Istoria evreilor

Istoria evreilor este istoria evreilor, religiei i culturii po-porului evreu, cum s-a dezvoltat i a interacionat cu altepopoare, religii i culturi. Istoria evreilor are o vechimede peste 4000 de ani.[1]

1 Perioade n istoria evreilor

2 Istoria veche al evreilor (naintede 37 .Hr.)

2.1 Conform Bibliei

Moise cu Tablele de piatr (pictur din 1659 de Rembrandt)

Pentru primele dou perioade al istoriei evreilor este nprincipal legat de Semiluna Fertil. Acest istorie ncepecu acei oameni, care au ocupat zona situat ntre rurileNil, Tigru i Eufrat. nconjurat de vechi culturi n Egipti Babilon, prin deerturile Arabiei, i mrginit de dealu-rile Asiei Minor, Canaanul (aproximativ corespunztoa-re Israelului modern, teritoriilor palestiniene, Iordanieii Libanului), a fost un punct de ntlnire a civilizaiilor.Terenul a fost traversat de rute comerciale vechi, stabili-

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ARAM

ARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAM

ARAM

ARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAM

ARAM

ARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAM

ARAM

ARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAMARAM

Regatul Israelului i al Iudeii n 926 . Hr.

te i porturi importante n Golful Akaba (Eilat) i coastaMrii Mediterane, acesta din urm artnd inuena altorculturi ale Semilunii Fertile.Conform Bibliei, evreii sunt descendenii poporului antical Israelului care s-a stabilit n Canaan, situat ntre coastade est a Mrii Mediterane i rul Iordan (1451 .Hr.). De-plasrile nomade ale evreilor s-au situat n jurul localitiiHebron undeva ntre 1991 i 1706 .Hr.Fii lui Israel mprtesc liaie, prin strmoii lor co-muni: Abraham, ul lui, Isaac, i ul lui Isaac, Iacob (Ya-akov). Iacob a primit numele de Israel, iar cei doispreze-ce i au fost strmoii celor doisprezece triburi cunoscuteca ii lui Israel: Ruben, Simeon, Levi, Iuda, Isahar,Zabulon, Dan, Gad, Neftali, Aer, Iosif, i Beniamin.Iacob i cei doisprezece i n timpul unei foamete mariau prsit Canaanul i s-a stabilit n Goshen din nordul

1

2 2 ISTORIA VECHE AL EVREILOR (NAINTE DE 37 .HR.)

Egiptului. n Egipt urmaii celor 12 triburi au fost fcuisclavi de egipteni, condui de Faraon. Dup 400 de anide sclavie, YHWH, Dumnezeul lui Israel, a trimis profe-tul Moise, un om din seminia lui Levi, s elibereze Fiilui Israel din robia egiptean. Conform Bibliei evreii auscpat n mod miraculos din Egipt (eveniment cunoscutca Exodul) i s-au ntors n patria lor ancestral, Canaa-nul. Acest eveniment marcheaz formarea Israelului canaiune politic n Canaan, n 1400 .Hr.

2.2 Conform tiinei empirice

Nippur

Ur

Babylon

Assur

NinevehCarchemish

Sardes

Tanis

Avaris

Mycenae

Citium

Byblos KadeshSidonTyre

Damascus

Memphis Heliopolis

Abydos

THEBES

SyeneElephantine

Abu Simbel

Napata

II

III IV

V

VI

Herakleopolis

Gaza

A R A B I A

M E S O P O T A M I A

A S S Y R I A

H I T T I T EE M P I R E

L I B Y A

K U S H

P U N T

S Y R I A

S I N A I

E G Y P T I A N

I

CA

NA

AN

C I L I C

I A

M e d i t e r a n e a n

B l a c k

C a s p i a n

P e r s i a nG u l f

R e d

Nile

S e a

S e a

E M P I R E

S e a

S e a

The Egyptian Empire XVth century BC

(under Egyptian influence)

Egiptul n secolul al XV-lea .e.n., perioada Exodului i a cuceri-rii Canaanului descris n Cartea lui Iosua conform cronologieibiblice. Aa cum arat harta, Canaanul era ocupat de Egipt nacel timp, fapt pe care Biblia a uitat s-l menioneze.

Istoria evreilor, din perioada antic, e descris n Bibliaevreiasc i cunoscut prin ea n toat lumea. Descope-riri arheologice au ntrit diverse date care apar n Biblie,dar perioada mai veche, a primului Templu, nu are ncdestule dovezi arheologice i sunt istorici care cred c oparte din naraiunea istoric biblic, ar avea mai mult uncaracter mitologic.De exemplu, istoricii consider c exodul evreilor dinEgipt este un eveniment mitologic.[2] Peter Enns, un cer-cettor evanghelic, profesor la Seminarul Teologic West-minster, dei crede c Biblia este infailibil, recunoateurmtoarele: pentru poziia c relatarea biblic a Exodu-lui s-ar petrecut n mod real nu exist dovezi, iar pen-tru poziia c relatarea ar putea plauzibil (nu dovedi-t) exist crile unora ca Homeier i Kitchen.[3] Pen-tru poziia c evreii au provenit din populaia canaanitexist dovezi copleitoare, ceea ce elimin posibilitateaexodului din Egipt sau a unui pelerinaj de patruzeci de

ani prin deert, conform lui William Dever.[4] Consen-sul modern al istoricilor este c nu a existat vreun exodde proporiile descrise n Biblie[5] i c relatarea trebuieprivit ca teologie i nu ca istorie, teologie care ilustreazcum Dumnezeul lui Israel a acionat pentru a-i salva intri propriul popor.[6]

ntr-un documentar al BBC dr. Francesca Stavrakopou-lou, lector principal la Universitatea din Exeter, specia-lizat n studii biblice ebraice declara: Biblia nu era osurs de ncredere, ea nu ne spune adevrul despre acetioameni din antichitate [evreii n.n.].[7] ntrebat n ace-lai documentar dac evreii au fost monoteiti, lucru carei-ar distins fa de religia canaanit, prof. dr. HerbertNiehr de la Universitatea din Tbingen declara c evreiiau fost politeiti din sec. al X-lea .e.n. pn cel puin n586, dup care lucrurile au nceput s se schimbe foartelent, evreii ind covritor monoteiti ncepnd cu peri-oada Macabeilor (secolul al II-lea .e.n.).[8]

2.3 Regatul Unit

Templul mitic al lui Solomon din Ierusalim. Ilustraie bazat peimaginaie i pe detalii biblice

Dup tradiia evreiasc 12 triburi de evrei, formate dindescendenii celor 12 i ai lui Israel (tribul lui Iosif s-adivizat n dou triburi, dup ii lui, Menae i Efraim),au cucerit ara Israel, au colonizat-o i, dup o perioadn care nu aveau o conducere central, au format un regatcondus de regele aul. Lui aul i-a urmat regele David.Acesta a cucerit oraul Salem (n ebraic alem), cru-ia i-a fost schimbat numele n Ierusalim i care a devenitcapitala evreilor. Fiul lui David, Solomon, a construit laIerusalim Templul, care urma s e unic n religia evrei-lor. Nu a fost gsit nicio urm a Templului lui Solomon,de aceea muli arheologi cred c acesta nu ar existat nmod real.[9]

Israel Finkelstein, profesor la Universitatea Tel-Aviv alansat controversata teorie a decalajului de timp (a pa-ratrsnetului, n englez lightning rod, cum este poreclitFinkelstein) conform creia, din punct de vedere istoric,aceast prezentare a regatului unit este o ciune, Davidi Solomon au fost un fel de cpitani de plai, iar regatul

2.3 Regatul Unit 3

iudeu a aprut cu un secol mai trziu.[10]

Din punct de vedere arheologic i istoric, redatarea aces-tor orae de la epoca lui Solomon la perioada omrid areimplicaii enorme. Ea nltur singura dovad arheolo-gic dup care ar existat vreodat o monarhie unit cucapitala n Ierusalim i arat c David i Solomon erau, ntermeni politici, nimic altceva dect cpitani ai inutuluideluros, a cror raz administrativ era limitat la nivelullocal, adic la inutul deluros.[10]Israel Finkelstein i Neil Asher Silberman, The BibleUnearthed. Archaeologys New Vision of Ancient Israeland The Origin of Its Sacred Texts.

Dar excavrile din oraul lui David au oferit descopeririimpresionante din Epoca mijlocie a bronzului i din se-colele ulterioare ale Epocii erului - dar nu din secolul alX-lea .e.n. Cea mai optimist evaluare a acestei dovezinegative este c Ierusalimul din secolul a X-lea era limi-tat ca suprafa, probabil nu mai mare dect un sat tipicpentru inutul deluros.[11]Israel Finkelstein i Neil Asher Silberman, The BibleUnearthed. Archaeologys New Vision of Ancient Israeland The Origin of Its Sacred Texts.

Aceast teorie a lightning rod (paratrsnet, care es-te porecla lui Finkelstein) a fost respins de majoritateaspecialitilor,[12] lucru negat de o alt surs.[13] n ediiadin iulie-august 2006 a revistei Biblical Archaeology Re-view, Michael Coogan de la Stonehill College, considerac Finkelstein i Silberman basculeaz de la ipotetic, laimprobabil i absurd (n englez move from the hypo-thetical to the improbable to the absurd). Coogan recu-noate ns c Ierusalimul de pe vremea lui David avean jur de cteva mii de locuitori, neind un ora, ci doarun sat, conform standardelor de azi.[14] n documentarulHistory Channel The Bible Unearthed (Biblia dezgropa-t) Amihai Mazar arm c Ierusalimul de pe vremea luiDavid era un ora foarte mic, dar era un orel puternicn vacuumul politic din ar.[15]

Ziarista Laura Miller popularizeaz teoriile lui Herzog,Finkelstein i Silberman n web site-ul ei:Herzog a emis i formulat multe din teoriile pe care Fin-kelstein i Silberman le prezint n cartea lor: Israelieniinu au fost niciodat n Egipt, nu au rtcit prin deert, nuau cucerit ara [Canaan] ntr-o campanie militar i nu aulsat-o motenire celor dousprezece triburi ale lui Isra-el. Probabil cel mai greu de acceptat este faptul c regatulunit al lui David i Solomon, descris n Biblie ca putereregional, era cel mult un mic regat tribal. Noile teoriivd acest modest cpitnie de plai bazat n Ierusalimdrept un ora de vcari, dar nu drept capital glorioas aunui imperiu.Dei, cum susine Herzog, unele din aceste descopeririau fost acceptate de ani de zile sau chiar de deceniide ctre majoritatea arheologilor i cercettorilor Bibliei,

ele de-abia acum intr n contiina publicului israelian,afectndu-l puternic.[16]Laura Miller, King David was a nebbish

n disputa care se poart ntre taberele minimalitilor imaximalitilor, unii negnd complet istoricitatea Bibliei,ceilali armnd-o complet[17], Finkelstein respinge cata-logarea sa ca minimalist, prefernd s se considere cen-trist: el recunoate c David i Solomon au fost persoaneistorice reale i nu respinge n bloc Biblia ebraic, precumminimalitii, dar nici nu o accept n totalitate[17].Punctul de vedere al lui Amihai Mazar este urmtorul:Cu ct ne ndeprtm de ceea ce Mazar vede drept pe-rioada cheie de scriere a Bibliei, adic secolele VIII-VII.e.n., cu att mai imaginativ, mai simbolic, mai distor-sionat i mai neclar devine trecutul. n plus, trebuie savem n vedere impactul unor factori precum deforma-rea, selectivitatea, pierderea amintirilor, cenzura i lipsade imparialitate cu caracter ideologic sau personal asu-pra compunerii tradiiilor biblice astfel alctuite.[18]Brian B. Schmidt, The quest for the historical Israel:debating archaeology and the history of early Israel :invited lectures delivered at the Sixth Biennial Colloquiumof the International Institute for Secular HumanisticJudaism, Detroit, October 2005

Biblia arm c Iehoafat, un contemporan al lui Ahab, aoferit for de munc i cai pentru rzboaiele regatului denord contra arameilor. El i-a ntrit legtura cu regatulde nord prin a aranja o cstorie diplomatic: prinesaisraelit Ataliah, sora sau ica Regelui Ahab s-a csto-rit cu Iehoram, ul lui Iehoafat (2 Imparati 8:18). Casalui David din Ierusalim era direct legat (i se pare do-minat) de regii israelii din Samaria. De fapt, am puteasugera c aceasta a reprezentat cucerirea de ctre norda Iudei prin cstorire. Astfel, n secolul al IX-lea .e.n.- la un secol dup presupusa domnie a lui David - pu-tem n sfrit descrie existena unei mari monarhii uniten Israel, ntinzndu-se de la Dan n nord pn la Beer-eba n sud, cu teritorii semnicative cucerite n Siria iTransiordania. Dar aceast monarhie unit - o monarhieunit real - era condus de casa lui Omri, nu de casa luiDavid, iar capitala ei era Samaria nu Ierusalimul.[19]Israel Finkelstein i Neil Asher Silberman, David andSolomon. In Search of the Bibles Sacred Kings and theRoots of the Western Tradition.

Conform renumitului istoric Philip Davies, minimalitiireprezint tiina (arheologia) fcut aa cum trebuie eafcut, iar maximalitii sunt aprtorii fundamentaliti aiadevrului literal al Bibliei, care de fapt fac apologetic,nu tiin empiric.[20] El arm c aproape toi istoriciisunt de fapt minimaliti, cu excepia fundamentalitilorreligioi, stare de fapt care este o consecin a faptuluic fundamentalitii religioi au pierdut controlul asupra

4 2 ISTORIA VECHE AL EVREILOR (NAINTE DE 37 .HR.)

arheologiei Levantului antic, lucru care s-a ntmplat nSUA cu 50 de ani mai trziu dect n Europa.[20] El armc minimalitii nu au inventat dovezile arheologice carecontrazic Biblia ebraic, ci doar au dedus din ele con-cluzia reasc, anume c relatrile Bibliei sunt ctive.[20]Dup el, Finkelstein ar i el tot un minimalist, deoarecea pstrat ideea c ele sunt n mare parte ctive, dei a con-chis c a Bibliei compunere nu s-a ntmplat n Persia, cin Regatul Iuda, n timpul domniei lui Iozia.[20]

Permitei-mi s ntresc aceast susinere referitoare laoperele mele. Opinia majoritar a cercettorilor criticiai Bibliei accept faptul c de la Genez pn la Iosua(eventual i n Judectori) ea este lipsit n mod substan-ial de istorie de ncredere i c grosul literaturii Biblieiebraice a fost compus sau i-a dobndit forma canonicn perioada persan. Sunt astfel de prere c ncercrilede a m plasa la periferia cercetrii sunt ridicole.[21]Philip Davies, Minimalism, Ancient Israel, andAnti-Semitism

Jack Cargill remarc diversitatea de opinii publicate asu-pra istoriei Israelului, i c n general manualele de civili-zaie occidental redau un punct de vedere literalist, careeste rmas probabil cu douzeci de ani n urm din punctde vedere universitar.[22] Exist deci i puncte de vede-re maximaliste n aceast disput, dei maximalismul nsens literal este destul de rar printre cercettorii profesi-oniti ai istoriei.[23] n aceast privin Lester L. Grabbearm c singura istorie literal maximalist a Israeluluide la Wellhausen ncoace este cea publicat de Provan,Long i Longman n 2003, nici mcar John Bright neindpe de-a-ntregul maximalist, n sensul de a accepta veridi-citatea textului Bibliei pn la dovada contrarie.[23] TotGrabbe arm c pe vremea cnd studia pentru doctorat(cu mai bine de trei decenii n urm), istoricitatea sub-stanial a povestirilor Bibliei despre patriarhi i desprecucerirea Canaanului era acceptat pe larg, dar n zilelenoastre cu greu se mai poate gsi un istoric care s maicread n ea.[23]

n documentarul BBC Secretele ngropate ale Biblieidin 2011, dr. Stavrakopoulou arma, dup ce se consulta-se cu BaruchHalpern, Yosef Garnkel i Doron Spielman(ultimii doi ind e de excavaii ale unor situri pretinsedavidico-solomonice), c dei unele descoperiri recentear putea pune la ndoial teoriile lui Finkelstein, teza im-periului unit sub domnia lui David rmne nesusinut dedovezi arheologice, e i pe motivul menionrii doar ntreact de ctre Biblie a realizrilor politice ale regeluiOmri, asupra existenei i puterii cruia exist dovezi ar-heologice de netgduit.[24] Dup ea, acest lucru indicresentimentele fa de regatul Israel ale autorilor din re-gatul Iuda.[24]

Conform acestui documentar BBC:

Finkelstein arm c un secol i jumtate de esca-vri n oraul lui David n-au descoperit lucruri dem-

ne de un imperiu, vorbind de perioada lui David iSolomon;

Nu exist dovezi despre un regat din oraele pe careBiblia arm c Solomon le-ar recldit n secolulal X-lea .e.n.;

Rzboaiele de cucerire ale lui David sunt extrem deimprobabile, dat ind populaia redus din Iuda nsec. al X-lea .e.n.;

Fortreaa din Khirbet Qeiyafa (valea Elah) estentr-adevr impresionant, ar putut eventual lo-cuit de evrei i ar putut apra un centru adminis-trativ, dar nu au fost gsite dovezi c Ierusalimul ar fost centrul unui imperiu n secolul al X-lea .e.n.;

Descoperirea din parcul arheologic numit oraul luiDavid nu a fost datat corespunztor, deoarece ol-ria a fost amestecat din neglijen, iar o datare lasecolul al IX-lea este mai probabil;

Iuda i Israelul n-au fost unite, ci se aau n rivalitate,aceasta explic menionarea n treact a lui Omri idefimarea regilor Israelului de ctre autorii Bibliei;

Stela de la Tel-Dan: scris la un secol i jumtatedup David, ceea ce ar putea indica faptul c exis-tena lui David era o legend, iar casa lui David s-ar putut revendica de la un erou imaginar; n oricecaz acest lucru rmne controversat, sunt destui is-torici care consider ca David a existat n mod real;n cel mai bun caz stela ne poate spune c David aexistat n mod real, dar nu dovedete existena im-periului su;

Baruch Halpern arm c David a existat n modreal, cci dac ar fost un erou imaginar cei care i-ar compus legenda n-ar inventat alibiuri pentruomorurile sale; el consider ns c David cel istoricera foarte diferit de imaginea despre el pe care o arepublicul larg.

Sigur, Garnkel i Spielman erau de prere c siturile alecror excavaii le conduc ei demonstreaz existena rega-tului lui David i Solomon,[24] dar ei reprezint o opinieminoritar n lumea academic.[25] Conform unui articoldin National Geographic, Eilat Mazar pretinde c ar descoperit vestigiile palatului lui David, dar un fost stu-dent al ei care este ghid turistic le explic celor care vizi-teaz locul c Mazar n-a descoperit palatul lui David.[26]David Ilan, de la Hebrew Union College este de acord cughidul, considernd depit metoda d-nei Mazar de a lu-cra cu mistria intr-o mn i Biblia n cealalt, cum f-ceau precedentele generaii de arheologi biblici.[26] Ami-hai Mazar, o somitate a arheologiei israeliene i vruldescoperitoarei, consider c ar probabil vorba de for-treaa Sionului, cucerit de David, dar ar putea oricealtceva.[27]

52.4 Captivitatea babilonian

n anul 605 .Hr. regatul lui Iuda, care ocupa sudul Pales-tinei avnd capitala la Ierusalim, cade sub dominaia re-gatului Babilonului. Pentru c evreii nu vor s plteasctributurile cerute de cuceritori, Nabucodonosor, suvera-nul din Babilon, se ndreapt cu armata sa spre Palestinai oblig Ierusalimul s capituleze dup un scurt asediu.Ca s-i pedepseasc pe supuii rebeli, Nabucodonosor iduce n Babilon pe suveranul nvins, pe familia acestu-ia, pe oeri, soldai, oameni bogai i cunosctorii unortehnici rare n metal. Mai mult de 10.000 de oameni auprsit atunci Ierusalimul. Nabucodonosor instaleaz petronul lui Iuda un membru al familiei regale evreieti, Se-decias, care revoltndu-se i el dup civa ani, face caIerusalimul s e din nou asediat de babilonieni. n 587,dup un asediu de mai bine de un an de zile, Ierusalimulse pred. Conform Bibliei, eful trupelor babiloniene aars casa Domnului (Templul din Ierusalim), casa regeluii alte case ale locuitorilor de vaz. Regatul lui Iuda ancetat s existe. O mare parte din populaie era n exil.Pentru prima dat n istoria lor, evreii nu mai au ar.Evreii din antichitate consider c acest dezastru care s-a abtut peste ei este consecina neascultrii lor fa delegea dictat de Dumnezeu, fa de recomandrile legatede cultul i de elul su. Conform Bibliei, Dumnezeu i-aavertizat prin profei, mesagerii Si, dar ei i-au luat n rs.Abia acum cnd sunt pui la grea ncercare ascult de tri-miii lui Dumnezeu i a c suferinele lor vor lua sfrit,dac vor respecta poruncile Domnului. De acum naintevor respecta practica sabatului, zi de odihn i consacra-t Domnului, vor organiza cu regularitate posturi come-mornd pierderea Templului i a regatului lor, spernd sse mpace cu Dumnezeu.n 539 .Hr., Cirus, suveranul persan, cucerete imperiulbabilonian. Acesta, printr-un edict, autorizeaz pe evreis se ntoarc n ara lor i s-i reconstruiasc Templul cuajutorul visteriei persane. n 515, Templul este terminati se reia cultul n mod resc.Dar abia dup un secol i jumtate, dup interveniilebabilonienilor, urmele materiale ale dramei se estom-peaz o dat cu reconstrucia treptat a Ierusalimului icu repopularea lui[28]

Contribuii recente la istoria Levantului antic pun la n-doial realitatea exilului babilonian i/sau acurateea re-latrii biblice asupra acestuia.[2]

2.5 Perioada post-exilic

2.5.1 Perioada elenist

2.5.2 Regatul Hasmonean

3 Cucerirea roman a Israelului(63 .Hr. - 324 d.Hr.)

3.1 Diaspora

3.2 Perioada roman trzie n Israel

4 Epoca Medieval

4.1 Perioada bizantin n Israel (324 - 638)

4.2 Perioada islamic n Israel (638 - 1099)

4.3 Perioada cruciailor n Israel (1099 -1260)

4.4 Perioada mamelucilor n Israel (1260 -1517)

4.4.1 Spania, Africa de Nord, i Orientul Mijlociu

4.5 Europa

5 Perioada modern timpurie

5.1 Peninsula Iberic

5.2 Imperiul Otoman

5.3 Polonia i Lituania

5.4 Iluminarea European i Haskalah(sec. al 18-lea)

5.5 Iudaismul Hasidic

6 Secolul al 19-lea

7 Secolul al 20-lea

7.1 Sionismul modern

7.2 Holocaustul

7.3 ninarea statului Israel

8 Secolul 21

6 10 BIBLIOGRAFIE

9 Istoria evreilor dup ar sau re-giune

Pentru a vedea mprirea populaiei evreieti pe ri nistorie i n contemporaneitate, vezi Evrei dup ri. Pen-tru a vedea populaiile evreieti istorice i contemporanepe ri, vezi Evrei dup ri.

10 BibliograeAharoni, Yohanan (1982). The Ar-chaeology of the Land of Israel.Westminster Press. ISBN 0-664-21384-7Assman, Jan (1997). Moses theEgyptian. First Harvard UniversityPress. ISBN 0-664-21384-7Beitzel, Barry (Spring 1980).Exodus 3:14 and the divineName: A Case of Biblical Paro-nomasia. Trinity Journal (TrinityDivinity School) Vol.1: 5-20.https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:x4ZXrhQQdhkJ:faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/ted_hildebrandt/otesources/02-exodus/Text/Articles/Beitzel-Ex314-Name-TJ.pdf+A+Case+of+Biblical+Paronomasia&hl=en&gl=au&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShjZngDYT4Ccemm_XRLzWtlYI-xOV37wqv7eG2UGNLaqGC9KMd1Copiregje1GKSmXGchkPiaBc6sTagW3vqB37I439Wz9W5T5sOXCriXOrdhEMfPGGWXkSil95WBgQz4XpFcc4&sig=AHIEtbQVm4MLKDynPGGAX8BjdJYZg_kmwg.Bimson, John J. (1981). Redatingthe Exodus. Sheeld AcademicPress. ISBN 0-907459-04-8Butzer, Karl W. (1999).Demographics. in Bard,Kathryn A.; Shubert, Steven.Encyclopedia of the archaeologyof ancient Egypt. Routledge.ISBN 0-907459-04-8. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=XNdgScxtirYC&dq=population+of+ancient+egypt&printsec=frontcover&source=in&hl=en&ei=J7D9S437DMHQcZ64xK8K&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=11&ved=0CFIQ6AEwCg#v=onepage&q=population&f=falseCline, Eric H. (2007). From Edento Exile. National Geographic So-ciety. ISBN 9781426200847

De Moor, Johannes C. (1996).Egypt, Ugarit and Exodus. inWyatt, N.; Watson, W. G. E.. Uga-rit, Religion and Culture. ISBN 3-927120-37-5Davies, Graham (2001).Introduction to the Pentateuch.in Barton, John. Oxford Bible Com-mentary. Oxford University Press.p. 37. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=wCRYl9Ikk6EC&pg=PA37&dq=J.+Review+and+assessment.+1.+In+reviewing&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TkXwTv20MajJmQXmyMWWAg&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=J.%20Review%20and%20assessment.%201.%20In%20reviewing&f=falseDavies, Graham (2004). WasThere an Exodus?. in Day,John. In search of pre-exilicIsrael: proceedings of the OxfordOld Testament Seminar. Conti-nuum. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=yM_X2yzRLx4C&pg=PA23&dq=Was+there+an+Exodus+In+search+of+pre-exilic+Israel&hl=en&ei=DJsRTur8B9DwmAXwgemZDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falseDavies, Philip (1998). Scribesand Schools: The Canoniza-tion of the Hebrew Scriptures.Westminster John Knox. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=wjcOaNfz-HIC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA180#v=onepage&q&f=falseDever, William (2001). WhatDid the Biblical Writers Know,and When Did They Know It?.Eerdmans. ISBN 3-927120-37-5. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=What+did+the+biblical+writers+know,+and+when+did+they+know+it&source=bl&ots=hUc37Tquuc&sig=G5sPWFC-oG2TyfnLQz42GX7zutQ&hl=en&ei=i7PsTOu2F4i7ccGfqPYO&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CADQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&

7q&f=falseDever, William (2003). WhoWere the Early Israelites andWhere Did They Come From?.Eerdmans. ISBN 3-927120-37-5. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=A_ByXkpofAgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Who+Were+the+Early+Israelites+and+Where+Did+They+Come+From?&hl=en&sa=X&ei=F0lTT8vXN6ekiAfH0fHZAw&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Who%20Were%20the%20Early%20Israelites%20and%20Where%20Did%20They%20Come%20From%3F&f=falseDroge, Arthur J. (1996). JosephusBetween Greeks and Barbarians.in Feldman, L.H.; Levison, J.R..Josephus Contra Apion. Bri-ll. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=MpZwfMmH0n8C&pg=PR3&lpg=PR3&dq=Louis+H.+Feldman+and+John+R.+Levison,+%22Josephus%27+Contra+Apionem:+studies+in+its+character+and+context&source=bl&ots=BvriaPxqas&sig=Zv1c3QFZUzWJrb_qDGfI0TmTCFE&hl=en&ei=dh3_S8KtJsPJcaOwuY4K&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=falseFrerichs; Lesko; Dever, eds (1997).Exodus: The Egyptian Evidence.Eisenbrauns. ISBN 1-57506-025-6Feldman, Louis H. (1998).Josephuss interpretation of theBible. University of CaliforniaPress. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=S349d-yRgCIC&pg=PA342&dq=Osarsiph&lr=&ei=p_YBTNf8OYWOlQTX2py9DQ&cd=30#v=onepage&q=Osarsiph&f=falseFinkelstein, Israel; Silberman,Neil Asher (2001). The Bi-ble Unearthed. Free Press.ISBN 0-684-86912-8. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Bible+Unearthed&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4LJAT66DKa_qmAXi86DGBw&

ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Bible%20Unearthed&f=falseGmirkin, Russell E. (2006).Berossus and Genesis, Manethoand Exodus: Hellenistic Historiesand The Date of the Pentateuch.T & T Clark International. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=noKI6AsqnhMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gmirkin+2006&hl=en&sa=X&ei=AwZaT63qA4OXiAfe2ai6DQ&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Gmirkin%202006&f=falseGrisanti, Michael A. (2011).The Book of Numbers. inMerrill, Eugene H.; Rooker,Mark; Grisanti, Michael A.. TheWorld and the Word. B&H Pu-blishing. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=SMJF-3jBfg4C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=falseGuillaume, Philippe. Tracing theOrigin of the Sabbatical Calendarin the Priestly Narrative, Genesis1 to Joshua 5. Journal of He-brew Scriptures Vol.5, article 13,Spring 1980. https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:UMJeFqxwWh0J:www.arts.ualberta.ca/JHS/Articles/article_43.pdf+Tracing+the+origin+of+the+sabbatical+calendar&hl=en&gl=au&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESghhlL-vGGEQttylpUuQmMP2J4rzDi-LUAs44h8y-iNiecJIIXEet3pAo1O6OfvY6mojm9DdRYX9czJpByNcBuDG1G-RQu0qWqo83WOX8iqOG38CYSU6YFccS3oem5J6SvxJM0q&sig=AHIEtbReEalDIkOeaGIhKINwqsIiP9nLBA.Hayes, John Haralson; Miller,James Maxwell (1986). A Histo-ry of Ancient Israel and Judah.Westminster John Knox. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=uDijjc_D5P0C&lpg=PP1&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q&f=falseHomeier, James K (1999). Israelin Egypt. Oxford UniversityPress. ISBN 9780195130881.http://books.google.com.au/books?id=CT_lHTEcL6gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Hoffmeier+Israel+in+Egypt&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JkA-T4TEFoyZiQfbz4HeBA&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA#v=

8 10 BIBLIOGRAFIE

onepage&q=Hoffmeier%20Israel%20in%20Egypt&f=falseHomeier, James K (2005).Ancient Israel in Sinai.Oxford University Press.ISBN 9780195155464.http://books.google.com.au/books?id=SMZnDgFxiTUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Hoffmeier+Israel+in+Sinai&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i0A-T6_AOovMmAXrw4DYBw&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Hoffmeier%20Israel%20in%20Sinai&f=falseShaw, Ian (2002). Israel, Isra-elites. in Jameson, Robert;Ian. A dictionary of archaeo-logy. Wiley Blackwell. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&pg=PA313&dq=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan,&hl=en&ei=hThOTZaRK8uZhQe_vqWoDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22Iron%20Age%20Israel%22%20origins%20in%20Canaan%2C&f=false

Kantor, Mattis (2005). CodexJudaica. Zichron Press.http://books.google.com.au/books?id=6uK5pa3R4d8C&dq=The+children+of+Israel+%28Yisrael%29+left+Egypt&source=gbs_navlinks_sKillebrew, Anne E. (2005).Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity. So-ciety of Biblical Literature. http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=VtAmmwapfVAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=%22Killebrew%22+%22Biblical+peoples+and+ethnicity:+an+archaeological+study+...%22+&ots=ZaJvmpgnzk&sig=CzIY1aStY7SWB4f1uc9NWTUJocY#v=onepage&q=&f=falseKitchen, Kenneth (2006).Egyptology and the traditionsof early Hebrew antiquity (Gene-sis and Exodus). in Rogerson,John William; Lieu, Judith.The Oxford handbook of bibli-cal studies. Oxford UniversityPress. http://books.google.com.

au/books?id=HMkMeaijNT4C&pg=PA90&dq=Egyptology+and+the+traditions+of+early+Hebrew+antiquity+%28Genesis+and+Exodus%29&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7CNfT-6UIOqNiAfk5-nGBw&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Egyptology%20and%20the%20traditions%20of%20early%20Hebrew%20antiquity%20%28Genesis%20and%20Exodus%29&f=falseLemche, Niels Peter (1985).Early Israel: anthropological andhistorical studies. Brill. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=crA3AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lemche+Early+Israel:+anthropological+and+historical+studies&source=bl&ots=b3WBi8cVnK&sig=4XCoAjgrjmawnOBp8MEsARibkyc&hl=en&ei=vnJCTdu9EYv8vQPo_7yDAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falseLevinson, Bernard Mal-colm (1997). Deuteronomyand the hermeneutics of le-gal innovation. OUP. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=U-GJFShHwzsC&pg=PA58&lpg=PA58&dq=the+apotropaic+origin+of+the+passover&source=bl&ots=BfaGijqP-p&sig=zK1ASH3KMU1sucshP0CnrJPR60k&hl=en&ei=4HZnTKmlKtK8cYrZ4I8F&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=the%20apotropaic%20origin%20of%20the%20passover&f=falseMcDermott, John (2002). Readingthe Pentateuch. Paulist Press.http://books.google.com.au/books?id=Dkr7rVd3hAQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Reading+the+Pentateuch&source=bl&ots=_CJWaODak1&sig=34MiohXpIkBpdL0HUxFfn_6ouT4&hl=en&ei=Xa3zS6TNOs6GkAW3uvDlDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&

9q=McDermott%2C%20John.%20Reading%20the%20Pentateuch%3A%20A%20Historical%20Introduction.%20Paulist%20Press%2C%202002&f=falseMcEntire, Mark (2008).Struggling with God: An In-troduction to the Pentateuch.Mercer University Press. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=VwOs9f1FpmsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Struggling+with+God:+An+Introduction+to+the+Pentateuch&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XLdAT8zqCI_HmQW-zqTRBw&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Struggling%20with%20God%3A%20An%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Pentateuch&f=falseMeyers, Carol (2005). Exodus.Cambridge University Press. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=0QHHITXsyskC&pg=PA7&lpg=PP1&dq=Meyers+ExodusNoll, K.L. (2001). Canaan andIsrael in Antiquity: An Introduction.Sheeld Academic Press. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=2rnyjxLHy-QC&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15&dq=Canaan+and+Israel+in+antiquity:+an+introduction++By+K.+L.+Noll&source=bl&ots=bGxbh3KarI&sig=IVBitHijVMSXHXcpSZ7dBbyWyEo&hl=en&ei=Lc39S-zvOcOHccqL8YYK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falsePractico, Gary D. (Summer 1985).Nelson Gluecks 1938-1940Excavations at Tell el-Kheleifeh:A Reappraisal. Bulletin of theAmerican Schools of OrientalResearch (BASOR) No. 259: 1-32.http://www.bible.ca/archeology/bible-archeology-exodus-kadesh-barnea-ezion-geber-nelson-gluecks-1938-1940-excavations-tell-el-kheleifeh-reappraisal-gary-pratico-1985ad.htm.Redmount, Carol A. (1998).Bitter Lives: Israel In And Outof Egypt. in Coogan, Micha-el D.. The Oxford History ofthe Biblical World. OUP. http://books.google.com.au/books?

id=lIrbaEzoCZMC&pg=PT97&dq=Bitter+Lives:+Israel+in+and+out+of+Egypt&hl=en&sa=X&ei=LlVZT7DlDaOciAfh3dG9DQ&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Bitter%20Lives%3A%20Israel%20in%20and%20out%20of%20Egypt&f=falseRussell, Stephen C. (2009).Images of Egypt in early biblicalliterature. Walter de Gruyter.http://books.google.com.au/books?id=OMISLh2ZC08C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Images+of+Egypt+in+early+biblical+literature&source=bl&ots=pcFRmhj8cB&sig=FsAKzE4DxCrLGYYtp7C9h6JHXlU&hl=en&ei=Uw0bTZWIBoqsvgOYltiTDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=falseSoggin, John (1998 [tr.1999]).An Introduction to the Histo-ry of Israel and Judah. SCMPress. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=Dzw_H5GhkfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Alberto+Soggin,+%22An+Introduction+to+the+History+of+Israel+and+Judah&source=bl&ots=PtGxhrMcXu&sig=jvBk1SfRjrcsuqicovT9mqZ3qc4&hl=en&ei=QptGTPiDH8jMcNKC_I0B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falseTigay, Jerey H. (2004). Exodus.in Berlin, Adele; Brettler, MarcZvi. The Jewish study Bi-ble. Oxford University Press.http://books.google.com.au/books?id=aDuy3p5QvEYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Jewish+study+Bible&hl=en&ei=unbbTonKMZGQiQejvpjdDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Exodus&f=falseVan Seters, John (1997). TheGeography of the Exodus. in Sil-berman, Neil Ash. The land that Iwill show you. Sheeld Academic

10 11 VEZI I

Press. ISBN 978-1850756507.http://books.google.com.au/books?id=YzQe_4Waz34C&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Land+That+I+Will+Show+You:+Essays+in+History+and+Archaeology+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&source=bl&ots=Jjp2Y0h3Sz&sig=jauEX7cJJ8_AIVgGe9KfjDjYQzg&hl=en&ei=IQbxS-OzIpCTkAXp59HWBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falseWalton, John W. (2003). Exodus,date of. in Alexander, T.D.;Baker, David W.. Dictionaryof the Old Testament: Pentate-uch. InterVarsity Press. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=Ao5ecZ0ZsG8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dictionary+of+the+Old+Testament:+Pentateuch+Alexander&hl=en&ei=YgfYTpGfB4bymAWw1dT5Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Exodus%2C%20date%20of&f=falseWhitelam, Keith W. (2006).General problems of studyingthe text of the bible.... in Roger-son, John William; Lieu, Judith.The Oxford handbook of bibli-cal studies. Oxford UniversityPress. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=HMkMeaijNT4C&pg=PA255&dq=Introduction:+General+Problems+text+Hebrew+bible+reconstruct+social+background&hl=en&sa=X&ei=P_dfT_S-OsKyiQf_hszmBw&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=falseYounger, K. Lawson, Jr. (2004).Early Israel in recent biblicalstudies. in Arnold, Bill T.; Ba-ker, David W.. The face of OldTestament studies. Baker Acade-mic. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=vO8XRZyhvpMC&pg=PA176&dq=Early+Israel+in+recent+biblical+scholarship+Younger&hl=en&sa=X&ei=fLZAT-vcLeOXiAfjounnBA&

ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Early%20Israel%20in%20recent%20biblical%20scholarship%20Younger&f=false

11 Vezi i Antisemitism Cronologia antisemitismului Afacerea Dreyfus Inchiziie Criptoiudaism Istoria evreilor n timpul celui de-al Doilea rzboimondial

Sionism Theodor Herzl Acordul SykesPicot Declaraia Balfour (1917) Mandatul britanic pentru Palestina Conferina de Pace de la Paris din 1919 Istoria Israelului Istoria evreilor n Israel Triburile israelite Regatul Israel Evrei Evrei sefarzi Evrei akenazi Steaua lui David Tora Talmud Palestina Revolta lui Bar Kohba Rzboaiele romanilor cu evreii Diaspora evreiasc Populaia evreiasc Evrei dup ri tiina evreiasc

11

Diviziarea evreilor dup etnii Refugiai evrei Exodul evreilor din lumea arab Josephus, un istoric evreu celebru din Imperiul Ro-man

Iudaism Liste al evreilor faimoi Cronologie a istoriei evreilor Istoria evreilor n Romnia

12 Note[1] en http://www.bible-history.com/maps/israel_judah_

kings.html

[2] Histricamente, no podemos hablar ms de un periodode los Patriarcas, del xodo de los israelitas de Egipto,de la con quista de Canan, de un periodo de los Juecesen Palestina, ni de una Monarqua Unida dominandodesde el ufrates hasta el Arco de Egipto.31 Inclusola historicidad del Exilio de los israelitas de Palestinahacia Babilonia como un evento nico ha sido puesta enseria duda recientemente.32 31 Cf. Th. L. Thompson,Early History of the Israelite People: From the Writtenand Archaeological Sources, Studies in the History ofthe Ancient Near East, 4, Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1992, pp.10-116, 146-158, 215-300, 401412; N. P. Lemche,Early Israel Revisited, Currents in Research: BiblicalStudies, vol. 4, 1996, pp. 9-34, y The Israelites in Historyand Tradition, Library of Ancient Israel, Louisville, wjk,1998, pp. 35 85; I. Finkelstein y N. A. Silberman, TheBible Unearthed: Archaeologys New Vision on AncientIsrael and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts,Nueva York, FreePress, 2001, pp. 27-96, 123-145. Vease tambien Live-rani, Oltre la Bibbia. Storia antica di Israele, Roma-Bari,Laterza, 2003, y Recenti tendenze nella ricostruzione dellastoria antica d'Israele, Roma, Accademia Nazionale deiLincei, 2005. 32 L. L. Grabbe (ed.), Leading CaptivityCaptive: The Exile as History and Ideology, Journal forthe Study of the Old Testament - Supplement Series,278/European Seminar in Historical Methodology, 2,Sheeld, Sheeld Academic Press, 1998.Emanuel Pfoh, UNA DECONSTRUCCIN DELPASADO DE ISRAEL EN EL ANTIGUO ORIENTE:HACIA UNA NUEVA HISTORIA DE LA ANTIGUAPALESTINA, Estudios de Asia y frica, Vol. 45, No. 3(143) (SEPTIEMBRE-DICIEMBRE, 2010), pp.669-697,Published by: El Colegio De Mexico, Stable URL:http://www.jstor.org/stable/25822403''

[3] http://peterennsonline.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2007/12/exodus-and-the-problem-of-historiography-rr-new-version-final-dec-05.pdf

[4] Dever 2001, p. 99.

[5] Walton 2003, p. 258.

[6] Redmount 1998, p. 64.

[7] Bibles Buried Secrets, Did God have AWife, BBC, 2011.Citat: The Bible was an unreliable source, its not tellingus the truth about these ancient people.

[8] Ibidem. Citat: Between the 10th century and the begin-ning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normalreligion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things beginto change and very slowly they begin to change. I wouldsay it is only correct for the last centuries, maybe onlyfrom the period of the Maccabees, that means the secondcentury BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true,but for the time before it, it is not true.

[9] Golden, Jonathan Michael (2004) (n englez). AncientCanaan and Israel: new perspectives. Santa Barbara:ABC-CLIO, Inc. p. 274. ISBN 1-57607-897-3. http://books.google.com/?id=yTMzJAKowyEC&pg=PA274&dq=archaeological+proof+king+david#v=onepage&q=archaeological%20proof%20king%20david&f=false.Accesat la 14 ianuarie 2011

[10] Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002) [2001].8. In the Shadow of Empire (842-720 BCE) (nenglez). The Bible Unearthed. Archaeologys NewVision of Ancient Israel and The Origin of Its SacredTexts. (ed. First Touchstone Edition 2002). New York:Touchstone. pp. 189190. ISBN 978-0-684-86913-1.http://books.google.nl/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&pg=PA190&dq=david+and+solomon+%22little+more+than+hill-country+chieftains&hl=nl&ei=36DVTPbjG4ej4Qa7qoniBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=david%20and%20solomon%20%22little%20more%20than%20hill-country%20chieftains&f=false. Archaeologically and historically, the redating ofthese cities from Solomons era to the time of Omrideshas enormous implication. It removes the only archeo-logical evidence that there was ever a united monarchybased in Jerusalem and suggests that David and Solomonwere, in political terms, little more than hill countrychieftains, whose administrative reach remained on afairy local level, restricted to the hill country.

[11] Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002)[2001]. 5. Memories of a Golden Age? (n engle-z). The Bible Unearthed. Archaeologys New Visionof Ancient Israel and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts.(ed. First Touchstone Edition 2002). New York:Touchstone. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-684-86913-1.http://books.google.nl/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&pg=PA133&dq=bible+unearthed+jerusalem+country+village&hl=nl&ei=kd7VTMG0AY2Z4Aa685mhBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. Yet exca-vations in the city of David revealed impressive ndsfrom the Middle Bronze Age and from later centuries ofthe Iron Agejust not from the tenth century BCE. Themost optimistic assessment of this negative evidence isthat tenth century Jerusalem was rather limited in extent,perhaps not more than a typical hill country village.

12 12 NOTE

[12] Richard N. OstlingWas King David legend or ction? As-sociated Press.

[13] Vezi i Archaeological Debate about a Proposed LowChronology for Iron I-IIA (sursa nregistreaz articolepro i contra).

[14] Coogan, Michael (octombrie 2010). 4. Thou ShaltNot: Forbidden Sexual Relationships in the Bible (nenglez). God and Sex. What the Bible Really Says (ed.1st). New York, Boston: Twelve. Hachette Book Group.p. 105. ISBN 978-0-446-54525-9. http://books.google.nl/books?id=2_gPKQEACAAJ&dq=god+and+sex&hl=nl&ei=4fbCTaPKDpGXOrq88Z0I&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CEcQ6AEwAQ.Accesat la 5 mai 2011. Jerusalem was no exception,except that it was barely a cityby our standards, just avillage. In Davids time, its population was only a fewthousand, who lived on about a dozen acres, roughlyequal to two blocks in Midtown Manhattan.

[15] Cf. http://icarusfilms.com/new2006/bib2.html

[16] Laura Miller King David was a nebbish. Salon.com. Ci-tat: Herzog laid out many of the theories Finkelstein andSilberman present in their book: the Israelites were neverin Egypt, did not wander in the desert, did not conquer theland [of Canaan] in a military campaign and did not passit on to the twelve tribes of Israel. Perhaps even harder toswallow is the fact that the united kingdom of David andSolomon, described in the Bible as a regional power, wasat most a small tribal kingdom. The new theories envisionthis modest chiefdom as based in a Jerusalem that was es-sentially a cow town, not the glorious capital of an empire.Although, as Herzog notes, some of these ndings havebeen accepted by the majority of biblical scholars and ar-chaeologists for years and even decades, they are just nowmaking a dent in the awareness of the Israeli publicavery painful dent.

[17] The Devil Is Not So Black as He Is Painted BAR intervi-ews Israel Finkelstein

[18] Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihay (2007). A Su-mmary Assessment for Part 1. The quest for thehistorical Israel: debating archaeology and the his-tory of early Israel : invited lectures delivered at theSixth Biennial Colloquium of the International Insti-tute for Secular Humanistic Judaism, Detroit, October2005. Brian B. Schmidt. Atlanta, GA: Society ofBiblical Literature. p. 8. ISBN 9-781589-832770.http://books.google.nl/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC&pg=PA8&dq=The+Quest+for+the+Historical+Israel:Debating+Archeology+and+the+History+of+Early+Israel+resultant+biblical+traditions&hl=nl&ei=E1P5TO2oLM6z8QPs3anECQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. Accesat la 3 decembrie 2010.The farther one goes from what Mazar views as thepivotal period of biblical composition, that is, the eighthto seventh centuries B.C.E., the more imaginative,symbolic, distorted, and foggier that past becomes.In addition, one must take into account the impact thatsuch factors as distortion, selectivity, memory loss,censorship, and ideological or personal bias might have

brought to bear on the composition of the resultantbiblical traditions.

[19] Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2006). 3.Murder, Lust, and Betrayal (n englez). David andSolomon. In Search of the Bibles Sacred Kings andthe Roots of the Western Tradition.. New York: FreePress. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-7432-4363-6. http://books.google.nl/books?id=uH7Kg9yEc7AC&pg=PA103&dq=represented+the+north%27s+takeover+by+marriage+of+Judah&hl=nl&ei=_d0TTY6EJsqyhAeL_aS4Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=represented%20the%20north%27s%20takeover%20by%20marriage%20of%20Judah&f=false. Accesat la 24 decembrie 2010.The Bible reports that Jehoshaphat, a contemporary ofAhab, oered manpower and horses for the northernkingdoms wars against the Arameans. He strengthenedhis relationship with the northern kingdom by arranginga diplomatic marriage: the Israelite princess Athaliah,sister or daughter of King Ahab, married Jehoram, theson of Jehoshaphat (2 Kings 8:18). The house of Davidin Jerusalem was now directly linked to (and apparentlydominated by) the Israelite royalty of Samaria. Infact, we might suggest that this represented the northstakeover by marriage of Judah. Thus in the ninth centuryBCEnearly a century after the presumed time ofDavidwe can nally point to the historical existence ofa great united monarchy of Israel, stretching from Danin the north to Beer-sheba in the south, with signicantconquered territories in Syria and Transjordan. But thisunited monarchya real united monarchywas ruledby the Omrides, not the Davidides, and its capital wasSamaria, not Jerusalem.

[20] Philip Davies The Bible and Interpretation Beyond Labels:What Comes Next?

[21] Philip Davies Minimalism, Ancient Israel, and Anti-Semitism. Citat: Let me reinforce this claim in respectto my own work. The mainstream view of critical biblicalscholarship accepts that Genesis-Joshua (perhaps Judges)is substantially devoid of reliable history and that it was inthe Persian period that the bulk of Hebrew Bible literatu-re was either composed or achieved its canonical shape.I thus nd attempts to push me out onto the margin ofscholarship laughable.

[22] Jack Cargill Ancient Israel inWestern Civ Textbooks His-torycooperative.org

[23] Lester L. Grabbe "Some Recent Issues in the Study of theHistory of Israel" Proceedings of the British Academy,143, 57-67, 2007.

[24] Bibles Buried Secrets, Did Kings David Empire Exist,BBC, 2011.

[25] http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=169388Citat: Nonetheless, other archeologists posit that thebiblical narrative reecting the existence of a powerfulmonarchy in Jerusalem is largely mythical and that therewas no strong government to speak of in that era.Aren Maeir, an archeology professor at Bar Ilan Univer-sity, said he has yet to see evidence that the forticationsare as old as Mazar claims. There are remains from the

13

10th century in Jerusalem, he said, but proof of a strong,centralized kingdom at that time remains tenuous."

[26] Robert Draper David and Solomon. Kings of Controver-sy. National Geographic, decembrie 2010.

[27] Steven Erlanger, King Davids Palace Is Found, Archa-eologist Says, New York Times International, JerusalemJournal, 5 august 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/05/international/middleeast/05jerusalem.html?_r=1 .Citat: Amihai Mazar, a professor of archaeology at He-brew University, calls the nd something of a miracle.He says he believes that the building may be the Fortressof Zion that David is said to have conquered, which he re-named the City of David. What she found is fascinating,whatever it is, he said.

[28] Larousse, Istoria lumii de la origini pn n anul 2000, ed.Olimp, Bucureti, 2000, p. 91

13 Legturi externe en The Jewish History Resource Center. Project ofthe Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History,The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

en Resources> Modern Period> 20th Cent.> His-tory of Israel> State of Israel The Jewish HistoryResource Center, Project of the Dinur Center forResearch in Jewish History, The Hebrew Universityof Jerusalem

en Jewish Virtual Library. Extremely comprehensi-ve

en Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia O-cial Site of the 22 Volume Encyclopaedia Judaica

en Internet Jewish History Sourcebook oering ho-mework help and online texts

en Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of theReligion of Israel.

en Greek Inuence on Judaism from the HellenisticPeriod Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE-1200CE.

en Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period. en The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans andtheir Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects.

en Jewish History Tables. Articles on Australian Jewish history. Articles on British Jewish history. Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). A Historical Atlas of the Jewish

People. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992.ISBN 0-679-40332-9

en Crash Course in Jewish History

en Jewish History chabad.org en Jewish families in Csics - Cicov (Slovakia) untilthe Holocaust

en Under the Inuence: Hellenism in AncientJewish Life Biblical Archaeology Society

en Summary of Jewish History by Berel Wein en The Jews of Wyoming: Fringe of the DiasporaISBN 978-0-9676357-0-5 by Penny Wolin, 2000

14 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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