutually established institutions which functions as an indigenous court and is run by the
council of elders from both sides of the ethnic boundary separating the Afar from the Tigrayan
communities.The elders are selected from different localities on the basis of their proven abilities in
sound decision making, impartiality and honesty. They hold regular monthly meeting to review
conditions in their respective territories.
Geologic and Atmospheric Hazards
Many areas of the Teru sub-basin are threatened by the hazards associated with the internal and external
geologic processes as well as atmospheric processes. Volcanic eruption, Earth quake and flood hazards
are the most threatening geologic hazards among others while drought, moisture stress and spell of very
high temperature are the most threatening atmospheric hazards among others.
(A)Volcanic eruption
Volcanic eruptions, are caused by magma (a mixture of liquid rock, crystals and dissolved gas) expelled
onto the earth’s surface. The special conditions for magma formation do not exist everywhere beneath the
surface, and thus volcanism does not occur everywhere. It occurs in four principal settings:(a) along
divergent plate boundaries,(b)in areas of continental extension,(c)along convergent plate boundaries
where subduction is occurring, and(d)”hot spots”, away from the plate boundaries(Montgomery,2000.)
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Volcanic Eruption sites in this sub-basin are found in Teru woreda at three kebeles i.e, Dabbahu, Boyena
and Degedega.According to the interview made with Ato Daneal Tewalede, the head of Teru woreda
DPPFS office,particularly the Volcanic eruption which occurred in the year 1998E.C (192005G.C)
resulted in the death of remarkable number of camels, goats and cattles and for one year the pastoralists
live in those kebele migrate from the area. But those pastoralists migrated from those kebeles, currently
resettled in those area and expose to the risk.
The Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment lies in the plate boundary zone between stable Africa (Nubia)
and the Danakil microplate to the northeast. The Dabbahu segment is also similar in length and process to
Quaternary Rift Segments in Afar. As yet, no lavas have been observed along active faults, but small
volume fissural flows along faults in Dabbahu segment are common place (Yirgu etal, 2005)
.
Figure 3-28 illustrates the morphology of the Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment, and the distribution of Quaternary eruptive centres taken from Yirgu, etal, 2005
Gabho and Dabbahu (red stars) are the two Quaternary centres that show subsidence, indicating magma chamber
depletion. Red lines are the positions of dykes in the simple elastic models. Note the dissected stratovolcanoes
forming a chain perpendicular to the trend of the Dabbahu segment near its centres. TGD is the Tendaho-Goba’ad
Discontinuity here separating the Nubia plate and the Danakil microplate. DH is Danakil horst, or, the Danakil
microplate.
149
Figure 3-29 illustrates characteristic features of the Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment.
(B)Earthquake
Earthquakes, in general, represent a release of built-up stress in the lithospher.95% of all earthquakes
occur in the vicinity of the borders of the tectonic plates where tectonic plates push in to each other
and/or one plate slides past the other, shallow earthquakes are common. The other five percent of
earthquakes occur at faults located within plates (intraplate).They are much less frequent that those at
plate boundaries (Montgomery, 2000).
Many areas of Teru sub-basin are exposed to earthquake hazards. Particularly Teru and Gulina woredas
are threatened by the hazard at different times. In Teru woreda the Dabbahu rifting areas of the
earthquake is presented below.
Table 3-27 Time and location of relocated earthquakes for the Dabbau rifting episode. Depths are fixed at10km.
Date of Earthquake
Yymmdd
Time of Earthquake
hhmmss.ss
Lat Long Date of Earthquake
Yymmdd
Time of Earthquake
hhmmss.ss
Lat Long
050604a 184034.2 12.5732 40.635 050921p 233630.2 13.1568 40.6424
050718a 163142.4 12.7823 40.7734 050921q 234910.8 12.6207 40.5372
050914a 150746.9 12.5998 40.4335 050922a 13132.97 12.8283 40.621
050920a 21802.15 12.7585 40.4873 050922b 13937.34 12.6421 40.5305
050920c 212338.2 12.7851 40.49 050922d 31234.3 12.7085 40.5521
050920d 232707.2 12.7909 40.3949 050922f 42818.89 12.7436 40.5845
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050921a 143.44 12.8567 40.533 050922i 101424.6 12.7443 40.4399
050921b 42122.22 12.714 40.549 050922j 115744.1 12.7328 40.5027
050921c 71258.45 12.442 40.4977 050922l 135845.3 12.765 40.4644
050921d 84005.23 12.8719 40.5396 050922o 195152.8 12.4475 40.557
050921h 115724.2 12.6422 40.577 050922p 222250.5 12.623 40.4673
050921i 133301.8 12.5673 40.5369 050923b 45752.11 12.5984 40.5583
050921j 145727.2 12.5921 40.5588 050923c 70609.55 12.622 40.5166
050921l 184402.9 12.6832 40.4602 050923d 91832.09 12.659 40.5234
050921m 200452.7 12.6088 40.6053
(C)Flood Hazard
Throughout history humans have found it desirable to settle along the streams (rivers). Because rivers
provide water for irrigation, drinking of human and livestock, transportation, fishing etc. Rivers not only
provide water for different purpose but also fertile alluvial soils which are suitable for crop production.
But human populations that live along streams/ rivers also have the disadvantage that the flow of water in
streams /rivers is never constant. High amount of water flooding in rivers often leads to flooding.
Likewise, in Teru sub-basin the potential areas for crop production and livestock are those that are
situated along the river basin of Awura and Gulina Rivers. But pastoralists that live along those rivers
basins have affected by flood hazards particularly from July to September whenever the Ethiopian
highland summer rains high. In those areas, humans are particularly sensitive to flood hazards because of
lack of flood hazard control measures(dyke construction),absence of zoning regulation( peoples
temporarily settle flood prone lowland areas),lack of well organized response infrastructure and early
warning systems. But the hazards of flood in Teru sub-basin is not serious as compare to the Lower
Awash sub-basin. Rivers that cause flood hazard, name of kebeles exposed to flood hazard are presented
in the table below.
Table 3-28 Woredas of Teru Sub-basin affected by flood and rivers cause flooding.
Name of Rivers
Woredas Exposed to flood hazard
Kebeles Exposed to flood hazard
Awura& Teru Berentu, Abedi, Meremer and Boyena kebeles.
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Gulina
Awura& Heda
Awura Derayetu and Heda
Lakora& Emebela
Erebti Erebti, Adu, Garbena, Bahiren, Embela &La’ade
iii) Drought
Drought is a relative term that can mean different things to people with different profession. From the
context of pastoral settings, drought implies two or more consecutive years when rainfall is less than 75%
of the long term average (Coppock1994 cited in Yayneshet Tesfay and Kelemork Tefferi, 2004).
According to the interview made with the head of the core process of Disaster Preparedness in DPPFS
bureau, the Afar region has experienced major droughts every 2-3 years for the past 10 years since
1993E.C and affecting an increasingly large number of the rural population. Among 32 drought affected
woredas of the region; Elidar, Kurri, Mille, Teru, Yalo, Golina and Uwa are seriously affected by
drought. Even though 6 woredas of the Teru sub-basin project area have been affected by drought at
different years, Teru, Yalo and Golina are the most seriously affected woreda in the sub-basin.
Droughts affect pastoralists only after extended period of desiccation and unlike crop farmers have better
resistance to early drought stages. An extended drought such as the one that is observed in the near past
for3-4 years in the area leads to loss of the purchasing power of pastoralists. A major impact of drought is
on the loss of livestock assets that take longer time to replenish. As a result of this exposure of pastoral
families to external food aid also increase.
As we got information from different woredas DDFS offices, different woredas have been affected by
drought at different years. The drought resulted in different effects and the people adopted different risk
minimizing strategies or coping mechanism. Death of animal, shortage of animal fodder, school dropout,
reduction in the price of livestock, failure of farming activities in agro pastoralist areas and increase the
vulnerability of animals for different diseases are the major effects of drought among others in the project
area. Migration of animals to the neighboring areas, increase livestock sales, purchase of fodder(getting
fodder from NGOs(FAO)),slaughtering of calves, and in some woreda searching of other alternative
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means of income generating activities such as charcoal selling and employed as a daily laborer in some
projects are the major risk minimizing strategies or traditional coping mechanism among others.
4 CHAPTER FOUR
41. PROPOSED PLAN FOR THE DETAIL SURVEY
4.1.1 General objective
During this landuse plannig study various major activities are planned to perform, as those activities are
considered to be very vital clues.Hence, the following general objective is set as: .
Conduct an assessment of the agroclimatic,social,economic environmental and other aspects; and
analyse /verify the field data through coorelation of primary data with that of secondary data; to
achieve a sustainabe landuse planning.
4.1.2 Specific objectives
Undertake the physical and biophysical resource assessments , identify potentials ,limitaions and
recommend appropriate measures/solutions.
Interprete the potentials interms of social,environmental ,economical importances and show their
drawbacks(limitations) with coresponding solutions
carryout augering along selected traverses ,verify and delineate boundary of the possible newly
discovered land units
Describing the morphological characteristics of the soils for the purpose of their sustainable and
maximum exploitation
Analyse and state participatory and a sustainable forest resource development, production and
protection mechanisms through well organized management practices .
identify scientific measures to conserve the ecosystem through environmental protection and
management strategies
layout development plan for effective cachment treatment activities
maximize productivity and secure food self sufficiency of the people
identify animal diseases and recommend preventive and control measures
classify the study area into different agro climatic zonations for the purpose of land evaluation
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indicate the system or strategy to create attitudinal change in the people’s perception (through strong
extension approaches and mass mobilization etc)
workout land suitability classification of each land unit for specific utilization design & activate to
minimize the barriers of livestock production within the sub basin
Describe and analyze the various socio-economic conditions and come up with sound and feasible
recommendations to bring a gradual transformation of the community’s nomadic mode of life to semi-
pastoral
4.2 Soil survey
4.2.1 Objectives
The main objective of the survey is to provide detailed information on the potential of the land and soils
of the project area for different land use options. The results of the soil investigation combined with the
results of socio-economic analysis, agro-climatic and hydrologic analysis, and water resources and land
cover assessment will be used to evaluate the potential use of the land resource in Teru Sub-basin.
4.2.2 Scope of the work
Identify the type of soils , show their spatial distribution and their extent over the entire project site or /of the sub basin
Verification of the soil units and delineation of the newly identified units using free survey.
Describing the morphological characteristics of the soil
conduct Soil profile descriptions in major land mapping units.
Analyzing and interpreting the chemical and physical lab. analyticl results
4.2.3 Methods to be employedThe soil survey specification is provided on Table below:
Table 4-29 Soil survey specifications
No. Item Specification
1 Map scale 1:50,000 (semi-detailed)
2 Base map used 1:50,000 scale topographic map and geomorphology map of the area of scale of 1:50,000
3 Coverage Teru sub-basin
4 Soil description According to FAO, WRB, soil survey manual 1990, 1998
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5 Soil classification FAO/WRB guideline1998 /FAO 2006 fourth edition/
6 Mapping unit Doing Classification of the SMU on the bsis of major soil mapping criteria.
7 Laboratory analysis
Analysis of the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil samples collected from the representative profiles.
The soil survey activities are divided into the following three stages:
I. Pre-field work preparations (office work)
II. Field work (verification of the mapping units, close investigations, delineation of soil boundaries, profile
descriptions and collecting samples)
III. Post fieldwork stage (interpret laboratory analytical results, producing maps and reporting).
I. Pre-field work preparations (office activities)
Office works mainly consist of the collection of secondary data on the survey area including geo-
morphological, topographical and climatic information about Lower awash sub-basin. Some of the
materials collected and reviewed at this stage are topographic maps at a scale of 1:50,000, reports and
maps on previous soil studies, digital and/or hard copies of land use/cover data, geomorphology and soils
and data on climate and satellite image interpretation. Particularly, previous soil survey (at
reconnaissance level) information are very useful to delineate the soil/landscape units.
A preliminary delineation of approximate land unit boundaries will be made based on geomorphic unit
and using GIS system for location of auger holes and profile pits. The base map to be used for this
purpose is the 1: 50,000 scale topographic map with 50 m contours interval. Moreover, field soil survey
guidelines (based on FAO, WRB) and field data collection formats for soil auger and profile description
would be prepared.
II. Fieldwork
The field survey will be conducted using ‘’free survey method’’,at scale of (1:50,000), where the number
of field observation is determined based on the distribution of soil units and judgment of the surveyors.
The main purpose of field observation will be to establish and verify the landscape/soil unit boundaries
delineated at office as well as to characterize the various soil types in the field. Observations of soils will
mostly be carried out by auguring to a depth of 1.2m shall be made on every accessible sites and mapping
units along representative traverses. This is done to deliniate and check the soil unit boundaries.
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Data will be recorded on standard soil auger description sheet giving particular emphasis to those
characteristics, which affect present or potential land use. Soil profile pits will be dug at the
representative sites, from which soil samples for full laboratory analysis will be collected and be sent to
the laboratory for further required analysis. In addition, soil profiles will be carefully studied wherever
exposures example road cuts, gullies walls etc are observed. The results of this analysis will serve as a
basis for soil classification and land evaluation.
The density of auger observation is usually 1 auger observation per 50 hectares. But, fewer
observations can be taken based on the uniformity of the landscape units and the experience of the
surveyor to map the soil units with fewer observations. The density of profile pit is determined by the
aerial extent, uniformity and/or variability of the soil-mapping unit. More intensive sampling density
could be taken as required depending on the variability of soils in the area.
General site information, registration and location, soil description, Genetic and systematic interpretation
(Soil classification) will be done based on “Guidelines for soil description, fourth edition FAO, 2006”.
III. Post fieldwork
Soil samples from every representative pits will be collected and sent to the laboratory for further
chemical and physical soil analysis. The results of this analysis will serve as a basis for soil classification,
soil fertility and land evaluation by combining the previous study results discussed above.
Soil chemical and physical analysis required:
OC content %
Cation exchange capacity (CEC Cmol(+)/Kg)
Available Phosphorus/ P2O5
PH (H2O) 1:2.5
PH KCl
Electrical (conductivity) of saturated extract (mmhos/cm )
Exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, Na, K)
Total nitrogen
CaCo3 and gypsum %
Texture (percentage of sand, clay and silt)
Bulk density
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PWP (permanent wilting point)
F.C (Field capacity)
Permeability
total porosity
After the completion of field work and laboratory analysis, the preparation of the soil map will continue
in the office in order to adjust the soil unit boundaries to the field condition. All data to be collected
during the fieldwork and laboratory results will be entered into a database. Finally, soil map with self-
contained legend at the scale of 1:50,000 will be produced using GIS for the study sub-basin.
4.3 Land use land cover assessment and environmental change detection
4.3.1 General Objectives
The overall objective of this study is to get information on existing land use/cover as well as the
dynamics of the land-use/cover resulting out of both human induced forces and forces of nature acting to
shape the landscape.
4.3.2 Specific Objectives
To determine the trend, nature, rate, location and magnitude of land use/cover change,
To produce Environmental quality maps and hazard maps
To undertake environmental appraisal of the land use plan, and
To recommend possible solutions for the future sustainable utilization of resources in the sub-
basin from environmental point of view.
4.3.3 Scope of the work
The scope of the study will include major aspects related to the environmental conditions of the area to
be studied .The study will primarily focus on strategic environmental assessment of the land use planning
of the Teru sub-basin.
4.3.4 Methodology of the Study
(a)Land-use/cover Detection
This study will use a combination of remote sensing data, field observations and information from local
people to analyze the patterns and dynamics of land-use/cover changes for 20 years from 1990 to 2010 in
the Teru sub-basin.
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Landsat TM(Thematic Mapper) acquired on ,1989,Landsat ETM+(Enhanced Thematic Mapper plus )
acquired on,2000, Landsat ETM+2005 and 2010 Landsat ETM+will be used for this study. These data are
selected on the basis of availability of satellite images.
A pixel based supervised image classification with maximum likelihood classification algorithm will be
used to map the land- use /cover classes. Ground truth points will be collected from the field and will be
used for 2010 image classification and validation.
Then, the land use/cover changes between the three periods i.e1990,2000,2005 and 2010 will be
quantified and a change detection matrix of ‘from-to’ change will be derived to show land cover class
conversion transition during the 20 year period by overlaying the 1990 and 2010 images. Image
processing and mapping will be undertaken using ILWIS open 3.7Remote Sensing and GIS software.
To further understand the dynamics of land-use/cover change, possible major drivers for land use/cover
dynamics and consequences of the changes will be explored using different informants and group
discussions.
(b)Produce Environmental Quality and Other Thematic Maps
(i)Environmental Quality Map
Environmental Quality Maps (water and soil quality maps) will be produced using point data spatial
analysis of GIS.As it is difficult to measure each point in a study area for water and soil analysis, selected
surface and ground water sampling, and soil sampling locations will be entered into a GIS as point
coverage through digitization and transformed into a GIS as point coverage. These will be used as input
for interpolation process. Based on sampled data values, an estimated value will be assigned to all other
locations using surface creation functions in GIS. Ordinary Kriging interpolation techniques will be used
since it can minimize error variance.
(ii)Flood Hazard Mapping
Determination of discharges of different return periods
Generation of Terrain model and incorporation of stream features to Terrain model.
Hydrodynamic modeling
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Flood hazard mapping, and restrictive zoning i.e., the land that could be inundated often by twenty five
years flood, perhaps will best be restricted to land uses such as for livestock grazing pastures, parks or
other recreational purposes rather for settlement purpose will be prohibited.
Analysis of the result will be made and necessary recommendations will be given based on the
assessment results obtained together with the specific mitigation measures.
(iii)Seismic Hazard Mapping
Collect local seismicities and micro-seismic data from Catalogue of Earthquake events from Geophysical
observatory.
Identify areas of widely recognized risk and potential problem areas, and map the geographic (spatial)
and temporal distribution of seismic risk sites using available local seismicities and micro-seismic data.
Then integrating this environmental issues in to the Awash sub-basin land use planning.
Necessary recommendations will be given based on the assessment results obtained together with the
specific mitigation measures.
(iv)Volcanic Eruption Mapping
Collect data from geological survey of Ethiopia and Land sat Satellite images of Afar region showing
major volcanic peaks.
Identifying areas of widely recognized risk and potentially exposed for volcanic eruption areas, and then
prepare volcanic Eruption map.
(c)Environmental appraisal of Land Use Plan of Teru sub-basin
Environmental appraisal of the land use will be undertaken based on the method of multi-criteria
analysis. The spatial, physical, biological and socio-cultural environmental issues will be considered as
the criterion to weight land use plans in terms of their impact on environmental components. This will be
done using a matrix table made of environmental impacts in one versus the selected land use types
(LUTs) on the other, for each land mapping units.
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4.4 Agroclimatic resource assessment
4.4.1 Objectives
The major objectives of assessing the agro-climatic resources are:
To define and characterize the climatic resource potentials and constraints.
To classify the study area in to different agro climatic zones for the purpose of land evaluation.
To separate areas with similar sets of potentials and constraints for development to rural land-use
planning.
4.4.2 The scope of the investigation
The scope of the work is to describe and analyse the climatic suitability conditions of the area and to do
description and mapping of the agro-climatic zones.
4.4.3 Methods for Agro-ecological Zoning
Selection of LUTs: A range of LUTs will be selected to reflect current land use and/or land cover under
a projected improved situation. All subsequent assessments of land suitability and potential productivity
will carried out as part of the AEZ study.
Compile Land Resources Inventory: This compound activity will comprise the following steps:
Length of growing period (LGP) will be analyse;
Thermal zones will be define;
Climatic resource inventory will be compile;
Soil and landform resource inventory will be compile;
Present land use inventory will be compile;
All the above will combine to make land resources inventory based on agro-ecological zones or
agro-ecological cells. This inventory will also normally include information on administrative
boundaries.
The land resources inventory is based on combining different layers of information to define agro-
ecological cells (AECs) with a unique combination of climate, soil and other related land attributes. Such
overlay techniques will be carried out in a GIS environment.
Climatic data requirements:
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The following climatic data will be collected; coordinates, elevation, Precipitation, Max daily temp, Min
daily temp, PET, Climatic hazard & Relative humidity. Finally description and analysis of the climatic
conditions of the area and description and mapping of the agro-climatic zones will be made.
Analyse length of growing period:
LGP will be assessed for all valid rainfall stations in the study area with a minimum of 20 years of
complete records. Where the synoptic data required for PET calculation are not available, PET will be
assessed through locally validated correlations with altitude (e.g. De Pauw, 1987) or in flatter areas by
linear interpolation from surrounding stations (e.g. Schalk, 1990; Radcliffe, Tersteeg and De Wit, 1992).
The approach based on historical data is highly recommended particularly in semi-arid areas where inter-
annual variations in rainfall and resulting LGP are often extreme (FAO, 1993a; Radcliffe, 1993).
Compile climatic resources inventory:
The inventory of climatic resources is prepared as follows:
· The individual station data of temperature, LGP-pattern and mean total dominant LGP derived as
described above onto a map will be plotted.
· Boundaries of thermal zones, LGP pattern zones, growing period zones and isolines of mean total
dominant LGPs will be constructed.
In addition to normal extrapolation techniques, extensive use is usually made of Landsat images, climatic
maps, vegetation maps, land-use maps, topographic maps, and soil maps to guide the delineation of
boundaries and isolines. If a GIS is used, the inventory maps would be subsequently digitized. Given the
necessary base maps, point data and knowledge on the interpolation of climatic variables between these
points, we will prepare climatic maps in the GIS environment.
Compile soil resources inventory:
Information on soil type and landform is normally derived from existing soil maps, legends and reports.
National soil maps at a scale of 1:1 000,000 or larger are excellent sources from which the required input
data can be derived.
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Soil data requirements: Maps
· Topographic/geologic/terrain maps
· Soil/landform maps + legend + report
For each soil/landform mapping unit
· Composition of the mapping unit to terms of dominant sod associated soils and inclusions;
· Percentage of occurrence of each associated soil within the mapping unit;
· rootable depth and effective water holding capacity, quantity and quality of the organic matter, CEC
clay, base saturation, structural stability, stoniness and rockiness, for each identified soil unit groupings
in the study area
· Total area extent of individual mapping units;
· Dominant slope class;
· Texture class of the rooting zone for each associated soil;
· Soil phase if any.
· indicating a mechanical hindrance or limitation
· Rocky, bouldery, stony, gravelly;
· indicating an effective soil depth limitation
· Lithic, paralithic, petrocalcic, petroferric;
· indicating a physico-chemical limitation
· Saline, sodic.
For the overlay of such large amounts of information a GIS is strongly recommended.
Agro-climatic constraints: will be rearranged into a set of four as follows:
· Constraints resulting from moisture stress during the growing period (e.g. unreliability of rainfall).
· Constraints due to pests, diseases and weeds, directly affecting the physical growth of the crop (e.g.
stem-borers, leaf blights and virus diseases).
· Constraints due to various factors affecting yield formation and quality (e.g. cotton stainers, pod borers
and silk drying).
· Constraints arising from difficulties of workability and produce handling (e.g. excessive wetness of the
land or the produce).
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4.5 Agronomy
4.5.1 The objectives of the investigation
Main objective: Identify, delineate and map crop production potential areas with their constraints and
propose LUTs for the production of food and market crops cultivated under irrigated and/or rain fed
agriculture in the study area.
Specific objectives
To identify major crop types(varieties) that are growing and can grow under rain-fed and irrigated
areas with their production and productivity at household and sub-basin level.
To know the type and level of agricultural inputs and equipment’s utilization;
To identify and recommend farm practices like appropriate cropping pattern, cropping systems,
crop intensity and cropping calendar in both rain fed and irrigation agriculture
To identify major weeds, crop pests and diseases with their mitigation measures
To prepare post-harvest handling techniques for crops
To produce a benchmark data
4.5.2 Scope of the study
The scope of the semi detail study covers 6 woredas with total area of 1.01 million hectare of land, takes
several months and focuses on primary data collection on the following selected agronomic issues at
Woreda, kebelle, focused group of communities, house hold and land unit levels in the study area.
Assess and identify the land, water and climate resource potential with their crop suitability for
small and large scale irrigation agriculture in the study area.
annual and perennial crop suitability for rain fed agriculture in the area
identify the need, willingness and preferences of the communities for large and small scale
irrigation development and recommend adaptive crops with their yield projections in the area
Design strateg ies that promotes the use of improved crop production technological packages
such as improved seeds, pesticides, cultural packages such as improved seeds, pesticides, cultural
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practices, water harvesting structure, tieridger, water motor pump, motorized cultivator, pedal
pump etc.
4.5.3 Methodology of the Study
The methodology and data analysis employed in this study should focus on agronomic issues that will
facilitate effective crop production intervention, rather than just indulge into it for the sake of mere
analysis. The necessary data should also be collected within a limited time period. On the other hand,
triangulation approach that combines several approaches in order to increase the effectiveness and
reliability of data will be used in the study.
Major types of data to be collected
Secondary data: In this aspect, secondary data sources (available and relevant studies, reports and other
documents) will be reviewed as much as possible.
Primary data: In this regard various data collection methods will be used, which include the following:
Interview: structured interview will be designed and be filled in by selected sample community members
in the sample districts and kebeles. Questionnaires (formats) will be prepared to obtain relevant baseline
from Pastoral Agriculture Development office.
Focus Group Discussion (FGD): This will be conducted to obtain the necessary data on general issues
and problems in the study area. To conduct the FGD session and to obtain reliable information checklist
questions will be prepared to guide the discussion. Elders, clan and/or esteemed leaders, and other
community representatives, including the youth and women will be involved in the FGD. There will be
different groups for FGD session. Pertinent government sector offices, NGOs and CBOs operating in the
area will be also included to generate complementary necessary information for the study. Key
informants will be interviewed by using unstructured questions.
Sampling method and sample size:
Sampling Method: a stratified sampling design will be adopted based on agro-ecological classification,
i.e., comprising farming system (pastoralists, agro-pastoralists and sedentary farming) Woreda and kebele
administration, household by gender and wealth category. Purposive sampling method will also be
combined with stratified sampling to conduct the study. In general this is a multistage sampling g
considering Woreda, kebele and different composition of households. The sampling method will take in
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to account and use the agro-ecological zones to determine the number and distribution of sample kebeles.
At least 10 % of the total number of kebeles in a woreda will be taken as a sample. There will be at least
one sample kebele in all the identified agro-ecological zones.
Sample Size: formal sample size determination technique or 3- 5 % of the households in a sample kebele
will be taken to conduct the data collection process and undertake the study. This figure will be
proportionally distributed across the different wealth category and sex. For a focus group discussion 25%
of the group will be females, 25% Youth and the remaining 50% will be the share of elder group from
different religious and ethnic groups. For household survey 5 – 10 % of the respondents shall be female
headed households. Woreda and kebele administrators and leaders in each sample Woreda and kebele
will make detailed list of households by sex and wealth category. Locally defined criteria will be used to
identify each household by wealth category. Finally the respondents will be randomly selected to fill the
questionnaire designed for data collection.
Data collection process: Available and relevant secondary data sources (such as books, study
documents, reports, etc.) will be reviewed to enrich the study. Different types of data collection
instruments (questionnaires, checklist questions, etc.) will be developed and designed before the
commencement of the fieldwork. To fill in the questionnaires in the field, in particular, enumerators
should be hired/recruited and trained for the purpose of effective data collection activity. After the
completion of the data collection process (fieldwork) the data processing activities will be executed in
office.
4.6 Watershed Management and conservation
4.6.1 Objective of the Study
Watershed management is an approach of area planning of natural resources, especially land, water and
vegetation. The major objectives of watershed study are:
1. To investigate the extent soil erosion and sediment yield.
2. To promote protection, conservation and improvement of land resources for the efficient and
sustained production
3. To reduce siltation land pollution of rivers
4. To improve the socio-economic conditions of the local people
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4.6.2 Scope of the Survey
Watershed delineation which includes:
Nomination
Size determination
Preparing watershed maps which includes:
Base map
Land form map
Land use Map
Development map
Verification of watershed morphology
biophysical survey
Socio economist survey
Classifying watersheds using
Shape factors
Size factors
Stability factors
Assessment of Erosion Hazards, includes:
Identifying the types of erosion agents
o Water erosion
Forms of soil erosion
Cause of soil erosion
o Wind erosion
Cause of wind erosion
Predicting soil loss
o Water erosion
o Wind erosion
Preparing soil erosion hazard maps
Water erosion
Wind erosion
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Assessment of sediment yield of watersheds
Assessment of runoff yield of watersheds
Recommend soil and water conservation both quantitatively and qualitatively
Water erosion
o physical
o Biological
o Biophysical
Wind Erosion
Biological
Estimating the labour requirement to achieve implementation
4.6.3 Methods
The methods to be applied to undertake the study include the following:
1. field investigation on the biophysical features, extent of soil erosion through extensive field
observation of the area
2. Review of available literatures
3. discussion with different level of organizations
4. Discussion with community groups
4.7 Forestry and wild life
4.7.1 Objectives
To identify and list out major constraints and potentials for forest development by assessing the
present vegetation cover, species type, composition and uses.
To identifies and prioritize need of the community for forestry and agro forestry products and
benefits; to assess the approximate importance of the products.
To make selection of the most promising forest and agro forestry LUTs(land use types) by
comparing the LUTs and objectives initially set by the client with potential LUTs observed during
survey and the present need of the local communities (stake holders)
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To identifies sites, if there is any new of interests in the project area; development of sanctuary,
Wildlife reserve area, Recreational sites and others by assessing the presence or occurrences of
habitat and wildlife resource diversity.
4.7.2 Scope of the work
Identifying and analyzing the present vegetation/forest cover, type; forestry and agro forestry practices,
constraints and needs of the community and finally selecting and deciding the best land use types/ LUTs/
and lands.
4.7.3 Methods Based on interpretation of satellite image identifying vegetation cover and types ;verification for
delineating Riveraine forest, Bush lands, Shrub lands, Woodlands and others using basic
characteristics and different colors that represent different vegetation types cover.
Reviewing past and present forest development and assessment documents.
Field observation of all potential areas with Woreda counter parts to identify species type and
locale name and their uses.
Using questionnaires identifying list out major constraints, potentials and prioritize needs of the
local communities through interviewing and holding discussion with officials, community
members or elders and forest experts at various level.
4.8 Livestock production and range land management
4.8.1 Objectives
The general objective of livestock production and range land management in the sub basin is to ensure
effective and efficient utilization of land for sustainable socioeconomic development and to optimize
returns or products to meet social needs as well as conserving natural resources.
The followings are the specific objectives of the detail study;
To asses major constraints & opportunities of livestock production and estimate dominant livestock
population.
To identify range land types and asses range land conditions such as; range trend analyses, plant
succession & plant composition analyses, rate of bush encroachment etc.
168
To identify grazing management practices such as;, grazing season, grazing periods, range
readiness, carrying capacity, stocking density and stocking rate .
4.8.2 Scope of the Study
The scope of the study concerning to livestock and range land conditions in the detail level of study is to
assess the general situations of livestock production and range land conditions so as to identify the best
forage and livestock development land use types and thereby to formulate development and management
plan.
4.8.3 Methodology of the Study
The methodologies to be applied during detail study include pre field activities like formulating
questionnaires, working guidelines, and manual preparations will be completed. Primary socio economic
data including livestock production system and range land conditions will be collected by using
questionnaires, focus group discussion, individuals and key informants will be interviewed.
Then data will be collected and analyzed with regard to biophysical aspects that comprised livestock
body condition, range land condition which includes range trend analyses, plant succession & plant
composition analyses, rate of bush encroachment ,etc and also grazing management practices(grazing
season, grazing periods, carrying capacity, stocking density & stocking rate) .
The survey will be conducted at farmers (Kebele) level to collect primary data by giving more emphasis
on the main factors that affect social and economical activities like feed, water and livestock production
and management with special emphasis on livestock potentials and range land conditions.
Stratified sampling method will be used to determine the sampled farmers and LMU based on ACZ in the study area.
In both socio-economic and bio-physical survey, primary and secondary data will be collected for livestock and range land conditions from the same kebeles, Woredas, institutions and land mapping unities.
4.9 Animal Health
4.9.1 Genera Objectives
to provide detailed information on animal disease and associatead animal health problems of the
project area for different land use options.
169
To investigat animal health problems combined with the results of management of animals,
feeding type, soil type, agro-climatic analysis, hydrologic analaysis, enviromental hazard analysis,
socia-economic analysis and water resources and land cover assement To promote land resources
development and utilization for further sustainable development in the area.
Specific Objective
To assess the veterinary clinic service type and animal disease problems and possible solutions in
the study area.
To identify the prevention and control of different types of diseases.
To formulate post veterinary clinics building plan including maps at 1:250000 scale
4.9.2 Scope of the Study
The scope of the study concerning to identification of the commen animale diseases and mechanical
injuries in species level and classifying of the diseases and mechanical injuries according to their
severity, behavior and the time when the diseases usually occurred and based on this characterization of
diseases and mechanical injuries and finally setting of prevention control methods in the land map unit.
The scope also concerns identification of other associated animale health problems such as
institution,man power,and type and amount of treatments and vaccines used in the land map unit.
Limitation of the study:
Lack of previous works concerning animal health problems
Absences of research results at particular areas like animale disease problems in each animals
Range land productivity, livestock performance parameters.
Lack of data at all levels with regard to animal diseases.
4.9.3 Methodologies
To make the assessment effectively and efficiently pre field activities like formats, questioners, working
guidelines, field programmes and manuals preparations were accomplished as well as equipment used in
the felid such as :
Different Guidelines (FAOs); Scale bar1:1000000
Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
170
Digital Camera
Laptop computer (GIS Software)
Vehicles were made available.
Then after, field survey phase of the project is commenced and the following activities should be
performed. To conduct the study for animal disease, mechanical injury and institutiongrazing, data should
be collected from two surveys. The first part consistes of identification of common animal diseases,
mechanical injuries, status of institutions and infrastructures. The second survey is designed to look into
more detailed data with regarded to biophysical aspects that comprised body condition of animals,
grazing land condition, manegenment system, and way of prevention and control of animal diseases. The
surveys should be conducted at farmers (Kebele) level to collect primary data by giving more emphasis
on the main factors those affect social and economical activities like common animale diseases,
mechanical injuries, institution, types of treatments and vaccines used and managnment with special
emphasis on animale health. Stratified sampling method is used to determine the sampled farmers and
LMU based on ACZ in the study area. In both socio-economic and bio-physical survey, primary and
secondary data should be collected for animale health conditions from the same kebeles, Woredas,
institutions and land mapping unities.
4.10 Socio-economic survey
4.10.1 Objectives
The main objectives of the socioeconomic study are
1. To investigate the current socioeconomic conditions of the area and identify the potentials and
major constraints and development intervention areas of the rural community in particular for the
purpose of land evaluation.
2. To investigate and analyze various socioeconomic conditions and come up with sound conclusion
and feasible recommendations which will guide prospective development interventions in the
study area.
3. To examine the general attitudes of the community towards the current and prospective land use
and the designing of appropriate land use plan for development interventions to be implemented
in the study area.
171
4.10.2 Scope of the Study
The scope of the study will include major aspects related to socioeconomic conditions of the area to be
studied. The socioeconomic study will primarily focus on human resource and settlement pattern,
infrastructure and institutions, social services, water resource, land tenure and land use, and farming
system of the study area. The broad aspects of the study will comprise the following:
Farming system and major forms of livelihood
Describing major types of farming systems in the area
Describing and quantifying sources of livelihood (income sources and level, household, etc)
Livestock production:
Such as overgrazing, bush encroachment, agricultural land expansion and grazing land Conflict;
prevalence of livestock diseases, access to veterinary service, and Livestock market accessibility, and
traditional coping mechanisms
Crop production:
Main constraints that hinder effective crop production
Type and scale of irrigation scheme in the area (if any)
Identifying Important off-farm activities in the area
Assessing and analyzing food security related issues in the area
Identifying potential fishery resources areas
Identifying and indicating major forest resources in the study areas.
Land tenure & land use pattern related issues:
Communal ownership
Average land holding in the area
Land use conflict and its main causes
Mechanism (traditional system) of resolving land use conflict in the area
Settlement Pattern
Clustered
Scattered
Bases for settlement (clan, kinship, economic, religious and/or social ties,
administrative points or others)
172
Type of housing
Analyze tendency to retain, change or modify the current form of settlement and/or
housing type in the area.
Social Services
Education
Formal education
Number of educational institutions
Access to education and coverage
Level of education
Student enrollment at various educational levels
Number and qualification of teachers
Drop out and its major reasons
Attitude of the community towards education in general and girls education in particular
Availability of non-formal education and its focus /or targets
Identifying the salient problems regarding education, which may include institutional,
economic and socio-cultural constraints
Health
Number of health institutions and facilities/conditions
Number and qualification of health professionals
Major prevalent diseases in the area
Sanitation
Water supply and its quality in relation to health service
Water related issues
Existing natural water points and their capacity
Boreholes and other modern water points (functional and non-functional)
Mapping of the distribution of water points
Assessing other Services and Infrastructures
Road network and density
Access to Telecommunication and postal services
Access to electricity
173
Access to financial institutions
Cooperatives and credit schemes
Marketing services and other rural development activities in the area
Gender and related issues
The situation of women in relation to the access to resources, control and decision making
The situation of harmful traditional practices that affect women in the area
NGOs and their contribution to development in the study area.
4.10.3 Methodology of the Study
It is readily understood that there will be an integrated, holistic and multi-disciplinary approach to
determine type and ways of study for any development intervention in an area. The methodology and
data analysis employed in this study should focus on social and development issues that will facilitate
effective development interventions, rather than just indulge into it for the sake of mere analysis. The
necessary data should also be collected within a limited time period. On the other hand, triangulation
approach that combines several approaches in order to increase the effectiveness and reliability of data
will be used in the study.
Major types of data to be collected
Secondary data: In this aspect, secondary data sources (available and relevant studies, reports and other
documents) will be reviewed as much as possible. Specifically
- Review of available ethnographic or sociological sources in relation to or done in the area;
- Review of relevant reports and studies will be conducted
- Various policies, laws and regulations will be reviewed in relation to land use and natural
resources management.
Primary data: In this regard various data collection methods will be used, which include the following:
Interview: structured interview will be designed and be filled in by selected sample community members
in the sample districts and kebeles and relevant government sector offices. Questionnaires (formats) will
be prepared to obtain relevant baseline data from pertinent government sector offices.
174
Focus Group Discussion (FGD): This will be conducted to obtain the necessary data on general issues
and problems in the study area. To conduct the FGD session and to obtain reliable information checklist
questions will be prepared to guide the discussion. Elders, clan and/or esteemed leaders, and other
community representatives, including the youth and women will be involved in the FGD. There will be
different groups for FGD session. Pertinent government sector offices, NGOs and CBOs operating in the
area will be also included to generate complementary necessary information for the study. Key
informants will be interviewed by using unstructured questions.
Sampling method and sample size:
Sampling Method: a stratified sampling design will be adopted based on agro-ecological classification,
i.e., comprising farming system (pastoralists, agro-pastoralists and sedentary farming) Woreda and kebele
administration, household by gender and wealth category. Purposive sampling method will also be
combined with stratified sampling to conduct the study. In general this is a multistage sampling g
considering Woreda, kebele and different composition of households. The sampling method will take in
to account and use the agro-ecological zones to determine the number and distribution of sample kebeles.
At least 10 % of the total number of kebeles in a woreda will be taken as a sample. There will be at least
one sample kebele in all the identified agro-ecological zones.
Sample Size: formal sample size determination technique or 3- 5 % of the households in a sample kebele
will be taken to conduct the data collection process and undertake the study. This figure will be
proportionally distributed across the different wealth category and sex. For a focus group discussion 25%
of the group will be females, 25% Youth and the remaining 50% will be the share of elder group from
different religious and ethnic groups. For household survey 5 – 10 % of the respondents shall be female
headed households. Woreda and kebele administrators and leaders in each sample Woreda and kebele
will make detailed list of households by sex and wealth category. Locally defined criteria will be used to
identify each household by wealth category. Finally the respondents will be randomly selected to fill the
questionnaire designed for data collection.
Data collection process
Available and relevant secondary data sources (such as books, study documents, reports, etc.) will be
reviewed to enrich the socioeconomic study.
175
Different types of data collection instruments (questionnaires, checklist questions, etc.) will be developed
and designed before the commencement of the fieldwork. To fill in the questionnaires in the field, in
particular, enumerators should be hired/recruited and trained for the purpose of effective data collection
activity. After the completion of the data collection process (fieldwork) the data processing activities will
be duly executed in office.
4.11 Watershed management and conservation
4.11.1 Objective of the Study
Watershed management is an approach of area planning of natural resources, especially land, water and vegetation. The major objectives of watershed study are:
5. To investigate the extent soil erosion and sediment yield.6. To promote protection, conservation and improvement of land resources for the efficient and sustained
production7. To reduce siltation land pollution of rivers8. To improve the socio-economic conditions of the local people
4.11.2 Scope of the Survey
Watershed delineation which includes: Nomination and Size determination
Preparing watershed maps which includes: Base map , Land form map , Land use Map & Development
map
Verification of watershed morphology : biophysical and Socio economic survey
Classifying watersheds using Shape factors Size factors Stability factors
Assessment of Erosion Hazards, includes: Identifying the types of erosion agents
o Water erosion
Forms of soil erosion Cause of soil erosion
o Wind erosion
Cause of wind erosion Predicting soil loss
o Water erosion
o Wind erosion
Preparing soil erosion hazard maps
Water erosion
176
Wind erosion
Assessment of sediment yield of watersheds Assessment of runoff yield of watersheds Recommend soil and water conservation both quantitatively and qualitatively
Water erosiono physical
o Biological
o Biophysical
Wind Erosion Biological
Estimating the labour requirement to achieve implementation
4.11.3 Methods
The methods to be applied to undertake the study include the following:
5. field investigation on the biophysical features, extent of soil erosion through extensive field observation of the area
6. Review of available literatures7. discussion with different level of organizations8. Discussion with community groups
4.12 GIS and Remote Sensing Application
Majority of the GIS work comes during the detail survey of the land use planning. Starting from
preparing base maps for the detail study of each discipline, a number of processing and analyzing tasks
will run at this time.
4.12.1 Objectives
GIS & Remote Sensing application in the detail survey has the following objectives:
To supply up-to-date digital and spatial information data for the members of the land use planning
study group.
To maintain acceptable standards accuracy.
To minimize cost, wastage of time and manpower at the field.
To integrate the whole land use planning studies so as to have a summarized land utilization
strategy.
o Production of maps.
177
o Overlaying different analysis results.
o Identification of potential areas for land utilization.
4.12.2 ScopeThe scope of all analysis using GIS tools based the concept of the agreement. According to it, the study is
semi-detail of 1:50,000. Therefore, maps will produce in 1:50,000 scale. But, the analysis of any factor
follows the sub-basin standards of each project. The intensive use of GIS & Remote Sensing tools and
data will start soon the end of the inception report and will goes up to finalizing the project. The spatial
data gathered by experts should supported by GIS application.
4.12.3 Methodology
Much of the works to be done in GIS uses different software and computer. These tasks based the digital
data collected during the reconnaissance survey, the ground truth will gathered and the information
comes from experts.
Data will used
Digital data
DEM/SRTM
Landsat images of five years gap since 1985 till present.
Shape files of Afar region, Zones, Woredas and Kebelle boundaries.
Different existence maps like, soil, vegetation, crop, livestock, population, topography,
watershed, climate, infrastructure, land use/land cover, hazard occurrences, geological,
hydrology, etc.
Books, manuals, guidelines and literatures.
Scanned topo sheets.
Hardcopy
Topographic maps.
Manuals and research works.
A. Procedure of Activities:
178
B. Major activities:
Shapes DEM/SRTM Shapes & Images Landsat-2010
179
Project Area Delineation
Surface Analysis
Contour Hill shade Slope
Base Maps Production
Kebelle map Catchment map Soil map Infrastructure map
Existing Land use/ Land Cover Map
Using FAO standards
Surface Analysis
Contour Hill shade Slope
Existing Land use/ Land Cover Map
Using FAO standards
Base Maps Production
Kebelle map Catchment map Soil map Infrastructure map
Existing Land use/ Land Cover Map
Using FAO standards
Project Area Delineation
Surface Analysis
Contour Hill shade Slope
Base Maps Production
Kebelle map Catchment map Soil map Infrastructure map
Existing Land use/ Land Cover Map
Using FAO standards
Field verification
Field verification
Analysis
Interpolation of Climatic data (RF, Thermal zone, etc.)
LGP analysis
Overlay analysis (ACZ, AEZ, etc.)
Suitability analysis (LUTs)
Change detection
Site analysis (LUTs)
Results
LGP map
Thermal map
Land Suitability map
Soil map
Vegetation map
Soil erosion hazard map
Environmental quality map
AEZ map
LUTs maps or LMU
Project Area Delineation
Surface Analysis
Contour
Hill shade
Slope
Base Maps Production
Kebelle map
Catchment map
Soil map
Infrastructure map
Existing Land use/ Land Cover Map
Using FAO standards
5 Expected Output It is well known fact that the output of this integrated landuse planning approach is highly dependant on both
the quality/quantity of credible field data findings. Planned systematic landuse leads to sustainable land
resource utilization which ultimately ensures improvement of the livelihood of the residents without which,
no development is expected. This basic principle or general truth is only attained through sustainable
utilization of the resources on the basis of conducive socio-economic background.
For the realization of best out put of the project, synchroizing the outputs of involved professions, be it
natural or social assets of the findings would be mandatory, as a result of which a promissing output will be
achieved.
Bearing this point in mind ,detail description of social problems and socio economic assets of the society
residing within the sub basin,reports and a soil map revealing the soil types showing their spatial distribution,
agroclimatic zonation , livestock production barriers and potentials as well as animal disease identification
and recommend prevention and control measures, existing crop production versus sustainable and scientific
method of food and market crop production & protection, sustainable utilization, production, protection and
management of forests, design environmental protection and management strategy, georeferenced water
resource assessment findings along with wise & efficient resource exploitation technicques, erosion hazard
assessments and effective cachment treatment and management strategies, land suitability classification of
each land unit for specific utilization where potentials as well as limitations with their respective sound
recommendations will thoroughlly be proposed.
Hence, based on the findings land suitability map will be prepared to launch landuse planning in the form of
spatial distribution at a scale of 1:50,000 and standard reports, which can be considered as a foundation for
the commencement of the development activities within the sub-basin.
6 Work planN
.
Activity Months
180
activities fe
b
ma
r
apr m
ay
jun jul aug se
p
oc
t
no
v
d
e
c
ja
n
f
e
b
m
a
r
A
pr
1 Detail investigation
Secondary data collection and analysis
Investigation and survey
Laboratory analysis
Preparation of intrim report
Report review by the client
Presentation and review result by
stakeholders
Preparation draft final report
Report review by the client
Preparation of final report
Submission of final report
Lower Awash Sub- Basin Landuse Planning Study Project: Activity Activity Schedule
181
7 Reporting At the completion of the precceding (detail) study, consequetively 3 types of reports
are expected to be submitted.
1 Intrim report - : This report is expected to be submitted just right after all
the necessary data are collected & compiled
2) Draft( final)report - : This report is going to be submitted to the client after
analysing the data for the purpose of gathering feedbacks . Feedbacks could
be on:
the quality and quantity of data collected
overall applied methodology sequences/procedures
report compositions and other aspects are gathered for the inclusion
within the report.
3) Final report :- As the term itself implies, this report will contain views, comments and
suggestions and any amendments which can be forwarded by the client, and after
their inclusions the report will be refined and it will be the final working document of
the project.
8 Staffing Lower Awash land use planning study required professinals and supporting staff
deployment schedule
N
o
.
position months
fe
b
m
ar
ap
r
m
a
y
ju
n
j
u
l
au
g
se
p
oc
t
no
v
de
c
ja
n
fe
b
m
ar
Apr feb ma
r
apr
A
Proj.manager
182
Team leader(2)
Soil expert(4)
Watershed
expert
GIS and RS expert
Land evaluation
expert
-Agro ecologist
Agronomist
Cartographer
Livestock(range
andvet)expert(2)
-Socio economist
3( )
Forester
Environmentalist
Hydrologist
B Supporting staff
Field soil
surveyors and
technicians(4)
(2)
secretary
183
6Driver( )
Daily
laborer(10)
Enumerator(10)
9 Resource requirement for field workField equipments, Tools and materials for soil survey
No. Items Units Quantity Means/possible source
1 Dutch Auger with extension Set 2 Enterprise/purchase
2 Munsell color charts Pcs 2 Enterprise/purchase
3 Clinometers Pcs 2 Enterprise/purchase
4 Handlens Pcs 1 Enterprise/purchase
5 Compass Pcs 2 Enterprise/purchase
6 First aid kit Pcs 1 Enterprise/purchase
7 10% HCL Litres 1 Enterprise/purchase
8 Acid dropper( pippete) Pcs 2 Enterprise/purchase
9 double ring infiltro meter Set 3 Enterprise/purchase
1
0 Field bags (back bag)Pcs 3 Enterprise/purchase
184
No. Items Units Quantity Means/possible source
1
1
Core sampler Set(kit) 2 Enterprise/purchase
1
2
shovel Pcs 3 Enterprise/purchase
1
3
Digging hoe (‘Gesso’) Pcs 3 Enterprise/purchase
1
4
Plastic sample bags (polyethelene 20cmx30cm) Kg 10 Enterprise/purchase
1
5
Wash bottles Pcs 2 Enterprise/purchase
1
6
Topographic maps Pcs 20 Already at hand
1
7
Geomorphology and soil map Set 2 MOARD
1
8
PH-meter (portable) Pcs 1 Enterprise/purchase
1
9
EC-meter (portable) Pcs 1 Enterprise/purchase
2
0
Hydraulic conductivity meter/ Guelph permeameter
Set 1 Enterprise/purchase
2
1
Broad-bladed knife or spatula Pcs 3 Enterprise/purchase
2
2
Geological hammer Pcs 1 Enterprise/purchase
2
3
Field umbrella(Large Garden type) Pcs 4 Enterprise/purchase
Common field and office materials
185
No. Items UnitsQuantity
Means/possible source
Profession
1Note Book Pcs 40 Enterprise/purchase all
2 Field shoes (paratrooperboots)
pairs 20 purchase all
3Digital Satellite imagery of the site(landsat)
Scene 30 Already at hand/will be downloaded
all
4Spolt 5 image Scene/
mosaicked/1 Enterprise/purchase all
5Markers Pac. 2 Enterprise/purchase all
6 Measuring tape (5) Pcs 2 Enterprise/purchase soil
7 Measuring tape(25m) pcs 5 Enterprise/purchase
forestry,livestock,agronomy,
hydrology,watershed
8Clip board Pcs 3 Enterprise/purchase all
9GPS Pcs 13 Enterprise/purchase all
1
-0
Laptop pcs 1
3
Enterprise/purchase all
1
1
Flash disk (4GB) pcs 1
3
Enterprise/purchase
1
2
-CD R Pkt(pack
of 50)1
Enterprise/purchase all
1
3
Tracing paper roll 1Enterprise/purchase Soil,watershed,lan
d evaluation
1
4
Grid squre pcs 3Enterprise/purchase watershed land
evaluation
186
1
5
Computer paper Pkt 1
0
Enterprise/purchase all
1
6
ruler pcs 5Enterprise/purchase all
1
7
-CD RW pcs 1
3
Enterprise/purchase all
1
8
Hipso(height meter) pcs 1Enterprise/purchase forestry
1
9
Diameter tape pcs 1Enterprise/purchase forestry
2
0
Sony Digital photo
camera
> 75. mega pixel
pcs 4Enterprise/purchase all
2
1
Memmory stick for
digital camera(2GB) Pcs 4
Enterprise/purchase all
2
2
battery for digital Camera
pcs 4Enterprise/purchase all
2
3
Field water quality test
kitpcs 1
Enterprise/purchase hydrology
softwares
30 30mx m resolution DEM Sstat
Global mapper 8 Arc Gis Extensions Arc SWAT,AGWA2, Arc
hydro 9.0,KENIROS ,
Erdas imagine 9.1 -Ethio GIS,
Arc GIS 9.3 - Afar GIS
Arc view GIS Loclim
187
ILWIS 3.3 acadamic CropWat
SPSS Inc statistics 17.0 Hydroogic models
GPS softwares Arc pad,Touratech QV4 Base flow Separation, HBV ,WATBAL
Instat
10 referencesAFAR NATION REGIONAL STATTE BoFED Regional Atlas 2, June, 2009, SEMERA
Afar National Regional State Bureau of pastoral & agro pastoral rural development annual reports (1998-2001).
Afar National Regional State, Range land and water development study (MCE, 2001)
Afar Region Survey, “Identified Agricultural Investment Areas”, July 2009, Semera
ANRS, “A strategic Plan for Sustainable Development, Conservation and Management of the Woody Biomass Resource” Rural socio-economic survey final report volume II, Dec. 2003, Addis Ababa
Atlas of the Ethiopian Rural Economy, “Ethiopian Strategy Support Program”, 2004, Addis Ababa
AWBSP (2004), A Strategic plan for the sustainable development, conservation And management of woody biomass
Azen Bekele (1993), useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia hand book no 6
CHDEP consultant (1998), Forestry action program volume 1 ANRS,BoA
188
CSA , Population Census Result, 2007, Addis Ababa
Dubale, A. (2008). Invasive plants and food security: the case of Prosopis Juliflora in the Afar Region of Ethiopia.
Finance and Economic Development Bureau of Afar National Regional State, 2006. Regional Atlas of Afar Region, Semera.
Gebru Bonger (2001), Vegetation assessment for the proposd regional land use plan
METAFERIA CONSULTING ENG. PLC, 2001. Rangelands and Water Development Study, Volume III, Part II, Annex 3E: SOILS.
Metaferia Consulting Engineering plc. 2003G.C. Teruu Depression Reconnaissance Survey Study. Addis Ababa
PDPA (2005), Compendium of notes on wild life conservation and management Training manual (unpublished)
Reddy, T.Y.and G.H.S.Reddi. 1993G.C.principles of Agronomy.Kalyani pub.India
WARC-APARI, “Assessment Made on the Potential, Constraints and Opportunity on the Production System of Afar Regional State; Case study on selected woredas of Zone 1, 4 & 5, Oct.2007, Semera
Werer Agriculture Research Center and Afar Pastoral Agriculture Research Institute. 2009G.C. Assessment on potential, constraint, and opportunity on production system of Afar National Regional State; Case study on selected woredas of zone 1, 4 and 5. 1.
Wondimu Asfaw (2001), Forestry development assessment for the proposed regional land use plan
FAO (1978-81). Report on the Agro-ecological Zones Project. World Soil Resources Report 48, FAO,
Rome. [First systematic agro-ecological assessment of land resources and agricultural crop potentials of
all developing countries].
FAO (1995). Digital Soil Map of the World and Derived Soil Properties (Version 3.5). CD-ROM, FAO, Rome.
Wilson, R.T., Traore, A., Peacock, C.P., Smack, S. and Agyemang, K., 1985. Early mortality of lambs in African traditional livestock production systems. Vet. Res. Commun. 9, 295–301.
NMSA (National Meteorology Service Agency), 1996. Climatic and Agroclimatic
Resources of Ethiopia. Vol. 1, No. 1. National Meteorology Service Agency of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa.137 pp.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 1978. Report on the Agro-Ecological Zones Project, Vol. 1, Methodology and results for Africa. World Soil Resources Report No. 48. FAO, Rome.
FAO (1998): Crop evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements - FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56, Rome.
IPCC Technical Summary, 2001. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Technical Summary of the Working Group I Report [Houghton, J.T., Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K.
Maskell, and C.A. Johnson (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 94pp.
189
11 Annex
11.1 Annex 1: Questionnaires and Formats1. Soil Survey Format for Soil Profile Description
Field No. _______________ Author_____________ Status_________
Project site_______________ Date_______________
Observation site location _________ GPS N: _________ E: ____________
Surface crust__________ Erosion
Cracking ____________ A) At site__________ Land use ___________
Elevation____________ B) At surrounding_____ Crop grown_______
Drainage Class/Ext_______ Micro topography______ Crop grown since when__
Land Form__________ Seepage______________ Range Land
Flooding F/D__________ SMU________________ Over grazing__________
Position______________ Slope Class___________ Bush encroachment____
GWTD (cm) _________ Slope aspect/direction_____ Vegetation type_________
Permeability_________ Rock out crop___________ Dominant species______
190
Parent material________ Surface Stone/gravels``______ Invasive species_______
Human Influence__________
Horizon symbol
Depth(cm)
Boundary
Moisture Status D/T
Color Dry
Moist
Mottles Abundance
Size
Contrast
Texture
Coarse Fragment Abundance
Size
Structure Grade
Size
Type
Crack
Consistency Dry
Moist
Wet
Cutans Abundance
Size
Nature
Cementation Grade
191
Mineral nodules Abundance
Color
Hardiness
Nature
Kind
Root Abundance
Size
Pores Abundance
Size
Carbonate
Sample
Diagnostic horizon (surface) ______________ Sub surface _________________
Diagnostic property _____________________ Depth to paraliltic contact_____
FAO field classification___________________ Final Classification____ Remark/Comment, Diagram________________
2. Soil Survey Format for Soil auger observation
Field No. _______________ Author_____________ Status_________
Project site_______________ Date_______________
Observation site location _________ GPS N: _________ E: ____________
Surface crust__________ Erosion
Cracking ____________ A) At site__________ Land use ___________
Elevation____________ B) At surrounding_____ Crop grown_______
Drainage Class/Ext_______ Micro topography______ Crop grown since when__
Land Form__________ _ Seepage______________ -Range Land
Flooding F/D__________ SMU________________ Over grazing__________
Position______________ Slope Class___________ Bush encroachment____
GWTD (cm) _________ Slope aspect/direction_____ -Vegetation type_________
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Permeability_________ Rock out crop___________ Dominant species______
Parent material________ Surface Stone/gravel______ Invasive species_______
Human Influence__________
Depth(cm)
Moisture Status D/T
Color Dry
Moist
Mottles Abundance
Size
Contrast
Texture
Coarse Fragment Abundance
Size
Top Soil Structure Grade
Size
Type
Consistency Dry
Moist
Wet
Cementation Grade
Mineral nodules Abundance
Color
Hardiness
Nature
Kind
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Carbonate
Field PH
Field EC
Diagram and/or comment of the site Diagram and/or comments between sites
PART1. Household Level Data Collection Format
1. Identification
1.1. Name of the respondent _______________________________________
1.2. Age ________________
1.3. Sex ________________
2. Address
2.1. Zone ____________________
2.2. Woreda _______________________________
2.3. kebele _________________________________
2.4. ‘Gote’__________________________________
2.5. AEZ _______ GPS reading N__________ E___________ elevation _______
3. Marital status of the respondent _______________
(Single =1 Married =2 Divorced =3 Widowed = 4 Separated=5)4. Household Characteristics
4.1. household size by age group and sex
Age group Male Female Total
Less than 5 years
5 - 14 years
15-29 years
30-64 years
Above 64 years
Total
4.2. Ethnic origin of the household ______ Amhara = 1 Oromo = 2 Afar = 3 Agew = 4 others = 5 specify _____________
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4.3. Religion _____Orthodox = 1 Catholic = 2 Protestant = 3
Islam = 4 Pagan = 5 Atheist = 65. Education
5.1. Level of education attained by the respondent _____________
(Illiterate = 1 Reading and writing = 2, 1 – 4 grade = 3 5 – 8 grade = 4,9 – 10th grade =5 11 – 12th grade = 6 above 12th grade =7)
5.2. Number of HH members Attending formal education
HH members Male Female
Level No Level No
The household head
Spouse
Other household members
Age of 7 – 14
Age of 15- 24
5.3. Distance of the education systems from your home in walking hrs for a single trip
Level of schools
Walking distance in hrs for single trip from your home
Below 1 hr = 1 1 – 2 hrs = 2 2 – 3 hrs = 3 > 3 hrs = 4
First cycle (1-4)
Second cycle (5-8),
Full primary (1 -8)
High School, 9-10,
Preparatory, 11-12
TVET,
Higher education
5.4. What are the major problems regarding education for your household members? _____
Absence of school in the nearby area =1 Unable to cover school expense = 2 Household demand for child labor =3 Drought and transhumance = 4 Ethnic or clan conflict =5 If Other specify _____________________
5.5. Is there any family member who has dropped out from school in 2001(E.C)--
Yes = 1 No = 25.6. What was the reason for the dropout _______________________________
6. Health
6.1. What are the common diseases affecting the health of your household members
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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6.2. Have you ever faced malarial problem in the last two-three years? Yes = 1 No = 2
6.2.1. If yes, what is the cause of malaria?____________________________________________________________________________________________________
6.3. How far is the nearest health service to your household
Type health service
Walking distance in hrs for single trip
Below 1 hr = 1 1 – 2 hrs = 2 2 – 3 hrs = 3 > 3 hrs = 4
Hospital
Health center
Health post
Private clinic
6.4. Means of transportation to get access to health service?
Type of health service Type of transport
on foot Pack animals Vehicles Others (specify Hospital Health center Health post Private clinic
7. Water supply and sanitation
7.1. Main sources of water for drinking and cooking;_______________
River =1 Pond = 2 Lake = 3 Hand dug well =4 Developed spring =5 Piped water = 6)
7.2. Do you pay for your domestic water? _______ Yes =1 No =2
7.3. If your answer is yes, how much do you pay per month (In birr)____________
7.4. Who among your household members usually collect water for domestic use? ____
Wife =1 Female children =2 Male children = 3 Husband = 4 All = 5
7.5. Do you have Water Users Association for domestic water supply? ____ Yes =1 No =2
7.6. What are the major problems you usually encounter in relation to water supply? ______ Distance = 1 Scarcity = 2 Not protected = 3
7.7. Is there any traditional copying mechanism of water problems in the area? Yes = 1 No= 2
7.8. If yes to the above, please indicate them ___________________________
7.9. Do you have toilet? ______ Yes = 1 No =2
196
7.10. Do your watering points have cattle traph?
8. Household expenses
8.1. estimated average Monthly expense of your household for home consumption in 2001 E.C ________Birr
List of expenditure Volume of expense in birr
household consumptions (salt, coffee, soap ,food oil, kerosene, charcoal others)
Education expense
Medical or health expense
Others (specify)
Total
8.2. Social and other obligatory expenses please show the detail using the following table
List of expenses item Volume of expense in birr Remarks Tax Membership fee Expenses for religious purpose Traditional/ritual ceremony loan repayment Bank interest Interest for money lenders Aid delivered for relatives/friends Other expenses Total
Part 2 : Focus Group Discussion
Address:Zone________________Woreda_____________________ Kebele _________________ AEZ _________________
Group type A. household heads B. women C. youth D. Kebele meeting
1. What are the main development problems in the area and their possible solutions?S.No Main development problems Possible solutions?
197
2. What are the major development opportunities in your area? S.No Major development opportunities of the area Ranking order
3. What are the major social problems, regarding, health; education; water; and sanitation, access to road etc. in the area?
S.No
Health Education Water supply Sanitation Access to roads
4. What are types of livestock feed resources in the areaS.No Types of feed sources Rank Remarks
1 Grazes
2 Browses
3 Crop residues
4 Fresh lives, weeds…
5 Cut and carry (Zero Grazing)
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6 Stubble Brazes
7 Others
5. Do the amount of feeds and numbers of animals are matching in the area? What solution measures should be taken?
S.No measures should be taken Rank REASONS
1 Forage Development
2 Destocking
3 Infrastructure improvement
4 Market improvement
5 Breeds improvement
6 Others specify
6. Is the grazing land and livestock population increasing or decreasing? Why ?A. Grazindland_________________________________________________________________B. Livestock _______________________________________________________________C. population________________________________________________________________
7. Do you agree with the following Land utilization type for these areas?S.No LUTs Acceptance or
rejectionREASONS
1 Sedentary Grazing Land
Communal Grazing land
Individual Grazing land
2 Stubble Grazing land
3 Enclosure areas pasture cultivation
4 Improver irrigation pasture cultivation
5 Offices site pasture cultivation
6 Transhumance Grazing Land
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8. Which types of livestock production is more preferred by community in the areaS.No Type of livestock Rank Reasons
1 Small Scale dairy Production
2 Meat Production (Fattening, oxen, sheep and goat)
3 Small Ruminant Production
4 Bee keeping
5 Poultry Production
6 Fishery production
7 Small Scale Integrated Livestock production
8 Camel Production
9 Equine Production
Small Scale dairy Production
10 Meat Production (Fattening, oxen sheep and goat)
11 Small Ruminant Production
9. What are types of crops community prefer to grow? WhyS.No Types of crops Rank Reasons for preference Remark
10. Do you agree with the introduction of the following crops
200
S.No Crop type Acceptance or rejection
Reason/s
Sweet potato
Cassava
Enset
Mung bean
Apple
Plum
cotton
11. What is attitude and knowledge of community about improved varieties, technologies, and other practices in the area?
a. Improved seeds __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Fertilizers ( natural and artificial) natural fertilizer( compost, manure, etc)
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Artificial fertilizers ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
c. Chemicals (insecticides, Herbicides, fungicides etc) ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
d. Farm tools and equipments( tieridger, BBM, planter, etc) _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
e. Water harvesting technologies( Geo membrane, Motor pumps, pedal and tridle pumps etc) ______________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
12. Is irrigation the priority for the community of your kebele? Why? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
13. Which type of irrigation method is common in your community? Why? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
14. Are there any problems in relation to irrigation activities, schemes etc in the area? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
15. Who plays decisive role in making decisions regarding land use in the area?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
16. What is the role of women regarding resource allocation, administration and community development?___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
17. Is there any land use conflicts in the area? If so, what are the main causes of the problems and conflict resolving mechanism? If there is any
S.No Types of land use conflict Source of conflict Mechanism of resolution
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18. How conflict of land use resolving mechanism is applied?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
19. What are the coping mechanisms of landless farmers in the area?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
20. What are local land resource administrations and management practices on communal lands?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
21. In what types of activities do the community members participate together and what motivate them to the participation?_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
22. Which types of soil and water conservation activities do communities prefer to practice?S.No Physical activities Types of spp used for
Biological conservationOther activities Remark
23. What is the attitude of community to physical and biological soil conservation campaign activities? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
203
24. What types of forestry activities do communities prefer? S.No Activities Rank Benefits and services
25. What are the legal or customary use and tenure rights of the existing forests?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
26. Is there farmers’ willingness to plant and mange trees/shrubs on different land uses? What species do farmers prefer? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
27. What future changes or amendments are required in forest development? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
28. How do people in the area get together to discuss issues of community concerns? Is the discussion through, formal community organizations? Through iddir? Religious leaders? Through esteemed leaders? Through other ways?
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
29. How do you classify, the rich, medium and the poor in your community? And what is the interest of each of these in the community?
204
S.No
The Rich The medium The Poor
Criteria Interest Criteria Interest Criteria Interest
1
2
3
4
5
30. What is importance of NGOs and investors in the area and what is the level of participation of community? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
31. Do you think that the extension service is enough? Why?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
32. Do you have any other issues to mention in relation to land use in the area?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
33. What is the experience of management and utilization of mountain area, degraded areas, communal grazing areas and closure areas? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
List of participants
S.No Name sex age Remark
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Part 3: Sectoral Offices Checklist Questionnaire
1.1 Location
A/ Distance From zonal capital (in km)_____________________________
From Semera (in km)_____________________________
B/ Boundary In the North__________
In the South__________
In the East___________
In the West _________
12. Topography and area coverage:
A/ Topography___________ B/ Altitude______________ C/ Area coverage (in km2) ___________
D/Number of kebele Administrative units: Rural_______ Urban______ Total________
1.3 Agro-ecology A/ Kola____________(in %) B/ Weina Dega_____________(in %)
C/ Dega___________________(in %) D/ Bereha __________________(in %)
1.4 Climate
A/ Temperature________________(in 0 C)
B/ Mean annual rainfall____________ (in mm)
1.5 Water bodies (if any)
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A/ River____________________
B/ Stream___________________
C/ Lake____________________
D/ Others___________________
a. Human Resources1. Population
-Total population____________ Male_____________ Female__________________
-Households________________ Male______________ Female__________________
-Average household size in the district____________ Rural__________ Urban________
2. Rural work force by age
I. 0-14___________________II. 15-60__________________
III. 61 and above_____________3. Describe the division of labor and the role of women in your district
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Infrastructures
1. Describe the type and length of road in the district
Asphalt in km_________________________
All weather road in km_________________
Dry weather road in km_________________
Total in km________________________________
2. Do you have access to telecommunication service in your woreda? 1. Yes ________ 2. No_________
If yes, list down the name of villages and town getting the service
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
3. List down towns and villages that have access to electricity
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________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Institutions
1.1Governmentalinstitutions_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A. Non-governmental institutions/ organizations1. _____________________________________________2. _____________________________________________3. _____________________________________________4. _____________________________________________
B. Community-based organizations
1.______________________________________
2.______________________________________
3._______________________________________
Do they participate in the local development, social welfare and service in the district?
1.Yes_____ 2. No_____
If yes, describe the type of activities and their scope of involvement?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.4. What are the financial institutions available in the district including rural credit and saving institutions?
Bank__________________
Insurance_________________
Credit and saving institutions______________
Others____________
If there are rural credit and saving institutions, does the community of the areas have access to credit? on what basis?_____________________
1.5 Settlement pattern: A/ Scattered_________________ B/ Clustered_________________
C/ On what does the settlement pattern based?
208
-(Clan, lineage or kinship)______________________
-Economic activity____________________________
-Religious places_____________________________
-Administrative centers________________________
D/ Is there any relationship between settlement pattern and livestock rearing and sheltering in the area? 1. Yes______ 2. No_______
If yes, how? ______________________________________________________________________________
E/ Is there any tendency to change the current settlement pattern on the part of the community in particular? 1. Yes_______ 2. No_________
If Yes, why and how?______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Name of the District Administrator____________________________
Signature_________________________ Date_____________________________
__________________________________
Official stamp
Part 4: Checklist questions for District Agricultural & Rural Development Office
1) What are the main land ownership types in the woreda?1. _________________________2. _________________________3. _________________________4. _________________________
Describe the characteristic feature of each land use types (land use pattern) prevailing in the area (in ha)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2) What are the major farming systems in the woreda?
No Farming system % in ha Total population engaged in
209
1
2
3
4
5
3) What are the major crops grown in the woreda
1. ________________, average yield in quintal/ha______2. _________________, average yield in quintal/ha _____3. ________________, average yield in quintal/ha _____4. ________________, average yield in quintal/ha _____5. ________________, average yield in quintal/ha ______6. ________________, average yield in quintal/ha ______7. ________________, average yield in quintal/ha _____8. ________________, average yield in quintal/ha _____
4) What is the average landholding of the district? _______________________________________________________
5) Is there any Irrigation scheme? Improved 1. Yes_____2. No _____
Traditional 1. Yes_____2. No _____
6) If yes describe its location, current status and beneficiaries. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7) Are there any potential Irrigable water sources in the woreda? 1.Yes_____2.No ______
8) If yes, describe them ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9) What are the major problems/constraints that hinder agricultural development in the woreda?
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
210
10) What are the possible solutions to overcome the problems?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
11) Please list down the major types of livestock and its current population in the woreda.
No. Types of animals Number of animals
12
3
4
5
12) How many veterinary services are available in the woreda? Location and type?
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Do they provide the required services? 1. Yes______ 2. No________
If No, why ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
13) How many vet. Service providers are there in the district?______________________________________________
14) Do you have livestock marketing places in your woreda? 1.Yes_______2.No_______
If yes, describe the locations and time of establishment
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
211
15) Are the existing markets enough to provide the required services? 1.Yes_______2.No_______
If no, what are other alternative areas for livestock market (indicate the name of the market place) ______________? And what is its distance from your area (in km)? ______________ Km.
16) What are the main problems regarding livestock production in the woreda? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
17) Describe development potentials related to livestock production in your woreda? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
18) Are there any problems in relation to rangeland management (such as overgrazing, bush encroachment, agricultural land expansion and grazing land conflict)? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
19) Are there any traditional land management practices in the area? Describe, if any ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
20) Are there any land use conflicts in the area (such as conflicting interests between pastoralists and farmers)? Describe the source of conflicts. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
21) Please describe the situation of extension service in the woreda; i.e., its availability, extent of implementation, and problems encountered. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
212
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
22) Are there any (livestock specific-trained) Development Agents (DAs) in the District?
1. Yes_______2. No________
23) If your answer is no, have you encountered any problems regarding Development Agents assignments in the district? 1. yes_______2. No_________
If yes, please specify__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
24. What are the major types of crops grown?
No Crops Area, ha Yield qt/ha
1 Rain fed agriculture
1999/2000 2000/01 2001/2002 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/2002
2 Irrigated agriculture
25. Farming systems
How many kebeles are engaged in the following farming systems (HH or %)
No No of kebeles Mixed farming
Pastorals Agro-pastoralist
213
Name of District Agricultural and Rural Development Office Head____________________________
Signature_________________________ Date____________________________
_______________________________________
Official stamp
Part 5: Checklist questions for district Health Office
A/ List the number of health institutions in the district.
Number Type of institutions Number Remark/status
1 Hospital
2 Health center
3 Clinic
4 Health post
5 Private clinic
6 Rural drug vender
7 NGO clinic
8 Health post
Total
B/ How many health professionals are there in the above institutions?
Number Type of profession Number
Male Female Total
1 Physician
2 Health officer
3 Nurse
214
4 Health assistant
5 Pharmacist
6 Lab.Techinician
7 Sanitary
8 X-ray tech.
9 Health extension workers
10 Others(specify)
C/ Describe the health coverage of the district ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
D/ What are the top ten diseases that are responsible for morbidity and mortality in the district?
1. ______________________2. ______________________3. ______________________4. ______________________5. ______________________6. ______________________7. ______________________8. ______________________9. ______________________10. ______________________
E/ What are the major health problems in the district?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Name of District Health Office Head____________________________
215
Signature_________________________ Date_____________________________
_______________________________________
Official stamp
Checklist questions for District Education Office
1. How many schools are there in the woreda?
1-4________________________ 5-8________________________
9-10_______________________ 11-12______________________
Preparatoryschool____________TVT________________________ Colleges____________________
2. How many students are attending in the above schools in 2002 E.C.?
Table 1: Number of student and coverage
Descriptions
Number of students and coverage Share of female students
(%)Male Female Total Coverage
(%)
1-4
5-8
9-10-
11-12
Preparatory
TVT
College
Total
3. What is the total number of students drop out in2002 E.C.?
Male_______ Female______ Total_______
4. What are the reasons for the students drop out in the woreda?
216
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Is there non-formal education structure in the woreda? 1. Yes______2.No______
If yes, how many people are attending?
Adult: Male______ Female_______ Total________
Children: Male______ Female_______ Total________
6. Who established the non-formal schools?
A/ Government___ B/ NGOs_______ C/ Government and NGOs__________
7. Please, indicate:
A/ Adult literacy level______________________ (in %)
B/ School age children______________________ (in number and %)
-Male___________ Female____________ Total_______________
C/ Education coverage of the district________________ (in %)
8. Describe the ratio of class to student and teacher to student in the district average by the year 2000 E.C (for formal education system).
Table 2: Class and teacher to student ratio
Description Class to student ratio Teacher to student ratio
1-4
5-8
9-10
11-12
Preparatory
9. What is the average educational coverage of the district by cycle and sex?
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
217
10. What are the major problems regarding?
A/ Formal education
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
B/ Non-formal education in the district?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
11. Describe major problems and possible solutions regarding formal and non-formal education?
Problems____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Suggestedsolutions________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
12. Specify the number of teachers in the district by profession?
Table: 3 Qualification of teachers in the District
Type of profession Male Female Total
11.1.1.1.1.1 Degree
Diploma
TTI
11.1.1.1.1.1.1 Total
Name of District Education Office Head____________________________
Signature_________________________ Date_____________________________
__________________________________
Official stamp
Checklist questions for Women’s Affairs Office
1. What is the situation of women and girls regarding:
218
A/ Access to resource
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
B/ Resource control
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
C/Decision-making roles
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
D/ Schooling (for girls)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
E/ Marriage and partner selection
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
F/ Women participation in administration and development activities in the district
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
219
2. What are the major problems of women in the district in economic aspects?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What measures are being taken to bridge the widening gap between male and female in social and economic aspects?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Could you mention some obstacles pertaining to female education in the district?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5 Explain briefly the prevailing harmful traditional practices in the district?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. What measures did your office take to prevent theses social problems?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
220
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Did your office make any progress in confronting theses problems?
1. Yes____2. No_____ If yes mention these improvements?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8. Mention some problems your office is currently facing?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9. What do you think should be done to stop these problems?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Name of District Women’s Affairs Office, Head____________________________
Signature_________________________ Date___________________________
__________________________________
Official stamp
Food Security and DPPA Coordination Office of the district
1. How many food insecured kebeles are there in the district:
A/ household Male____________ Female_______________Total___________________
B/Size of population: Male__________ Female____________ Total_________________
221
2. Type and amount of food items distributed (in Kg,liter,or any other measurement) in the district in :
2000 E.C____________2001 E.C_________ 2002 E.C____________
3 .Is it decreasing or increasing?__________________
Why?___________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What are the eligibility criteria for screening the people for food aid?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. What are the major causes that led to food shortage in the district?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Is the number of vulnerable people increasing or decreasing? ____________________________________________
Ifincreasingwhy? ______________________________________________________________________________
Ifdecreasing,whyandhow? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. What is the attitude of the community towards food aid? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8. Do the people incline to be helped for unlimited time of period or not? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9. Is there any sign of dependency syndromes in the area regarding food aid? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
10. If you have any other issue to raise regarding food insecurity and food aid in the district, please state;____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
222
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Name of District Food security and DPPA Coordination office head____________________________
Signature_________________________
Date_____________________________
__________________________________
Official stamp
Cooperative Promotion office of the District
1. Total number of cooperatives in the district___________________
2. Types of cooperatives in the district:
A. ___________________________________B. ___________________________________C. ___________________________________D. ___________________________________E. ___________________________________
3. Total number of members of cooperatives: Male_________ Female__________ Total___________
4. Please, indicate the achievements of each of the cooperatives so far: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the attitude of the community in general and beneficiaries in particular towards cooperatives in the district?
A/Community_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
B/ Beneficiaries
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. What are the major problems you encountered regarding cooperative promotion in the district? ____________________________________________________________________________________________
223
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Name of District Cooperative Promotion Office Head____________________________
Signature_________________________ Date_____________________________
_____________________________
Official stamp
Agronomy
1. Are you engaged in crop production? _____Yes=1, No=2, If yesa. what are the crops you produced in the last cropping seasons(Meher)
Type of crops Total production For consumption
(quintals)
For animal feed(qt)
For sale Remark
Cereal Area(ha) Yield(Qt) Volume sold
Unit price
1 2 3 4 Cash crops 1 2 Oil Crops 1 2 Others
b. What are the crops you produced in the last cropping seasons(Belg)
Type of crops Total production For consumption
(quintals)
For animal feed(qt)
For sale Remark
Cereal Area(ha) Yield(Qt) Volume sold
Unit price
1 2
3 4 Cash crops 1 2 3
224
Oil Crops 1 2 3 Others
2. How many times do you produce per annum on a given plot of land? _________
Once =1 Twice =2 Three times =3 More than three times=4
2.1. Do you practice small-scale irrigation? ________ Yes = 1 No = 2 If the answer is yes to the above, how many (ha.) of land is allocated for each type of
irrigation in ha;
1. Traditional (ha) _______2. Modern (ha) _______water harvesting ______ (ha)
What benefits you obtained from irrigation in the last 3 years? ___________
Better production = 1 Better incomes_= 2Sustainable food supply = 3 other benefits = 4
What are the crops you produced in the last cropping seasons under irrigation?
Type of crops Total production For consumption (quintals)
For animal feed(qt)
For sale At which month
Remark Cereal Area(ha
)Yield(Qt
)Volume sold
Unit price
1 2
3 4 Cash crops 1 2 3 Oil Crops 1 2 3 Others
3. How far you are interested to adopt new variety of crop that are suitable to the area and more productive than the usual __________
Interested = 1 somewhat interested = 2, after testing = 3 Not interested = 4 other, specify = 5 _______
225
4. Are you interested to cultivate the following crops? If yes, please show your interest in order of your preference 1,2, 3…/ No
Crop types (Rain fed) Response, If yes 1, 2,3…/No.)
Crop types (Rain fed) Response, If yes 1, 2, 3 3…/No)
Sorghum (¥>§ Onion (ቀይሽንኩርት)
Maize (በቆሎ) Tomato (ቲማቲም)
Finger millet (ዳጉሳ) Potato (ድንች)
Teff (ጤፍ) Haricot bean(አደንጎሬ)
Rice(ሩዝ) Garlic ( ነጭ ሽንኩርት)
Barley (ገብስ) Banana (ሙዝ)
Faba bean (ባቄላ) Papaya (ፓፓያ)
Wheat (ስንዴ) Mango (ማንጎ)
Soya bean ( አኩሪ አተር) Apple (አፕል)
Chickpea (ሽንብራ) Sweet potato(ሥ/ድንች)
Sesame (ሠሊጥ)
Niger seed (ኑግ)
Cotton(ጥጥ)
Pepper(በርበሬ)
5. Do you practice crop rotation? ________ Yes =1 No =2a. if yes types of crops rotated
If the area is using Meher and Belg
First Year Second Year
Type of crop in Meher Type of crop grown in Belg Type of crop in Meher Type of crop in Belg
.______________then ________________then _________________then _____________
.______________then ________________then _________________then _____________
.______________then ________________then _________________then _____________
.______________then ________________then _________________then _____________
.______________then ________________then _________________then _____________
If the area is using only Meher
o _____________then___________________then ___________________
o _____________then___________________then ___________________
o _____________then___________________then ___________________
226
If the area is using only Belg
o _____________then___________________then ___________________
o _____________then___________________then ___________________
o _____________then___________________then ___________________
b. If no why _______________________________________________________________________
6. Do you practice intercropping?__________ Yes =1 No =2
If yes to the above, what type of crops do you grow together?
_________________ & __________________
_________________ & ___________________
_________________ & ____________________
7. What Type of inputs and farm equipments you used for cropping activities in the last cropping season
Type of input For rain fed For irrigation Seeds Quantity Unit cost in
BirrTotal cost (birr)
Quantity Unit cost in Birr
Total cost (birr)
Fertilizers
Agro-chemicals
Farm tools/equipments
8. What types of seeds and planting methods do you use?
S.No Crop type Improved seed local seedPlanting method Area covered Planting method Area covered
227
9. How was utilization for last cropping season
Crops grown
Existing Crops
Labor purchased/rented for 2008/09 crop productionFor Land preparation weeding Harvesting Threshing and storing
man-day oxen day man-day man-day man-day
Rain fed F H Unit price
F H Unit price
F H Unit price
F H Unit price
F H Unit price
Irrigation
N.B F= family labor H=haired labor10. Are there problems regarding insect pest, disease and weeds?_____ Yes= 1 No =2
If yes what are the common pests, disease, and weeds
Common insect pests Host crop Control measure
Common Weeds Host crop Control measure
Common Diseases Host crop Control measure
228
11. What are the farming tools you usually use for cultivation?
Farm equipments Activities performed Remark
12. What are the major problems you encounter on crop production and possible solutions
Farming system Problems Rank of severity Suggested solutionsUnder rain fed
Under irrigation
Livestock (HH)
1. Do you have own livestock? (1=Yes, 2= no)________. 2. If yes, mention the types and number of livestock that you have with their purpose?
229
Type of animals Unit
Totalamount
Purpose1= for home meat, 2= for draught power, 3= for fattening, 4= for sale, 5= for Milk, 6= for Egg, 7= For Breeding, 8= others (specify)
Amount for mentioned purpose
Income earned (Birr) from sale of livestock, rent, products and byproducts
CattleOxenBullsCow
- Local
- improvedHeifers
- Local
- improvedCalves
- male
- femaleSheep/Goat
SheepGoats
EquinesCamelsHorsesMuleDonkeyBeehives
- Traditional
- Transitional
- ModernPoultry
- Local
- improvedFish2. What are the main problems of livestock rearing? (Rank from highest to lowest)
2 .1 1st ____ 2nd ______3rd ________4th _________5th _________ 6
th_________ 7th--------------------
Shortage of feed = 1 shortage of capital = 2 Livestock diseases_= 3 scarcity of water supply= 4 management = 5, Luck of improved forage seed, cut and seedling 6 =.impact of chemicals application for apiculture = 7. If others, please specify------------------------------------------------2.2. If the problem for (Q 2.1) is Shortage of feed what are/is the reasons?
230
Expansion of farmlands = 1 Erratic Rainfall = 2
Expansion of the size of grazing stock = 3, Termite invasion = 4
Lack of improved seed, seedlings abs cuts=5, If others, = 7 specify-----------------
Lack of awareness and technical support=6
3. What is the dominant source of feed for your livestock at each season? (Put X sign)
Type of feed sources At wet season At dry season
Natural Grazing and browsing
Crop residues
Hay
Industrial by products
Improved forages
If any Other, specify
4. What are the main grazing and browsing plant species in this area?
S.No Grasses Shrubs and bush Trees
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
5. Describe type of grazing system commonly practiced in your grazing land.
S.No Type of Grazing system Rank (1st, 2nd ….) Reasons At present In the future
1 Free Grazing2 Rotational Grazing3 Tethered Grazing4 Zero Grazing5 If any other; please
specify--------------6. If the answer for Q. 5 is not, what measures should be taken to use properly the surplus feed resources? --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. What strategy you practiced for developing improved forage? (Circle answer(s))
1= Backyard forage development system 2= Over saw forage development system 3= Closure area forage development system 4= Inter cropping 5= under sawing 6= Hedge system
231
7= others (mention) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. What is the water source for your livestock that serve more than 3 months within a year?
1 = Lake 5= piped water2 = River 6= Hand dug well
3 = springs 7= pond 4= Dam 8= taped water
9. Round trip distance to reach to each Q.8 water source for livestock? -------- Hrs. 10. What problems you encountered associated with water; circle answer(s)?
1= shortage, 2= remoteness, 3= water born diseases4= others (specify) ------------------------------------------------------
11. Have you got any veterinary services? (Yes/No)-----------------------
12. .Do you pay for the Vet clinic service? ______ Yes=1 No=2
13. If yes; how much did you pay in the last 1-year? _________
Below 20 birr = 1 20-50 birr =2, 60-80 birr= 3, 80-100 birr=4 above 100 birr=5
14. Are there any land use conflicts in the area (such as conflicting interests between pastoralists and farmers, transhumance and sedentary farmers)? Describe the source of conflicts.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15. Do you have a source of fish? (Yes=1, No=2)-------------------
16. If your answer is yes for question no. 15; what are your fish sources? (1= Lake, 2= River 4= pond 3= Dam 5= others (mention)__________________
17. Do you agree with the following Land Utilization Types (LUT) for your locality?
Sr.no LUTs Rank (1st,2nd ---) Reason
At present In the future
1 Sedentary grazing land
Communal grazing land
Individual grazing land
2 Stubble grazing land
3 Enclosure areas pasture cultivation land
4 Improve irrigation pasture cultivation land
5 Offices site pasture cultivation land
6 Transhumance grazing land
7 Combined forage production with crop
8 Combined forage production with forest
9 Improved forage( seeds, seed lings and cuts) land
18. Proposed land utilization types on livestock production and farmers interest on it.
232
18.1. LUTs
S.No. Proposed LUTs Indicate the interest you are going to engaged in the activity in rank (1, 2, 3………….)
1 Fattening
1.1 cattle
1.2 sheep
1.3 Goats
1.4 Camel
2 Dairy using
2.1 Local variety
2.2 Improved variety
3 Apiculture using
3.1 Traditional bee hives
3.2 Transitional bee hives
3.3 Modern bee hives
4 Poultry production using
4.1 Local variety
4.2 Improved variety
5 Fishery production using
5.1 Communal water sources
5.2 pond
6 Camel production
7 Integrated livestock production
18.2 If you are interested in Apicultural production, what will be the feed sources you are proposing? (1= Natural forest, 2= Artificial forest, 3= Improved forage)______
1 Animal health
1.1 What are the most sever disease of cattle in the area.(rank)
1. CBPP------- 2. Bovine pastreulosis ------- 3. Anthrax --------- 4. black leg-------
5. Brucellosis --------- 6. T.B --------- 7. Trypanosomiasis --------- 8. Internal parasite --------- 9. External parasite ---------
1.2 What are the most sever disease of camel in the area.(rank)
1. Trypanosomiasis --------- 2. Unknown camel disease--------- 3. Internal parasite --------- 4. External parasite ---------
1.3 What are the most sever disease of goat and sheep in the area.(rank)
1. PPR --------- 2.CCPP ------- 3.ovine pastreulosis--------- 4. Sheep and goat------
233
5. Internal parasite --------- 6. External parasite ---------.
1.4. What are the most sever disease of donkeys in the area. (Rank)
1. African horse sickness--------- 2. Epizootic lymphngitis--------- 3. Internal parasite--------- 4. External parasite---------
1.5 Number of animals that are treated and vaccinated
Type of animals
Infe
ctio
us
dise
ases
tryp
anos
omia
sis In
tern
al
para
site
Ext
erna
l pa
rasi
te
Out breaks
BP
OP
CB
PP
Ant
hrax
BG
Sho
at
pox
AH
S
CC
PP
PP
R
Bovine
Camel
Goat and sheep
Donkeys
1.6 Ho w you solve when your animal faces birth complexity (dystocia, still birth)
A. By local treatment B. veterinary clinics C .others( specify)
1.7 Which is the most severe problem of mechanical injury in the area?
1. Branding --------- 2.bush torn--------- 3. Horn torn --------- 4. Heyna bite--------- 5.Fox bite---------
1.8 What is your nearest veterinary health service?
Veterinary institution Distance in (km) Time in hour or day
veterinary clinic
post veterinary clinic
234
1.9 have you ever received animal health education on diseases prevention and control?
1. Yes 2. No
If the answer is yes, please specify -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11.2 Annex 2: Collected tabular data
235
Table 7: Afar Region Roads Network
s/n Authors /controlled by/
Roads level
Total in km
Regional road
coverage per
1000km2
Regional road
coverage per 1000 people
Remark Asphalt /km/
All weather
roads /km/
Dry weather
roads /km/
4. Federal Roads Authority 1290 365 172 1827 17.37 1.17
1.1. Awash Tabia- Eretria boundary 625 625 1.2. geblayitu- Aysaiyta 54 54 1.3. Main road/Dobi/- Galafi 40 40 1.4. Awash – Afar region boundary 15 15 1.5. Serdo - Afdera 198 198 1.6. Mille–Chifra–Amhara region border 123 123 1.7. Aballa- Erebti –Afdera 235 235 1.8. Mille – Burqa 85 85 1.9. Komame - Shewarobit 40 40 1.10. Hida –Yallo 71 71 Under constr1.11. Semera -Didigsala-Yallo 169 169 Under constr1.12. Aliyuamba -Dulecha-Awash Arba 95 95 Design revised1.13. Aballa -Liele 77 77 ››
5. Regional Rural Roads Authority 413.5 356 769.5 4.34 0.29
1.1. Semera –Dubti 11.5 11.5 1.2. Aysaita –Dichoto 35 39 74 1.3. Aysaita -Afambo 35 35 1.4. Kasa mender - Dalifage 100 100 1.5. Kasa mender – Hida 102 102 1.6. Main road – Melka sedi 7 7 1.7. Main road- Melka worer 8 8 1.8. Melka sedi – Melka worer 11 11 1.9. Kuiha - Aballa 35 35 1.10. Dessa – Berahille 45 45
1.11 Zoble – Kelewan 24 24 1.11. Markyu – Muslle- Kori 60 60
1.12. Dalifage –Farssi- Semurobi 120 120 1.13. Atsebi - Koneba 38 38 1.14. Allele subla- Harra 33 33 1.15. Sawni –Ma awi-Adekuwa 50 50 1.16. Melka worer- Dofin- Bolham 16 16 6. Low quality community roads 795 795 8.35 0.56
3.1. Dubti - Detbaheri 33 33 3.2. Berahille-Ahimed ella 50 50 3.3. Shaigubi - Berahille 46 46 3.4. Koneba - Damayile 27 27 3.5. Dameyil – Berahille 30 30 3.6. Awsh 7 kilo - Laburei 71 71 3.7 Aballa – Wolema 60 60 3.8 Elide ar - Amino 35 35
3.9. Main road - Debel 10 10 3.10. Aballa- Berahille 102 102 3.11. Berahille - Adekewa 70 70 3.12. Mille – Gure ella 60 60 3.13. Aballa – Erebti 75 75 3.14. Aballa - Geliso 35 35 3.15. Kalli – Hurmu - Megalle 61 61 3.16. Hanledebei – Main roa 30 30
Total 1,290 778.5 1,323 3,391.5 21.721 1.47
Source: Afar Region Rural Roads Authority NB: - The road coverage is calculated only by all weather condition roads
1
236
GPS Points of field observations at randomly selected kebeles
Dubti woreda
No. Northing Easting Elevation (masl)
Kebele Specific locality Descriptions
1 37P 0746890 1299554 375 BEBEDETA Bordering Aysaita woreda
Very vast levelland with silty soil texture extended by sandy soil texture (towards Aysaita )which is an extension of KURUB MEDA, shallow soil depth, wind erosion is evident;
2 37P 0730732 1296659 372 DEBELINA Bordering Aysaita woreda
Alluvial and aeolian deposits, sandy loam soil texture, poorly drained
3 37P 0735923 1304028 372 AYROLAFNA GEBELAYTU
KURUB MEDA Level land devoid of vegetation with silt soil texture, aeolian and alluvial depostion, seasonal ponding, shallow soil depth, poorly drained
4 37P 0730955 1298280 357 DEBELNA HELEBAYIRE
HYDRO FLUME Almost level land with silty clay loam soil texture, alluvial deposits, moderately well drained
5 37P 0728752 1298525 370 DEBELNA HELEBAYIRE TENDAHO
SUGAR PLANTATION
Gently slopping plain, to some extent fine textured, dominantly silty clay loam to loam soil texture, flood plain of Awash river, moderatly well drained, very deep soil, seasonally flooded very suitable for sugar cane plantation;
6 37p 0719496 1303804 434 GEBELAYTU Sandy surface adjoining by silty soil texture with vast rock out crop coverage, open shrub land, seasonal ponding and flooding especially on the left side of the main road to Aysaita, very shallow soil depth
Afambo woreda
No.
Northing Easting Elevation (masl)
Kebele Specific locality
Descriptions
1 37P0784489
1272419
340 MEGO Level land, heavy clay , very deep fertile alluvial soil, good vegetation growth, extensive farm land;well drained soil.
2 37P0776653
1274971
352 ALASABOLO
Level land, silty clay loam to sandy loam, extensive farm land, maize is the dominant crop followed by sisame, pepper, onion, date palm, well drained, very deep and fertile alluvial soil, highly suitable for horticultural crops;
Mille woreda
No.
Northing Easting Elevation (masl)
Kebele Specific locality
Descriptions
1 37P0686506
1261263
566 GIGANA BURTELE
Dry coarse sandy texture, Medium gradient hill with extensive rockout crop and surface coarse fragment
Northing Easting Elevation (masl)
Kebele Specific locality
Descriptions
37P 0767744 1277541 350 BERGA Flat land, alluvial deposits, very deep sandy loam texture, moderatly well drained37P 0769171 1281099 350 HINELE DEN Level land, wood land trees, seasonally flooded area, Fine textured hydromorphic soils
(gleysols) in association with vertisols, trees are dried due to roots suffocation37P 0777028 1275131 357 MAMULE Bordering to Afambo woreda the land form is somewhat Gently slopping plain, crop land
with silty clay soil texture of which partial area of land dominantly covered by exotic Prosopis juliflora with sporadic gravel and coarse soil fragment coverage.
Ewa woreda
No Northing Easting Elevatio Kebele Specific Descriptions
237
. n (masl) locality1 037p
06059331310536
987 BADULE Awra river dam
Composite land form – plain with undulating land feature, alluvial origin with medium soiltexture, very deep and well drained, better vegetation cover
Chifra woreda
No.
Northing Easting Elevation (masl)
Kebele Specific locality
Descriptions
1 37p 0612142
1284654
912 CHIFRA Fluvial soil type, Hilly and undulating, high risk of river bank erosion, gabion check dams are constructed for erosion controll.
2 37P 0611527
1283669
928 NEAR CHIFRA
Level land form, alluvial soil with sity sandy texture and very deep, moderatly well drained, productive area but large active gullies.
3 37P 0611516
1283143
925 TINISH CHIFRA
Very fertile soil of alluvial and colluvial origin with loam soil texture, shrub land with scatered Acacia species, good for crop production, severe gully erosion.
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