Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation

8/13/2019 IndonesiaMalaysia confrontation

1/31

IndonesiaMalaysia confrontation 1

Indonesia Malaysia confrontation

Indonesia Malaysia confrontation

Control of the island of Borneo, which is divided between Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei, was the main issue behind the war.

Date 1963 1966

Location Malay Peninsula, Borneo

Result Commonwealth victory. Suharto replaced Sukarno as the Supreme Commander of the Indonesian Armed Forces. Normalization of diplomatic relationship. Indonesia accepts the formation of Malaysia. Peace Treaty.

Belligerents

Malaysia

Before Federation:

Malaya North Borneo Sarawak Singapore

United Kingdom Australia New Zealand

Indonesia

Commanders and leaders Tuanku Syed Putra (1962 1965) Sultan Ismail Nasiruddin Shah (1965 1966) Tunku Abdul Rahman

(political) Abdul Razak Hussein (1964 1966) Walter Walker

(military)

Sukarno Omar Dani Maraden Panggabean

Casualties and losses 114 killed 181 wounded

590 killed 222 wounded

Civilian casualties 36 killed 53 wounded 4 taken prisoner
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maraden_Panggabeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Omar_Danihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sukarnohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Walter_Walker_%28General%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abdul_Razak_Husseinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tunku_Abdul_Rahmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sultan_Ismail_Nasiruddin_Shahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuanku_Syed_Putrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singaporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Singapore.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarawakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Crown_Colony_of_Sarawak_%281946%29.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Borneohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_North_Borneo.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federation_of_Malayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Malaya.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sukarnohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suhartohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commonwealth_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borneohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malay_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borneohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Control_of_the_island_of_Borneo.png


2/31


Manila Accord between Philippines, Federation of Malaya and

Indonesia (31 July 1963)

1966 ABC report discussing the Indonesian

political context of Konfrontasi

Part of a series on the

History of Malaysia

Prehistoric Malaysia

Early kingdoms

Chi Tu 100 BC 7th AD

Gangga Negara 2nd 11th

Langkasuka 2nd 14th

Pan Pan 3rd 5th

Srivijaya 7th 13th

Majapahit 13th 15th

Kedah Kingdom 630 1136

Rise of Muslim states
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kedah_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Majapahithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Srivijayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pan_Panhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Langkasukahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gangga_Negarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chi_Tuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prehistoric_Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:History_of_Malaysia.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:History_of_Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ASukarno_konfrontasi%2C_indonesia%27s_undeclared_war%2C_ABC_1966.webmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australian_Broadcasting_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AManila_Accord_%2831_July_1963%29.djvuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federation_of_Malayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manila_Accord


3/31


Kedah Sultanate 1136 present

Brunei Sultanate 15th present

Malacca Sultanate 1402 1511

Sulu Sultanate 1450 1899

Johor Sultanate 1528 present

Colonial era

Portuguese Malacca 1511 1641

Dutch Malacca 1641 1824

Straits Settlements 1826 1946

British Malaya 1874 1946

Federated Malay States 1895 1946

Unfederated Malay States 1909 1946

Kingdom of Sarawak 1841 1946

North Borneo 1882 1963

Japanese occupationof Malaya / of Borneo

1941 1945

Malayan Union 1946 1948

Federation of Malaya 1948 1963

Independence era

Independence of Malaya 1957

Malaysia Agreement 1963

Proclamation 1963 present

By topic

Communications Military

Timeline

Malaysia portal

v t e [1]

The Indonesian Malaysian Confrontation during 1963 1966 was Indonesia's political and armed opposition tothe creation of Malaysia. It is also known by its Indonesian/Malay name Konfrontasi . The creation of Malaysia was

the amalgamation of the Federation of Malaya (now West Malaysia), Singapore and the crown colony/British

protectorates of Sabah and Sarawak (collectively known as British Borneo, now East Malaysia) in September 1963.

The confrontation was an undeclared war with most of the action occurring in the border area between Indonesia and

East Malaysia on the island of Borneo (known as Kalimantan in Indonesia). The conflict was characterized byperiods of escalation and stalemate, set within tactics of low-level brinkmanship. Combat was usually conducted by
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brinkmanshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalimantanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borneohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Undeclared_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_Borneohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarawakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sabahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_protectoratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_protectoratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crown_colonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singaporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peninsular_Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federation_of_Malayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malay_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Malaysia&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:History_of_Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_Malaysian_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_communications_in_Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proclamation_of_Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malaysia_Agreementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federation_of_Malaya_Independence_Act_1957http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federation_of_Malayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malayan_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_occupation_of_Malayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_occupation_of_Malayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Borneohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Sarawakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unfederated_Malay_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federated_Malay_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_Malayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Straits_Settlementshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_Malaccahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_Malaccahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johor_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sultanate_of_Suluhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malacca_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Brunei%23Conversion_to_Islam_and_%22Golden_Age%22http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kedah_Sultanate


4/31


5/31


Kutai 300s

Tarumanagara 358 669

Kalingga 500s 600s

Srivijaya 600s 1200s

Sunda 669 1579

Medang 752 1006

Kahuripan 1006 1045

Kediri 1045 1221

Singhasari 1222 1292

Majapahit 1293 1500

Rise of Muslim states

Spread of Islam 1200 1600

Ternate Sultanate 1257 present

Samudera Pasai Sultanate 1267 1521

Malacca Sultanate 1400 1511

Cirebon Sultanate 1445 1677

Demak Sultanate 1475 1548

Aceh Sultanate 1496 1903

Pagaruyung Kingdom 1500 1825

Banten Sultanate 1526

1813Mataram Sultanate 1500s 1700s

European colonisation

Portuguese 1512 1850

Dutch East India Co. 1602 1800

Dutch East Indies 1800 1942

Emergence of Indonesia

National Awakening 1908 1942

Japanese occupation 1942 1945

National Revolution 1945 1950

Independence
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_National_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_National_Awakeninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_India_Company_in_Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portuguese_colonialism_in_Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mataram_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Banten_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pagaruyung_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aceh_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demak_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sultanate_of_Cirebonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malacca_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samudera_Pasai_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ternate_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spread_of_Islam_in_Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Majapahithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singhasarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kediri_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kahuripanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medang_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sunda_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Srivijayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalinggahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tarumanagarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kutai


6/31


Liberal democracy 1950 1957

Guided Democracy 1957 1965

Transition 1965 1966

New Order 1966 1998

Reformasi 1998 present

Timeline

Indonesia portal

v t e [2]

Political situation

Before Indonesia's Confrontation of Malaysia, Sukarno had sought to develop an independent Indonesian foreign

policy, focused on the acquisition of Netherlands New Guinea as a residual issue from the Indonesian Revolution,

and establishing Indonesia's credentials as a notable international power operating distinct interests from those of the

West and East. Indonesia had relentlessly pursued its claim to Netherlands New Guinea during the period

1950-1962, despite facing multiple setbacks in the UN General Assembly to have its claim recognised by the

international community. Indonesia was an important country in developing the Non-Alligned Movement, hosting

the Bandung Conference in 1955.

Following the Indonesian crisis in 1958, which had included the Permesta rebellion, Indonesia emerged as a notable

and rising military power in Southeast Asia. With the influx of Soviet arms aid, Indonesia was able to advance its

diplomatic claims to Netherlands N ew Guinea more f orcefu lly. The d iplomatic dispute re ached its climax in 1962

when Indonesia launched a substantial campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations upon Netherlands New

Guinea. While the infiltration forces were soundly defeated by Dutch and indigenous forces, Indonesia was able to

lend credence to the threat of an Indonesian invasion of Netherlands New Guinea. Facing mounting diplomatic

pressure from the Indonesians and the Americans, who were anxious to maintain Indonesia beyond Soviet control,

the Dutch yielded and agreed to a diplomatic compromise, allowing the Indonesian's to gain governance of the

territory in exchange for pledging to hold a self-determination plebiscite in the territory before 1969. Thus by the

close of 1962 Indonesia had achieved a considerable diplomatic victory, and possibly emboldening its self

perception as a notable regional power. It was in the context of Indonesia's recent diplomatic victory in the

Netherlands New Guinea dispute, that Indonesia cast its attention to the British proposal for a unified Malaysian

state.Prior to the British Government announcing the East of Suez policy, the British Government had begun to reevaluate

in the late 1950s its force commitment in the Far East. As a part of its withdrawal from its Southeast Asian colonies,

the UK moved to combine its colonies in North Borneo with the Federation of Malaya (which had become

independent from Britain in 1957), and Singapore (which had become self-governing in 1959). In May 1961, the UK

and Malayan governments proposed a larger federation called Malaysia, encompassing the states of Malaya, Sabah

(then North Borneo), Sarawak, Brunei, and Singapore. Initially, Indonesia was mildly supportive of the proposed

Malaysia, although the PKI (Partai Komunis Indonesia Indonesian Communist Party) was strongly opposed to

it. [3]

In Brunei, it was unclear whether the Sultan would support Brunei joining the proposed Malaysian state because of

the implied reduction of his political office, and Brunei's oil revenues ensured Brunei's financial independence.Furthermore, a Brunei politician, Dr. AM Azahari bin Sheikh Mahmud, while supporting a unified North Borneo,
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Borneohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarawakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruneihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singaporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singaporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruneihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarawakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Borneohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sabahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federation_of_Malayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_of_Suezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Permestahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bandung_Conferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Non-Alligned_Movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Indonesia&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:History_of_Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_Indonesian_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Post-Suharto_erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Order_%28Indonesia%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transition_to_the_New_Orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guided_Democracy_in_Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liberal_democracy_period_in_Indonesia


7/31


also opposed wider federation. In 1961, he had sounded out Indonesia about possible aid in training Borneo recruits;

General Nasution hinted at moral support, and Soebandrio, the foreign minister and head of intelligence, hinted at

supplying more substantial aid. Azahari was a leftist who had fought in Indonesia in their war for independence. [3]

Following these meetings Indonesia began training in Kalimantan a small volunteer force, the North Kalimantan

National Army (TNKU).

On 8 December 1962, the TNKU staged an insurrection

the Brunei Revolt. The insurrection was an abject failure,the poorly trained and equipped forces were unable to seize key objectives such as capturing the Sultan of Brunei,

seize the Brunei oil fields, or take European hostages. Within hours of the insurrection being launched, British forces

based in Singapore were being mobilised for a prompt response.

The failure of the insurrection was clear within 30 hours when Gurkha troops secured Brunei town and ensured the

Sultan's safety. On 16 December, the British Far East Command claimed that all major rebel centres had been

occupied. Several UK and Gurkha infantry battalions were deployed to Brunei, with significant elements in Kuching

and Tawau because the TNKU had the support of the Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) in Sarawak.

Some 4,000 Kelabits from the 5th Division were also mobilised to help prevent the TNKU's escape to Indonesia.

Mopping up operations continued until 18 May 1963, when the last elements of the TNKU, including its

commander, were captured. [4]

The degree of Indonesian support for the TNKU remains a subject of debate. While Indonesia at the time denied

direct involvement, it did sympathize with the TNKU's objectives to destabilize the proposed Malaysian state.

Following the TNKU's military setback in Brunei, on 20 January 1963 Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio

announced that Indonesia would pursue a policy of Konfrontasi with Malaysia, reversing Indonesia's previous policy

of compliance with the British proposal. This was followed by the first recorded infiltration of Indonesian forces on

12 April 1963 when a police station in Tebedu, Sarawak, was attacked. [5]

People and terrain

In 1961, the island of Borneo was divided into four separate states. Kalimantan, comprising four Indonesian

provinces, was located in the south of the island. In the north, separated from Kalimantan by a border some 1000

miles long, were the Sultanate of Brunei (a British protectorate) and two colonies of the United Kingdom

(UK) British North Borneo (later renamed Sabah) and Sarawak.

The three UK territories totalled some 1.5 million people, about half of them Dayaks. Sarawak had a population of

about 900,000, while Sabah's was 600,000 and Brunei's was around 80,000. Among Sarawak's non-Dayak

population, 31% were Chinese, and 19% were Malay. Among non-Dayaks in Sabah, 21% were Chinese and 7%

were Malay; Brunei's non-Dayak population was 28% Chinese and 54% Malay. There was a large Indonesian

population in Tawau in southern Sabah and a large and economically active Chinese one in Sarawak. Despite their

population size, Dayaks were spread through the country in village longhouses and were not politically organised.

Sarawak was divided into five administrative Divisions. Sabah, whose capital city was Jesselton (Kota Kinabalu) onthe north coast, was divided into several Residencies; those of the Interior and Tawau were on the border.

Apart from either end, the border generally followed a ridge line throughout its length, rising to almost 2,500 metres

in the Fifth Division. In the First Division, there were some roads, including a continuous road from Kuching to

Brunei and around to Sandakan on the east coast of Sabah. There were no roads in the Fourth and Fifth Divisions or

the Interior Residency, and in Third Division, there was only the coast road, which was some 150 miles from the

border. Mapping was generally poor, as British maps of the country showed very little topographic detail. Indonesian

maps were worse; veterans recall a single black and white sheet for all of Kalimantan torn from a school text book

in 1964. [6]

Kalimantan was divided into four provinces, of which East Kalimantan and West Kalimantan face the border. The

capital of the West is Pontianak on the west coast, about 100 miles (160 km) from the border, and the capital of the

East is Samarinda on the south coast, some 220 miles (350 km) from the border. There were no roads in the border
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=West_Kalimantanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Kalimantanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dayakshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Borneohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Provinces_of_Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalimantanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federated_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Subandriohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brigade_of_Gurkhashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_Far_East_Commandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sultan_of_Bruneihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brunei_Revolthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_National_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soebandriohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abdul_Haris_Nasution


8/31


area other than some in the west, and no road existed linking West and East Kalimantan.

The lack, on both sides of the border, of roads and tracks suitable for vehicles meant that movement was limited to

foot tracks mostly unmarked on any map, as well as water and air movement. There were many large rivers on both

sides of the border, and these were the main means of movement, including hovercraft by the UK. There were also

quite a few small grass airstrips suitable for light aircraft, as dropping zones for parachuted supplies, and for

helicopters.The equator lies about 100 miles south of Kuching, and most of northern Borneo receives over 3000 mm of rain each

year. Borneo is naturally covered by tropical rainforest. This covers the mountainous areas cut by many rivers with

very steep sided hills and hilltop ridges often only a few metres wide. The high rainfall means large rivers; these

provide a main means of transport and are formidable tactical obstacles. Dense mangrove forest covering vast tidal

flats intersected with numerous creeks is a feature of many coastal areas, including Brunei and either end of the

border. There are cultivated areas in valleys and around villages. The vicinity of abandoned and current settlements

are areas of dense secondary regrowth.

Sarawakian opposition

The end of the Second World War had brought an end to the Brooke Dynasty rule in Sarawak. Believing it to be in

the best interest of the people of Sarawak, Charles Vyner Brooke ceded the state to the British Crown. [7] Sarawak

became a Crown Colony, ruled from the Colonial Office in London, which in turn dispatched a Governor for

Sarawak.

The predominantly Malay anti-cession movement, which rejected the British takeover of Sarawak in 1946 and had

assassinated Duncan Stewart, the first British High Commissioner of Sarawak, may have been the forerunner of the

subsequent anti-Malaysia movement in Sarawak, headed by Ahmad Zaidi Adruce.

Left-wing and communist cell groups had grown rapidly among Sarawak's urban Chinese communities since the

1950s and later became the nucleus of the anti-Malaysia North Kalimantan People's Army (PARAKU) and Sarawak

People's Guerilla Forces (PGRS), known to the UK as the Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO). Thesegroups supported and propagated the unification of all UK Borneo territories to form an independent leftist North

Kalimantan state. This idea was idea originally proposed by A. M. Azahari, leader of the Parti Rakyat Brunei

(Brunei People's Party), who had forged links with Sukarno's nationalist movement, together with Ahmad Zaidi, in

Java in the 1940s. However, the Brunei People's Party was in favour of joining Malaysia on the condition it was as

the unified three territories of northern Borneo with their own sultan, and hence was strong enough to resist

domination by Malaya, Singapore, Malay administrators or Chinese merchants. [8]

The North Kalimantan (or Kalimantan Utara) proposal was seen as a post-decolonization alternative by local

opposition against the Malaysia plan. Local opposition throughout the Borneo territories was primarily based on

economic, political, historical and cultural differences between the Borneo states and Malaya, as well as the refusal

to be subjected under peninsular political domination.

Both Azahari and Zaidi went into exile in Indonesia during the confrontation. While the latter returned to Sarawak

and had his political status rehabilitated, Azhari remained in Indonesia until his death on 3 September 2002.

In the aftermath of the Brunei Revolt, the remnants of the TNKU reached Indonesia. Possibly fearing British

reprisals (which never eventuated), many Chinese communists, possibly several thousand, also fled Sarawak. Their

compatriots remaining in Sarawak were known as the CCO by the UK but called the PGRS Pasukan Gelilya

Rakyat Sarawak (Sarawak People's Guerilla Force) by Indonesia. Soebandrio met with a group of their potential

leaders in Bogor, and Nasution sent three trainers from Resimen Para Komando Angkatan Darat (RPKAD) Battalion

2 to Nangabadan near the Sarawak border, where there were about 300 trainees. Some 3 months later two lieutenants

were sent there. [3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brunei_Revolthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A._M._Azaharihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decolonizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Borneo_Federationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brunei_People%27s_Partyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Javahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sukarnohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brunei_People%27s_Partyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A._M._Azaharihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarawak_People%27s_Guerilla_Forceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarawak_People%27s_Guerilla_Forceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Kalimantan_Communist_Partyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Covert_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Communismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Left-wing_politicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ahmad_Zaidi_Adrucehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarawakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarawakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=High_Commissionerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duncan_Stewart_%28British_diplomat%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malays_%28ethnic_group%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Governorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Officehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crown_Colonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_Vyner_Brookehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarawakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarawakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rajah_of_Sarawakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_World_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hovercraft


9/31


The PGRS numbered about 800, based in West Kalimantan at Batu Hitam, with a contingent of 120 from the

Indonesian intelligence agency and a small cadre trained in China. The PKI (Indonesian Communist Party) was

strongly in evidence and led by an ethnic Arab revolutionary, Sofyan. The PGRS ran some raids into Sarawak but

spent more time developing their supporters in Sarawak. The Indonesian military did not approve of the leftist nature

of the PGRS and generally avoided them. [9]

Beginning of conflict

1963

Sukarno's motives were unclear and have been attributed to factors such as "hubris" in Indonesia, following its

successful campaign of infiltrations coupled with diplomatic pressure to gain control of Dutch New Guinea (later

Irian Jaya/West Papua) in 1962, or domestic issues such as an alleged increase in the influence of the PKI. Sukarno

argued that Malaysia was a British puppet state, and that any expansion of Malaysia would increase British control

over the region, with implications for Indonesia's national security. Similarly, the Philippines made a claim for

Sabah, arguing that it had historic links with the Philippines through the Sulu archipelago.

President Sukarno had stated in at least four public speeches in 1963 64 that Indonesia had no territorial ambitions

over North Kalimantan, and that Indonesia's territorial pursuit was completed with the "return" of West Irian in

January 1963. Nevertheless the Indonesian name for the territory "Kalimantan Utara" had the same form as the

names of Indonesia's Kalimantan provinces. Furthermore, later events in East Timor demonstrated that influential

elements in Indonesia did aspire to other territory when the colonial powers left.

However, while Sukarno made no direct claims to incorporate northern Borneo into Indonesian Kalimantan, he saw

the formation of Malaysia as an obstacle to the Maphilindo, a non-political, irredentist union spanning Malaya,

Philippines and Indonesia. [10] President of the Philippines Diosdado Macapagal initially did not oppose the concept

and even initiated the Manila Accord, but while the Philippines did not engage in hostilities, Malaysia severed

diplomatic ties after the former deferred recognising it as the successor state of Malaya.

In April 1963 the first recorded infiltration and attack occurred in Borneo. An infiltration force training at

Nangabadan was split in two and prepared for its first operation. On 12 April 1963, one infiltration force attacked

and seized the police station at Tebedu in the 1st Division of Sarawak, about 40 miles from Kuching and 2 miles

from the border with Kalimantan. [11] The other group attacked the village of Gumbang, South West of Kuching, later

in the month. Only about half returned. [12] Confrontation could be said to have started from a military perspective

with the Tebedu attack. [13]

For the next five months, the Chinese guerrillas undertook further raids, [12] typically attacks on longhouses. In June,

an operation by about 15 was dealt with. In this period, it was a platoon commander's war for the British. Platoons

deployed individually in semi-permanent patrol bases, initially in villages but then outside them to reduce the risk to

inhabitants in event of an Indonesian attack. Helicopter landing sites were cleared a few kilometres apart all alongthe border area, and platoons patrolled vigorously. Small parties of Gurkhas, police and Border Scouts were

stationed in many remote villages.

Manilla peace talks, July 1963

In order to solve the dispute, the would-be member states of Malaysia met representatives of Indonesia and the

Philippines in Manila for several days, starting on 31 July 1963. Just days prior to the summit, on 27 July 1963

President Sukarno declared that he was going to "crush Malaysia" (Indonesian: Ganyang Malaysia ). At the meeting,

the Philippines and Indonesia formally agreed to accept the formation of Malaysia if a majority in the disputed

region voted for it in a referendum organized by the United Nations. While the fact-finding mission by the UN was

expected to begin on 22 August in the same, delaying tactics by Indonesia forced the mission to start only on 26

August. Nevertheless, the UN expected the referendum report to be published by 14 September 1963.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manila_Accordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sukarnohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manilahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tebeduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Successor_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manila_Accordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diosdado_Macapagalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_the_Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irredentismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maphilindohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Timorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sulu_Archipelagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=West_Kalimantan


10/31


However, North Borneo and Sarawak, anticipating a pro-Malaysia result, declared independence on the sixth

anniversary of Merdeka Day, 31 August 1963, before the results of the vote were reported. On 14 September, the

result enabled the creation of Malaysia which had been agreed upon by all member states on 16 September 1963.

The Indonesian government saw this as a broken promise and as evidence of British imperialism.

Malaysia was formally established on 16 September 1963. Brunei decided against joining, while Singapore later left

the federation in 1965 to become an independent republic. Indonesia reacted immediately and furiously, tensionsrose on both sides of the Straits of Malacca and the Malayan ambassador was expelled from Jakarta. Two days later,

rioters burned the British embassy in Jakarta. Several hundred rioters ransacked the Singapore embassy in Jakarta

and the homes of Singaporean diplomats. In Malaysia, Indonesian agents were captured, and crowds attacked the

Indonesian embassy in Kuala Lumpur. [14]

Ongoing campaign of infiltrations

Even as peace talks progressed and stalled, Indonesia maintained its campaign of infiltrations. On 15 August, a

headman reported an incursion in the 3rd Division and follow up indicated they were about 50 strong. A series of

contacts ensued as 2/6 Gurkhas deployed patrols and ambushes, and after a month, 15 had been killed and 3

captured. The Gurkhas reported that they were well trained and professionally led, but their ammunition expenditurewas high and their fire discipline broke down. The prisoners reported 300 more invaders within a week and 600 in a

fortnight. [15]

Battle of Long Jawai

The Battle of Long Jawai was the first major incursion for the centre of the 3rd Division, directed by an RPKAD

Lieutenant Mulyono Soerjowardojo, who had been sent to Nangabadan earlier in the year. Up to 200 guerillas with

300 porters and longboats moved to Long Jawi, some 50 miles from the border and with a population of about 500. It

was a junction for river and track communications. The British outpost in the village was in the process of

establishing a new position on a nearby hill, but their communications remained in the village school. The total

British force was 6 Gurkhas, 3 Police Field Force and 21 Border Scouts, with a handful in the school and the

remainder in the new position.

An Indonesian reconnaissance force had entered the village on about 26 September, but their presence was unknown

to the British, and their main body arrived. At 5:00 am on 28 September 1963 the day Malaysia came into

being the force opened fire with small arms and mortars on the two posts. The communications post was heavily

attacked and hit by mortar fire and communications were lost without the attack being reported. Gurkha and police

radio operators were killed. The fighting lasted four hours; one Gurkha, one policeman, one Border Scout and five

Indonesians were killed. Ammunition ran low, and the Border Scouts became demoralised and started to slip away.

Some were captured, but the Gurkhas and police successfully withdrew into the jungle. The Indonesians plundered

the village and executed ten of the captured Border Scouts.The lost communications meant that it took two days for news to reach the HQ 1/2 Gurkhas, but reaction was swift

and the entire Wessex helicopter force was made available. Helicopters enabled the Gurkhas to deploy ambush

parties to likely withdrawal routes in orchestrated action that lasted until the end of October. The tortured bodies of 7

Border Scouts were found. In the ensuing confrontations, 33 Indonesians are known to have been killed, 26 in a boat

ambush on 1 October.

The failure of the Border Scouts to detect the incursion, particularly since the Indonesians were in Long Jawi for two

days before the attack, led to a change of role. Instead of being paramilitary, they concentrated on gathering

intelligence. The situation also emphasised the need for the "hearts and minds" campaign. However, the Indonesians

had lost the trust of the local population, who had witnessed the plundering of the village and the executions of the

Border Scout Prisoners. The locals had also been impressed with the quick Gurkha reactions. For the rest of the war,

civilians would inform British forces of Indonesian troop movements they saw. [16][17]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2nd_King_Edward_VII%27s_Own_Gurkha_Rifles_%28The_Sirmoor_Rifles%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Long_Jawaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=6th_Queen_Elizabeth%27s_Own_Gurkha_Rifleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kuala_Lumpurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jakartahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strait_of_Malaccahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singaporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruneihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merdeka_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Borneo


11/31


Changes in Commonwealth deployments

The creation of Malaysia meant that Malaysian Army units deployed to Borneo (now East Malaysia). 3rd Battalion

Royal Malay Regiment (RMR) went to Tawau in Sabah, and the 5th to the 1st Division of Sarawak. The Tawau area

also had a company of the King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry. Brigadier Glennie, who was directly responsible for

the East Brigade area, had recognised the risks in the area. The RN guardship made a seaborne attack unlikely, but

the myriad creeks and rivers around Tawau, Cowie Harbour and Wallace Bay were a challenge. He organised an adhoc waterborne force that became the Tawau Assault Group (TAG). [18] Formation of Malaysia led to increased

Indonesian action. Elite military units were ordered to the border; the army was in West Kalimantan, and the (Korps

Komando Operasi KKO) were responsible for the east. [19]

The KKO were opposite Tawau on the Indonesian half of Sebatik Island. This force consisted of five companies as

well as a training camp for volunteers. [18] On 17 October, five KKO and one TNKU dressed in civilian clothes

crossed into Sabah and burnt down a village; the KKO officer was killed. [19]

One of 3 RMR's positions was at Kalabakan west of Tawau. There was a fortified police station, and 400 yards away

in 2 unfortified huts (with some adjacent fighting trenches) were some 50 RMR soldiers with their company

commander. In late December, a force of 35 KKO regulars and 128 volunteers (Pocock) or 11 and 36 (Conboy)

crossed into Sabah and remained in the swampland undetected for 8 days. The mission was to capture Kalabakan and

then move on Tawau with Indonesian expatriates rising to join them. At 11:00 pm on 29 December, the RMR

position had been taken by surprise, with 8 killed, including the commander, and 19 wounded. An attack shortly

after on the police station failed. The attackers moved north instead of east to liberate Tawau. Gurkhas were flown

in, and the fighting was over after a month. Two-thirds of the KKO participants were killed or captured and admitted

that they had expected the population to rise and greet them as liberators. [20]

TAG became properly established based on an infantry company, marines and a Naval Gunfire Observation Party

from a battery in Hong Kong. They dominated the area, and included a raft-mounted mortar. One of their 'posts' was

a boat permanently positioned close to the international border across Wallace Bay. A minesweeper was usually part

of TAG because there were no other naval patrol boats suitable for coastal use. In the West, the RPKAD Battalion 2sent two companies, one parachuted into Nangabadan while the other dropped further west to Senaning. Their task

was to patrol the border, not cross it. Cross-border operations were assigned to 328 Raider Battalion, who arrived in

October, working with TNKU remnants and disguising themselves as TNKU. In November, they started shallow

raids, but these were barely noticed; another company from RPKAD Battalion 2 was sent, to be disguised as TNKU.

In late December, the company embarked on an attack on Kuching; however, most balked at the border and only 20

men crossed it on 1 January 1964. They soon met up with a Royal Marine patrol, suffering 2 killed. They also killed

a marine, took his ID card, and booby-trapped his abandoned body. Nevertheless, the company was withdrawn to

Java in some disgrace, having failed to match the KKO's success at Kalabakan. [19] Cpl. Marriot RM's body was

recovered the next day and flown to Kuching from Bau by helicopter.

1964

The deliberate attack by Indonesian forces on Malaysian troops did not enhance Sukarno's "anti-imperialist"

credentials, although the Indonesian government tried blaming the KKO as enthusiastic idealists acting

independently. They also produced Azahari, who claimed that Indonesian forces were playing no part in active

operations. Sukarno next launched a peace offensive and, in late January, declared he was ready for a ceasefire

(despite having denied direct Indonesia involvement). Talks started in Bangkok, but border violations continued, and

the talks soon failed. They resumed mid-year in Tokyo and failed within days but allowed time for a Thai mission to

visit Sarawak and witness smart, well-equipped Indonesian soldiers withdrawing across the border, which they had

crossed a short distance away earlier in the day. [21]

During the year, command arrangements changed. 99 Gurkha Infantry Brigade HQ returned from Singapore and

replaced 3 Commando Brigade HQ in Kuching. 3rd Malaysian Infantry Brigade HQ arrived to take over East
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_Marine_Corpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_Marine_Corpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=King%27s_Own_Yorkshire_Light_Infantryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Malay_Regiment


12/31


Brigade in Tawau, and 51 Gurkha Infantry Brigade HQ arrived from UK to command the Central Brigade area with

the 4th Division of Sarawak added to it. Its headquarters was in Brunei, and there were no roads to any of its

battalions. In DOBOPS, all HQ elements were concentrated in one HQ complex on Labuan. [22] At least one of the

British batteries stationed in Malaysia was always deployed in Borneo with its 105 mm guns.

In summary, in about the middle of the year the situation was:

West Brigade (HQ 99 Gurkha Infantry Brigade), frontage 623 miles, 5 battalions. Central Brigade (HQ 51 Gurkha Infantry Brigade), frontage 267 miles, 2 battalions.

East Brigade (HQ 3 Malaysian Brigade), frontage 81 miles, 3 battalions.

Another Malaysian battalion joined East Brigade mid-year, and was later followed by a third Malaysian battalion, a

battery and an armoured reconnaissance squadron. This brought the total force to 12 infantry battalions, two 105 mm

batteries and two armoured reconnaissance squadrons. The UK component of 8 battalions in Borneo was being

sustained by rotating 8 Gurkha and about 7 UK battalions stationed in the Far East. In addition, there were the

equivalent of two Police Field Force battalions and some 1500 Border Scouts. [23]

In 1964, UK tactics changed. What had been a platoon commanders' war became a company commanders' one. Most

of the dispersed platoon bases were replaced by heavily protected permanent company bases, mostly a short distance

from a village, ideally with an airstrip. Each base normally had a section of two 3-inch mortars and a few had a

105 mm gun, although guns had to be moved to deal with incursions. However, they continued to dominate their

areas with active patrolling, sometimes deploying by helicopter and roping down if there was no landing site. When

an incursion was detected, troops, sometimes relying on the Border Scouts' local knowledge of tracks and terrain,

were deployed by helicopter to track, block and ambush it. The Border Scouts tracking skills were highly valued

when pursuing the enemy. [24]

Support helicopters, RAF Belvedere and Whirlwind, and RN Wessex and Whirlwind, had increased to 40, but it was

not enough. Late in the year, another 12 Whirlwinds arrived. [22] The RN had adopted forward basing, notably at

Nanga Gat in the 2nd Division on the Rajang River, which the RAF had previously declared unsafe for helicopters

but subsequently used as a forward base for Whirlwinds. At Bario in the 5th Division, RN helicopters received theirfuel in air-dropped 44 gallon drums from RAF Beverleys. The expansion of the Army Air Corps (AAC) was creating

air platoons or troops of 2 or 3 Sioux in many units, including some infantry battalions, which proved very useful. In

addition, the AAC was operating Auster and Beaver fixed wing aircraft and some of the new Scouts, which could

carry a similar number of troops as a Whirlwind. However, in the remoter areas of Sarawak, the Twin Pioneers of the

RAF and RMAF were vital, and the RAF's Single Pioneers were also useful. East Brigade had the benefit of RMAF

Alouette 3s, and RNZAF Bristol Freighters were also used between major airfields.

The Indonesian Air Force also operated air transport, particularly into the more mountainous areas of the border that

were beyond rivers navigable by larger boats and landing craft. Although they had far fewer aircraft than the

Commonwealth forces, those they had were far more capable. They included the workhorse helicopter Mil Mi-4

NATO reporting name HOUND, the largest helicopter in the world, Mil Mi-6 NATO reporting name HOOK, C-130Hercules and Antonov An-12 NATO reporting name CUB.

The Indonesians lost a C-130 in Borneo on 26 September 1965 near Long Bawang airfield into the 5th Division of

Sarawak near Ba Kelalan in Sarawak. It was shot down by Indonesian anti-aircraft fire, being mistaken for a

Commonwealth aircraft. It was carrying a reinforced RPKAD platoon from RPKAD Battalion 1's Company C

(nicknamed "Cobra"). The full company had been sent from Java on orders of the Indonesian high command to

"neutralise" a gun position on the border ridge. After the aircraft was hit, the RPKAD parachuted out and the aircraft

crashed, but the crew got clear before it caught fire. [25]

The naval presence was composed of minesweepers and other light craft patrolling coastal waters and some large

inland waterways, and a "guardship" (frigate or destroyer) at Tawau. Army vessels, typically "ramp powered

lighters", supported bases on navigable waterways. Hovercraft were also used.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonov_An-12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C-130_Herculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C-130_Herculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mil_Mi-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mil_Mi-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bristol_Freighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scottish_Aviation_Pioneerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scottish_Aviation_Twin_Pioneerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland_Scouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Havilland_Canada_DHC-2_Beaverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland_Siouxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Army_Air_Corps_%28United_Kingdom%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland_Wessexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westland_Whirlwind_%28helicopter%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bristol_Belvederehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OTO_Melara_Mod_56http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=51st_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29


13/31


RPKAD Battalion 2 was withdrawn in February 1964 and deactivated. During 1964, the Indonesian army extended

its operation into East Kalimantan, a nd three companies from RPKAD B attali on 1, commanded by Major Benny

Moerdani, were sent there. Company A dropped into Lumbis opposite the Interior Residency of Sabah, while B and

C were supposed to go into Long Bawan further West opposite the 5th Division of Sarawak. B's C-130 aircraft was

unable to identify the Drop Zone, and they never deployed. Both companies were tasked with training locals from

Sabah, mainly as porters, and cross-border operations disguised as TNKU with uniforms, badges and fake ID cards.

Company A launched the first raid in June 1964 against a post near the village of Kabu; however, they were stopped

by a swollen river and withdrew to the border. Along the way, they stopped at an unoccupied longhouse, where they

bumped into Gurkhas and fled to the border. This company was withdrawn in early 1965. [26]

Within a week or so of landing, a 15 man element of Company C, including its commander, went northeast roughly

midway to Lumbis, then crossed into Sabah with orders to establish a perm anen t base. However, their supplies were

inadequate and, after a week, they headed back to Kalimantan in two groups. Along the way in what they thought

was Indonesia, the first group of 10 under Corporal Ismael heard chopping, and, assuming it to be TNKU, went

towards it hoping for food. Instead around last light in heavy rain they bumped a shirtless Caucasian, who was

thought to be an SAS operative. After a fire fight they remained in position all night and in the morning found the

body of Tpr Condon, whom they buried, taking his pack and radio. For the rest of their tour until February 1965,they trained TNKU and undertook very shallow cross-border raids with mixed teams, losing 4 RPKAD and 10

TNKU. [26]

During the year, Indonesian forces increased in strength, and incursions were increasingly by regular troops,

sometimes led by officers trained by the UK. A United States (US) Army training team remained in Indonesia

throughout the period but does not seem to have had any tactical impact in Kalimantan, although US-equipped

Indonesian units appeared there. Troops facing Kuching were reinforced, and, in the east, amphibious activities

increased, and TAG's communications jammed. Moreover, within Sarawak, the CCO was expanding and the Borneo

Communist Party started producing grenades and shotguns. Total Indonesian forces were:

Facing West Brigade 8 regular and 11 volunteer guerilla companies (companies were up to 200 strong)

Facing Central Brigade 6 regular and 3 volunteer companies

Facing East Brigade 4 or 5 KKO and 3 volunteer companies. [27]

The initiative remained with Indonesi an forces as to where and when they attack ed. D OPOPS had repeatedly sought

authority for hot pursuit and pre-emptive action across the border. This was denied, and some parts of the armed

forces considered that a major overt attack on Indonesia would bring the war to a close. However, in July the new

Labour government approved offensive action across the border, under constraints, conditions of strict secrecy and

the codename Claret. However, there was no intention of launching a general offensive or attacks intended to inflict

significant Indonesian casualties. The aim was to keep the Indonesians under pressure and off-balance rather than

attempt to pre-empt specific Indonesian attacks, and to this end, operations were conducted along the entire length of

the border, not just the "hot spot" close to Kuching.[28]

In January, reports indicated a large Indonesian force in the 5th Division. A camp of some 60 men was found.

Attacked by 11 men of the Royal Leicestershire Regiment, they fled, leaving 7 dead and half a ton of supplies. In the

1st Division, a force of about 100 crossed the border, apparently heading for Kuching airfield, but they were put to

flight by a small force of marines and police. They were well-equipped and had East European-made rocket

launchers. [29]

In March, in the 2nd Division, 1/10 Gurkhas discovered a force from the 328 Raider Battalion, which was made up

of regular Indonesian troops. After being ejected, they returned a few weeks later and established a position in caves

in a cliff face. This led to the only use of offensive airpower in the campaign, albeit with approval from London.

Wessex helicopters of 845 Naval Air Commando Squadron fired SS.11 anti-tank missiles into the caves. [30]

Between March and June, a new pattern emerged in the 2nd Division during a series of actions between Gurkhas and

professional soldiers from the Indonesian Black Cobra Battalion. The latter's losses were several times the Gurkhas'
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=845_Naval_Air_Squadronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS.11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=845_Naval_Air_Squadronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS.11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=845_Naval_Air_Squadronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS.11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS.11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=845_Naval_Air_Squadronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=10th_Princess_Mary%27s_Own_Gurkha_Rifleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Leicestershire_Regimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Clarethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leonardus_Benjamin_Moerdanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leonardus_Benjamin_Moerdani


14/31


and, in one incident, 4 Black Cobras clashed with 2 Gurkhas. The Cobras were killed, and the Gurkhas remained

unscathed. In another incident, 6 Black Cobras were captured by Ibans and beheaded.

In July, there were 34 Indonesian acts of aggression, including 13 border incursions in Borneo. There were indicators

that Indonesian forces were re-organising. However, in the last three months of the year, the number of cross border

incursions in Borneo dropped significantly.

In 1964, Indonesian operations, mostly based in Sumatra, were launched against West Malaysia (the Malayanpeninsula). Most did not involve the Indonesian army. There were six successful infiltrations by the Indonesian

Police's Ranger Regiment, although 33 were killed and 76 captured. [31]

Expansion of the conflict to the Malaysian Peninsula

Coordinated to coincide with Sukarno announcing a 'Year of Dangerous Living' during Indonesian Independence

Day celebrations, Indonesian forces began a campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations of the Malaysian

Peninsula on 17 August 1964. On 17 August 1964 a seaborne force of about 100, composed of airforce Pasukan

Gerat Tjepat (PGT Quick Reaction Force) paratroopers, KKO and about a dozen Malaysian communists, crossed

the Malacca Straits by boat. [32] They landed southwest of Johore. Instead of being greeted as liberators, they were

contained by various Commonwealth forces and most of the infiltrators were killed or captured within a few days.

On 2 September, three C-130 set off from Jakarta for Peninsula Malaysia, flying low to avoid detection by radar. The

following night, two of the C-130 managed to reac h their objective wi th their onboard PGT paratroopers, who

jumped off and landed around Labis in Johore (about 100 miles north of Singapore). The remaining C-130 crashed

into the Malacca Straits while trying to evade interception by an RAF Javelin FAW 9 launched from RAF

Tengah. [32] Due to a lightning storm, the drop of 96 paratroopers was widely dispersed. This resulted in them

landing close to 1/10 Gurkhas, who were joined by 1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment (1 RNZIR)

stationed near Malacca with 28 (Commonwealth) Brigade. Operations were commanded by 4 Malaysian Brigade,

but it took a month to round up or kill the 96 invaders and a New Zealand officer was killed during the action.

Indonesia's expansion of the conflict to the Malaysian Peninsula sparked the Sunda Straits Crisis, involving theanticipated transit of the Sunda Strait by the British aircraft carrier Victorious and two destroyer escorts.

Commonwealth forces were readied for airstrikes against Indonesian infiltration staging areas in Sumatra if further

Indonesian infiltrations of the Malaysian Peninsula were attempted. A tense three week standoff occurred before the

crisis was peacefully resolved. [33]

On 29 October 52 soldiers landed near the mouth of the Kesang River on the Johore-Malacca border and not far

from 28 (Commonwealth) Brigade base at Camp Terendak, Malacca. The Commanding officer of 3rd Battalion,

Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) was given the task of dealing with the invaders with his D Company, B

Company 1 RNZIR and C Squadron 4th Royal Tank Regiment with fire support from 102 Battery Royal Australian

Artillery. 20 surrendered, [34] while some others were killed or captured by the Royal Malay Regiment.

In the same period, about 30 landed near Pontian and were hunted down by 1 RNZIR, the Malaysian Army and

Royal Federated Malay States Police Field Force personnel in Batu 20 Muar, Johore. There were also terrorist

attacks in Singapore.

These attacks on West Malaysia led the UK to plan offensive air and sea operations against Indonesia. It appears that

Far East HQ produced a tentative list of seven potential targets for retaliation based on four criteria. The criteria were

that: the target must be related to the Indonesian attack; must be militarily useful; would produce minimum

casualties; and, be least likely to produce escalation.

In late 1963 and into 1964, the Indonesian Air Force took to "buzzing" towns in Sarawak. This led to Malaysia

declaring an Air Defense Identification Zone on 24 February. The RAF started periodic fighter patrols along the

border using aircraft such as Javelin and RN Sea Vixens from the fleet carrier in theatre The UK already had 12Light Air Defence Regiment Royal Artillery (12 Lt AD Regt) stationed in West Malaysia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Defense_Identification_Zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gloster_Javelinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Havilland_Sea_Vixenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Havilland_Sea_Vixenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gloster_Javelinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Defense_Identification_Zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muar_%28town%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Operations_Forceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Malaysian_Policehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pontian%2C_Johorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Malay_Regimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Tank_Regimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malaccahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camp_Terendakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=28th_Infantry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_New_Zealand_Infantry_Regimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RAF_Tengahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RAF_Tengahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gloster_Javelinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Landing_at_Labis


15/31


In June, 111 Light Anti Aircraft Battery Royal Australian Artillery with Bofors 40/60 guns deployed from Australia

to RAAF Butterworth near Penang, close to the Thai border. In September, 22 Lt AD Regt with two batteries arrived

from the UK to defend RAF Changi and Seletar in Singapore, and 11 Lt AD Battery of 34 Lt AD Regt arrived to

defend Kuching airfield with batteries rotated through Kuching for the next two years. All of the UK batteries were

equipped with Bofors 40/70 guns and FCE 7 Yellow Fever.

The year ended with the UK Government approving deployment of UK-based units from Army Strategic Commandand a major reorganisation of Indonesian forces in Kalimantan. However, Sukarno was coming under increasing

influence of the Indonesian Communist party (PKI), causing unhappiness in the Indonesian Armed Forces.

By the concluding months of 1964 the conflict once again appeared to have reached stalemate, with Commonwealth

forces having placed in check for the moment Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into Borneo, and more recently,

the Malaysian Peninsula. However, the fragile equilibrium looked likely to change once again in December 1964

when Commonwealth intelligence began reporting a build-up of Indonesian infiltration forces in Kalimantan.

1965

RAF Avro Vulcan bomber lands at RAF

Butterworth, Malaysia, c 1965. The presence of

these strategic bombers were a considerable

deterrence to the Indonesians during theConfrontation period.

In January 1965, the first UK-based units (aside from air defence and

special forces) arrived and after six weeks of jungle training, deployed

on operations. The 1st Battalion Gordon Highlanders arrived first and

became the thirteenth battalion in Borneo, with 2nd Battalion

Parachute Regiment as the fourteenth and last. The two additional

battalions allowed DOBOPS to increase the number of brigades. The

2nd and 3rd Divisions of Sarawak (with some 442 miles of border with

Indonesia) became Mid-West Brigade with HQ in Sibu. [22]

The HQ was that of the UK-based 19 Airportable Brigade, replaced

late in the year by 5 Airportable Brigade. Mid-West Brigade area had

two infantry battalions and a Malaysian battery. During the year, aSingapore battalion arrived to provide security for Kuching Airfield.

Combat engineers also increased, in part to help with civil aid

construction projects. UK-based armoured reconnaissance also arrived to provide a second UK squadron in Borneo.

There was also a significant increase in artillery. From about early 1964, a battery of 4 or 6 105 mm Pack Howitzer

guns had rotated through Borneo from the two Royal Artillery regiments in Malaya and Singapore. Later in 1964, a

Malaysian battery of four guns deployed in East Brigade. The deployment of the British battery is unclear but

appears to have operated single guns throughout the country. In April 1965, 4th Light Regiment Royal Artillery,

with all its batteries and 18 105 mm guns, arrived from UK.

Initially, the regiment deployed one battery and Regimental HQ in West Brigade, one battery in Central Brigade andone battery with some guns in East Brigade and some in the west. In August, this changed to two batteries in West

Brigade, a third with 4 guns in Central Brigade, and two supporting the British battalion in East Brigade. The

existing battery was also in West Brigade, and a second Malaysian battery arrived for Mid-West Brigade.

Half a British battery of 5.5-in Guns based in Malaya was also deployed to West Brigade; their weight meant they

could only move by road. Two guns were deployed near Bau, and the third near Tebedu. In addition, the air defence

battery at Kuching Airport operated a section of 4.2-inch Mortars near the border. In early 1965, a mortar locating

troop deployed from the UK with two Green Archer radars. These were also limited to road movement and deployed

in West Brigade. Later in the year, a sound ranging troop was added.

This gave West Brigade a total of three 5.5-in and 16 or 18 105 mm (depending on the type of battery), plus two

4.2-in mortars. The 105 mm were all in single gun positions, usually a company base apart from two at Tebeduco-located with a 5.5 and a Green Archer radar. The other three brigades had 14 105 mm in three batteries. The
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sound_ranginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radar_FA_No_8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ordnance_ML_4.2_inch_Mortarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BL_5.5_inch_Medium_Gunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OTO_Melara_Mod_56http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parachute_Regiment_%28United_Kingdom%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gordon_Highlandershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AAvro_Vulcan_Malaysia.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strategic_bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RAF_Butterworthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RAF_Butterworthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avro_Vulcanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RAFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=40_mm_Bofors


16/31


problem was that 6 batteries and one regimental HQ supporting 4 brigades and 14 battalions did not fit conventional

doctrine. Furthermore, there was a shortage of observers. However, British practice was for observers to give fire

orders directly to the gun positions, and each gun position produced its own firing data. Additional observers were

found by borrowing officers from other units in the Far East and New Zealand.

Early in 1965, both Australia and New Zealand agreed to deploy their forces into Borneo, mostly from those with 28

Commonwealth Brigade in West M alaysia. The brigade's Australian battery rotated with the British batteries fromthe brigade and the commando batteries in Singapore. These units, together with more UK-based ones, eased the

pressure on the UK and Gurkha battalions based in the Far East and rotating through tours in Borneo. Tours were of

varying length; Gurkhas generally did 6 months, British battalions in the Far East did 4 months, while the UK-based

normally did 12 months less training time and split into two of about 5 months, but deployed in a different area for

each half of their tour.

In 1965, new lightweight equipment arrived, most notably AR-15 rifles. However, equally appreciated by the troops

were Australian lighweight individual shelter covers and mosquito nets to the replace the heavy British ones. M79

grenade launchers were also provided.

In March 1965, Major General Walter Walker, DOBOPS, handed over to Major General George Lea, who had spent

3 years commanding 22 SAS during the Malayan Emergency and was another very experienced jungle soldier.

Indonesian forces were also being strengthened. General Maraden Pangabean arrived as commandant of the new

Inter-Regional Command, Kalimantan; he had previously been responsible for "recovering" Dutch New Guinea.

Units were regrouped and reinforced as No. 4 Combat Command, with Colonel Supargo as Director of Operations.

The new forces were observed by special forces reconnaissance patrols, the Border Scouts and British intelligence

agents. They were composed of three full brigades facing Kuching, a KKO brigade facing East Brigade and a

battalion facing Central Brigade. This force totalled some 50 regular companies and about 20 irregular ones. The

KKO brigade had BTR-50 APCs, amphibious PT-76 light tanks, BRDM-2 amphibious reconnaissance vehicles and

122mm Howitizers. The CCO in Sarawak was estimated to have about 2000 hardcore members, and many thousands

of sympathisers. In Brunei, TNKU support still existed. [35]

RPKAD companies rotated in February 1965. The three new companies were Battalion 1's Company B (nicknamed

"Ben Hur"), which had aborted their drop into Long Bawan the previous year; and two from Battalion 3, which was

newly converted from 441 Banteng Raider III Battalion. [36] During 1965, Sukarno wanted spectaculars to coincide

with meetings of the Non-Aligned Movement in April and June, although the latter meeting was cancelled. The

KKO planned i ncreased border patr ols and shallow incursions disguised as TNKU into Sabah. The RPKAD planned

for four teams of seven men from "Ben Hur" company and the Battalion 3 companies already deploying in West

Kalimantan, with PGRS guerrillas and support from their sympathisers in Sarawak, to attack targets around Kuching.

They launched their attacks in late February. Only one Ben Hur team made any significant progress; moving

between PGRS groups, it reached Kuching in May and claimed to have attacked a Malaysian army camp. A PGRS

force successfully attacked a police station of the Kuching-Serian road on 27 June.[37]

Outside Borneo, Indonesian actions included attempts to use Muslim Thai guerrillas in Southern Thailand.

Indonesian intelligence also looked for third country routes into Malaysia through Hong Kong, Cambodia and

Thailand, where Major Benny Moerdani (formerly of the RPKAD) was under cover as a Garuda airlines official. [38]

Claret operatio ns continued and de veloped in scope; they were now undertaken by all UK and Gurkha battalions.

The permitted depth of operations increased from the initial 5,000 yards to 10,000 and then to 20,000 yards, although

the latter figure seems to have only applied to special forces. Regular infantry generally remained within range of

artillery support. The Indonesians continued to remain publicly silent about these operations. By mid-year, the

program of Claret operations had in effect established a "cordon sanitaire" a few kilometres deep on the Kalimantan

side of the border. [39] The Indonesians then laid down thousands of anti-personal mines against the Western Brigade.

A significant attack was made by the RPKAD against Plaman Mapu, the base of B Company, 2nd Battalion British

Parachute Regiment. It had been identified as a target because it was barely 1 km from the border and lacked mutual
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parachute_Regiment_%28United_Kingdom%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parachute_Regiment_%28United_Kingdom%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parachute_Regiment_%28United_Kingdom%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parachute_Regiment_%28United_Kingdom%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parachute_Regiment_%28United_Kingdom%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parachute_Regiment_%28United_Kingdom%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Clarethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BRDM-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PT-76http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BTR-50http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_Marine_Corpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M79_grenade_launcherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M79_grenade_launcherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AR-15


17/31


support from any other Commonwealth base. [36] The RPKAD companies landed at Pontiak and marched north west

to Balai Karangan, south of Kuching and opposite Plaman Mapu. The majority of B Company was out on patrols,

and Plaman Mapu was only lightly held. It was composed of a company HQ element, an understrength platoon and a

mortar section, all commanded by the Company Sergeant Major.

The RPKAD attack starte d at 5:00 am on 27 June. It was made by the three platoons of B (Ben Hur) Company of

Battalion 1 equipped with AK 47, Bren LMGs and Yugoslav 90mm rocket launchers. The two flank platoons hadBangalore torpedoes. [36] The Indonesians penetrated the perimeter during a driving monsoon rain and overran a

mortar pit. Counter-attacks were launched by the paras, and the close-quarter battle lasted nearly two hours. The

defenders reported that the Indonesians twice re-grouped and re-attacked, a significant change in tactics. The

Indonesians were driven off; the UK estimated inflicting 50 casualties. Two British paratroopers were killed in the

fighting, while swift medical attention assured the survival of the wounded. [40][41] The Indonesians claimed that two

RPKAD soldiers were killed, the other two companies (from Battalion 3, newly converted from 441 (Banteng Raider

III)) remained in reserve just inside Indonesia throughout the action. Indonesia claimed a major victory, and "Ben

Hur" led the Independence Day parade in Jakarta that August. The platoon commanders were all promoted in the

field. [36]

Other actions included a small incursion across the border into eastern Sebatik Island near Tawau, Sabah; theSingapore MacDonald House bombing on 10 March, killing 2 people and injuring another 33; and a very minor

terrorist attack in Kuching a grenade thrown in the market from a motorcycle. Indirect fire attacks became more

common.

The best known Claret operation occurred on 21 November 1965. A company from the 2/10 Gurkhas encountered a

platoon sized force of Indonesians in an entrenched position in Kalimantan opposite Bau. The position was situated

in a manner that allowed only one approach, which was along a ridge that was so narrow that only a small force of

three men could move up it in line-abreast formation. [42]

Lance Corporal Rambahadur Limbu led an advanced party of 16 men in an attack on the forward machine gun

position, from where they were to provide support to the rest of the company during their attack. They were about 10

yards away when the Indonesian sentry opened fire, wounding one of the Gurkhas and alerting the rest of the

platoon. Seeing the danger that they were in, Rambahadur Limbu rushed the machine gun and destroyed it with a

grenade. Alerted, the rest of the Indonesian platoon began to fire on the forward pit, thus making it an untenable

position from which to provide support for the company attack. In order to report this fact to his platoon commander,

Limbu exposed himself to enemy fire before returning to pull two of his wounded comrades to safety. An hour long

fire-fight followed, which has since become known as the Battle of Bau, during which the Gurkha company

launched an assault on the Indonesian position. At least 24 Indonesians are believed killed in the attack, while the

Gurkhas suffered three killed and two wounded. [42]

Rambahadur Limbu subsequently received the Victoria Cross for his actions, with a misleading citation to obscure

the fact that the operation was in Kalimantan.[citation needed ]

The company commander, Captain Christopher "Kit"Maunsell, a Queen's Gurkha Officer, Lieutenant Ranjit Rai, and the artillery forward observation officer, Lieutenant

Doug Fox, Royal Artillery, attached to 170 Imjin Independent Medium Battery RA, each received the Military

Cross. [43]

The increase in engineer units helped with developing local infrastructure and hence "hearts and minds". Other units

were encouraged to undertake similar tasks within their capabilities. In 1966, the first unit to be awarded the newly

instituted Wilkinson Sword of Peace was 40 Light Regiment Royal Artillery for a project near Kuching by its HQ

battery and light aid detachment.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wilkinson_Sword_of_Peacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wilkinson_Sword_of_Peacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_Crosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_Crosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victoria_Crosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Bauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rambahadur_Limbuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=10th_Princess_Mary%27s_Own_Gurkha_Rifleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MacDonald_House_bombinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singaporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tawauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebatik_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Counter-attack


18/31


30 September 1965 events and the easing of conflict

On the night of 30 September 1965 an attempted coup took place in Jakarta. Six senior Indonesian military leaders

were killed, while General Nasution narrowly escaped from his captors. In the ensui ng confus ion Sukarno agreed to

allow Suharto to assume emergency command and control of Jakarta and the armed forces stationed there. Blame for

the failed coup was attributed to the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and in the following weeks and months a

campaign of imprisonment and lynching of PKI m embers and symp athisers broke o ut across Jakarta and Indonesia.With Suharto's grip on power in Jakarta and Indonesia delicately poised, the scale and intensity of Indonesia's

campaign of infiltrations into Borneo began to ease. [44] The train of events set off by the failed coup led to Suharto's

gradual consolidation of power and marginalization of Sukarno. In March 1967 Suharto was able to form a new

government that excluded Sukarno. At the same time, the anti-communist purge continued across Indonesia.

Suharto's steadily consolidation of power after the 30 September events allowed him to form a new government.

1966

On 28 May 1966, at a conference in Bangkok, the Malaysian and Indonesian governments declared the conflict was

over. However, it was unclear if the coup leader, Suharto, was in full control, and vigilance in Borneo could not be

relaxed. By July, Sukarno's rule had clearly ended, and a peace treaty was signed on 11 August and ratified two days

later, five months after Suharto came to power. [45]

Claret operations continued and, in March 1966, a Gurkha battalion was involved in some of the fiercest fighting of

the campaign during two raids into Kalimantan. [41] Minor action by Indonesian forces continued in the border area,

including an attempt at counter-battery fire against a 105 mm gun position in Central Brigade (reports from locals

said the British return fire had turned over the Indonesian gun, thought to be 76 mm).

At the beginning of 1966, with the coup hiatus mostly over (it had stopped a major RPKAD operation to capture a

British prisoner), the RPKAD linked up with PGRS to establish guerrilla forces in Sabah an d Sarawak. The Sabah

effort never crossed the border; however, two groups entered Sarawak in February and May and obtained support

from local sympathisers. The first group, despite losses in several contacts, lasted until June and exfiltrated onhearing about the end of Konfrontasi. Survivors o f the second , after a contact with Australian troops, also made it

back to Indonesia. [46] However, the final Indonesian incursion was in May and June. Signs of a substantial force

were found crossing into Central Brigade. This was some 80 strong, mostly volunteers, led by Lt Sombi (or Sumbi)

and a team from 600 Raider Company. They moved fast towards Brunei with 1/7 Gurkhas pursuing and ambushing

them; almost all were accounted for. In response to this, a final Claret operation was launched, which was an artillery

ambush.

End

Origin Killed Wounded

UK

Gurkha

19

43

44

83

AUS Army 16 9

NZ Army 7 7

Rest 29 38

Total 114 181

The conflict lasted nearly four years; however, following General Suharto's replacement of Sukarno, Indonesian

interest in pursuing the war with Malaysia declined, and combat eased. Peace negotiations were initiated during May

1966 before a final peace agreement was ratified on 11 August 1966. [47] A useful factor in the containment of the

Indonesian forces was the use of intelligence. The Royal Signals were able to intercept the Indonesian military
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suhartohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transition_to_the_New_Orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intelligence_%28information_gathering%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Signalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suhartohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transition_to_the_New_Orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intelligence_%28information_gathering%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Signalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Signalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intelligence_%28information_gathering%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transition_to_the_New_Orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suhartohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australian_Armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brigade_of_Gurkhashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_Armed_Forceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=7th_Duke_of_Edinburgh%27s_Own_Gurkha_Rifleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suhartohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bangkokhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transition_to_the_New_Orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366


19/31


communications. The ciphers were decrypted by the Intelligence Corps based at Government Communications

Headquarters (GCHQ) listening stations in Singapore, one of which was RAF Chia Keng which was link directly to

the RAF Far East Air Force headquarters at RAF Changi. Intelligence from this may have been used in planning

some aspects of Claret cross-border operations.

The war had been "a strictly limited war, and a cheap one for Britain and Malaysia, for w hich it achieved

much".[citation needed ]

It decisively resulted in preventing Indonesia from interferring with the creation of Malaysia.Arguably, it had not been in the interests of either the UK or Indonesia to extend hostilies outside Borneo. Although

the Indonesians conducted a few amphibious raids and an airborne operation against Malaya, the war remained

limited throughout its duration and mainly a land conflict. For either side to have conducted large scale air or naval

attacks, would have undoubtably escalated the conflict and "would have incurred disadvantages greatly outweighing

the marginal military effect that they might have produced". [45] The UK Secretary of State for Defence at the time,

Denis Healey, described the campaign as "one of the most efficient uses of military forces in the history of the

world". [48] British Commonwealth forces peaked at 17,000 deployed in Borneo, with another 10,000 more available

in Malaya and Singapore. [45]

Total British Commonwealth military casualties were 114 killed and 181 wounded, most of them Gurkhas. [45] The

losses included Gurkha casualties of 43 killed and 83 wounded, other British armed forces were a further 19 killedand 44 wounded, Australian casualties of 16 killed and 9 wounded (although only 7 were killed in action) and New

Zealand casualties of 7 killed and another 7 wounded or injured. [49] The remaining casualties were that of the

Malaysian military, police, and Border Scouts. A significant number of British casualties occurred during helicopter

accidents, including a Belvedere crash that killed several SAS commanders and a Foreign Office official, possibly a

member of MI6. A Wessex collision also killed several men from 2nd Parachute Battalion, and a Westland Scout

crash, on 16 July 1964, near Kluang airfield, killed the two crewmen from 656 Sqn AAC. Finally, in August 1966,

there remained two British and two Australian soldiers missing and presumed dead, with the Australians (both from

the SASR) probably drowned while crossing a swollen river. The remains of a Royal Marine were recovered some

20 years late

Documents

Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation