Kaan-Nalla vs 2008-4 Ang

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Police Organizational

Culture and Job Satisfaction:A Comparison of LawEnforcement Ofcers’

Perceptions in TwoMidwestern States in the U.S.

Kaan Boke, Mahesh K. Nalla

ABSTRACT

Purpose:This article examines the relationship between organizational culture, police

enforcement strategies, and job satisfaction among police ocers working invarious cities in two Midwestern states in the United States.Design/Methodology/Approach:

Data for the study was gathered from 669 respondents in ve mediumand large sized police organizations in two adjacent Midwestern States. Morespecically, police ocers’ (supervisors and non-supervisors) perceptions aboutorganizational factors of job satisfaction are examined. Independent variablesincluded both individual and organizational characteristics.Findings:

Findings suggest that organizational characteristics are beer predictors of jobsatisfaction than individual factors. Among the individual factors, in contrast towhat was found by prior research, race was the only signicant factor in predicting

job satisfaction in state wide comparisons, whereas management support, socialcohesion, and job challenges emerged as strong predictors of job satisfaction.Research limitations/implications:

Research is limited to mid-Western states. Given the decentralized nature ofpolicing in the U.S. further research should examine variations between regionsand states.Originality/Value:

Most research on police ocers’ job satisfaction has been undertaken inrelation to individual factors while ignoring the role of organizational culture andenvironmental factors. This research examines the determinants of individual,

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organizational and environmental factors on law enforcement ocers’ jobsatisfaction.

UDK: 351.741(73)

Keywords: job satisfaction, organizational culture, police, Midwest, motivation

1 INTRODUCTION

The relationship between work environment and job satisfaction has been recognizedfor over sixty years since Maslov (1943) rst introduced his theory of the “hierarchyof needs”. In it, he posited that as humans’ basic needs are met they push hard toachieve higher needs in both the private and public sectors and, thus acknowledgesthe importance of human motivation. Herzberg and his colleagues (1959) expanded

Maslov’s work and argued that whilst job factors such as recognition, achievement,responsibility, and the nature of work do inuence job performance, other factorssuch as work environment and relations with supervisors determine employeesatisfaction. These contributions were stepping stones which inuenced a large

body of research in both the private and public sectors with well over 3,000 studiesconducted on the determinants of job satisfaction (Mitchell, Larson 1987). In 1991,a key word index search on “job satisfaction” in the PSYCINFO database producedover 6,000 hits for articles and monographs (Jayaratne, 1993).

This enormous amount of research focus on both the private and public sectorshas led to an adoption of reforms aimed at bringing about change in organizationsto increase job performance and worker motivation. However, research on onesector of public organizations, namely, law enforcement agencies and police

ocers’ job satisfaction, has received very sparse aention. Buzawa and hercolleagues (1994) identied about twenty articles that examine the determinants ofpolice ocers’ job satisfaction, making this eld one of the most under-researchedelds of criminal justice (Dantzker, 1994). Most of the earlier work focuses rathernarrowly on the relationship between demographic characteristics such asgender on job satisfaction (Belknap, Shelley, 1992; Buzawa, 1984; Buzawa et al.,1994; Hunt, McCadden, 1985), ethnicity (Buzawa, 1984; Buzawa et al., 1994), rank(Dantzker, 1994; Buzawa, 1984; Hunt, McCadden, 1985) and education (Buzawa,1984; Sherman, 1980; Dantzker, 1992). Research ndings were mixed in terms oftheir potential to explain job satisfaction although signicant relationships wereidentied by earlier work in relation to the positive impact of education on police

work (Dantzker, 1994; Buzawa, 1984; Sherman, 1980). With the exception of a fewmore recent research studies that go beyond demographic variables and focus onwork environment (Zhao et al., 1999), very lile research addresses the importantissues of organizational and community factors, including management support,

job challenges, social networks, and citizen cooperation on job satisfaction. Further,most of the earlier studies focus on single city law enforcement agencies (e.g.,Buzawa, 1984; Zhao et al., 1999).

The aim of this article is to advance the knowledge of determinants of policeocers’ job satisfaction in two Midwestern states in the U.S. More specically,

Police Organizational Culture and Job Satisfaction: A Comparison of Law Enforcement Ofcers’ ...

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this article examines the impact of demographic, as well as organizational andenvironmental factors, on ocers’ job satisfaction. Additional analyses of threemajor cities in these two states were conducted to examine for similarities anddierences on the determinants of job satisfaction in the two states.

2 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND JOB SATISFACTION

Herzberg (1968) identied many factors that contribute to job satisfaction. Heargued that apart from the importance of the work itself, other aributes such asthe responsibility that comes with the job and the recognition one receives fromwork greatly inuence job satisfaction. Using this perspective as a springboard,researchers developed a more comprehensive approach to understanding largerwork environments, through the study of organizational culture and its impactupon human relations and work conditions. Organizational culture is a socially

constructed phenomenon consisting of a set of values, beliefs, and behavioralpaerns (Denison, 1983) which not only conveys a sense of identity to its members(Willmo, 1993) but is also shared by the members (Weick, 1979) and inuencesthe commitment of its members to the organization beyond themselves (Willmo,1993). Organizational culture consists of informal rules (Deal, Kennedy, 1982) witha, “set of symbols, ceremonies and myths that communicates the underlying valuesand beliefs of that organization to its employees” (Ouchi, 1981: 41).

A basic understanding of culture is essential to the understanding of formal andinformal employee behaviors. Organizational culture inuences employees bothdirectly and indirectly. Research from mainstream business organizations suggeststhat organizational climate inuences productivity, eectiveness, performance

(Denison, 1990; Denison, Mishra, 1995; O’Reilly, 1989), job satisfaction, ( Jackofsky,Slocum, 1987), innovativeness (Lorsch, 1985), and leadership and decision-making(Sapienza, 1985). Subcultures within larger organizations are shaped by conditionssuch as dierential interaction based on structure, location, size, and division oflabor; shared experiences, leading to similar personal characteristics and socialcohesion (Louis, 1985; Trice, Beyer, 1993).

2.1 Police Organizational Culture

Police organizational culture in the U.S. and other developed countries has been

studied for more than forty years (Paoline, 2004). The conception of culture inpolice literature is primarily drawn from anthropological and sociological research(Chan, 1997). Essentially, police culture is a set of ideas, customs, accepted practices,information and rules of conduct, and core skills that dene ‘good police work’ andgive meaning to police work (Manning, 1977, 1989; Kingsho et al., 2004). Most ofthis work relates to the relationship between police culture and police use of force,corruption, deviant behavior, discretion and management (Harrison, 1998).

McDonald, Gagan and Greenberg (1997) suggest that the concept of policeculture includes the merging of two main elements: the image of objective and


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professional crime ghters and a system of informal beliefs and behaviors. Skolnick(1966) argues that police develop a “working personality” as a consequence oftheir work environment, especially because of the essential elements of their workconditions—danger, authority, and eciency. He states that the potential dangers

of routine police work lead police ocers to develop feelings of suspicion towards,and isolation from, the public. Further, Skolnick claims that when police exertauthority, this action limits citizens’ liberty, which leads to some citizens resistingor challenging police ocers’ authority and that this response reinforces the dangerin police work.

Individual, organizational and environmental factors aect ocers’understanding of their organizational culture, which in turn helps shape theirorientation towards police work and, subsequently, their satisfaction with the workitself. Most research on police ocers’ job satisfaction has been done in relation toindividual factors while ignoring the role of organizational culture and environmentalfactors. Following Herzberg’s (1968) theory that work environment is an important

variable that explains job satisfaction, literature drawn from organizational studiesshowing the relationship between organizational support and job satisfaction arealso included in this study in order to examine the determinants of job satisfaction.This study thus aempts to ll the void by examining determinants comprisingindividual and organizational factors on police ocers’ job satisfaction in twoMidwestern states, namely Michigan and Ohio. Further, this article comparesthree major cities within these two states: Detroit (Michigan), and Columbus andCleveland (Ohio) to examine how comparable these factors are in explaining jobsatisfaction in departments which are located in similar cultural contexts.

2.2 Methodology

Data were gathered from police ocers in ve Midwest (Michigan and Ohio) cities.More specically, police ocers’ (supervisors and non-supervisors) perceptionsabout organizational factors of job satisfaction are examined. Specically, thisstudy examines whether the dimensions of organizational culture, in addition toindividual factors, aect police ocers’ perceptions about job satisfaction.

2.3 Survey Instrument

This study intends to acquire a thorough understanding of the views of policeocers. In this study Zeitz, Russell and Ritchie’s (1997) organizational cultureindex is used. Based on an extensive literature review, Zeitz et al. (1997) developedten priori dimensions of organizational culture and a factor analysis of results from866 respondents indicated ve essential dimensions of organizational culture.The instruments developed by Zeitz et al. have been utilized in various studies(Armstrong-Stassen et al., 2001; Armstrong-Stassen et al., 2005; Cameron et al.,2004; Carmeli, 2005; Chen et al., 2005; Douglas, Fredendall, 2004; Kayis et al.,2003; Korunka et al., 2003; Lee et al., 2003; Payne et al., 2002; Pool, 2000; Prajogo,


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McDermo, 2005; Sridhar et al., 2004; Swan-Smith et al., 2002) and, “the scaleshave very acceptable psychometric properties in measuring culture aributes”(Pool, 2000: 375).

2.4 Measurement of Variables

For this study, data was collected utilizing a questionnaire divided into twosections. The rst section was designed to collect socio-demographic informationon police ocers, including age, gender, experience, rank, race, population of cityof origin, and family and relatives’ occupations in specic elds, which allowedfor a comparison of dierent groups of police ocers. The second section of thestudy was designed to evaluate individual ocers’ perceptions of the dierentdimensions of organizational culture.

Following Cooke and Rousseau’s (1988) suggestion, for this study

organizational culture is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct with eachdimension being an essential and signicant element of the larger organization. Thecurrent study has adopted Zeitz et al.’s (1997) organizational culture index and alsoincludes several dierent dimensions related to police work. The reliability andvalidity of these scales were extensively tested by Zeitz et al. (1997) and additionalfactor and reliability tests are also conducted in this study.

In addition to Zeitz et al. (1997), extensive studies of organizational culturedimensions were carried out by Berry (1991), Carr and Liman (1990), Crosby(1979), Dean and Evans (1994), Denison (1996), Gordon and DiTomaso (1992),Hunt (1992), Juran (1995), Lawler, Mohrman and Ledford (1995), McMillan (1989),O’Reilley, Chatman and Caldwell (1991), Payne and Manseld (1973), Payne,

Nielsen and Tyran (2002), Ross (1993), Rousseau (1990), Schmidt and Finnegan(1992), Scholtes (1988) and Xenikou and Furnham (1996). In this study, vedimensions of organizational culture are used to measure the self perceptions ofpolice ocers and their relationships to job satisfaction. These dimensions are: (1)management support, (2) job challenges, (3) loyalty, (4) social cohesion, and (5)citizen cooperation.

2.5 Research Sites, Samples and Administration of Questionnaires

Michigan: One large city and two medium sized cities in Michigan were chosen for

this study. Law enforcement agencies comprised of more than 150 police ocerswere identied and contacted for permission to administer the survey. Detroit,Ann Arbor and Southeld Police Departments gave permission to administer thesurveys. Detroit, with a population of approximately 952.000 people, is the biggestcity in Michigan. Detroit PD is comprised of 4,804 employees (4,154 sworn ocers)and is the sixth biggest local police department in the U.S. City police is dividedinto six newly structured police districts: (1) Northwest, (2) Southwest, (3) Eastern,(4) Northeastern, (5) Central, and (6) Western.


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F u l l

t i m e

E m p l o y e e s

S w o r n O f c e r s

( N u m

b e r &

P e r c

e n t )

O f c e r A

s s i g n e d

t o

r e s p

o n d

t o

c a l l s ( N u

m b e r &

P e r c

e n t )

C i t y P o p

u l a t i o n

O f c e

r s p e r

1 0 . 0

0 0 r e s i d e n t s

MICHIGAN

Detroit 4.804 4.154 (%86) 2.186 (%53) 951.270 44

Ann Arbor 226 159 (%70) 72 (%39) 114.024 15

Southeld 176 157 (%89) 119 (%76) 78.296 20

OHIO

Columbus 2.114 1.787 (%84) 1.535 (%88) 763.351 23

Cleveland 2.386 1.822 (%76) 800 (%44) 478.403 38

* Reaves & Hickman (2004: 26, 28); U.S. census data (2000) and ocial websites of policedepartments.

Ann Arbor, with a population of approximately 114,000 people, is the one‘university city’ in Michigan. Ann Arbor PD is comprised of 226 employees (159sworn ocers). Southeld, with a population of approximately 78,300 people, is amedium size city with 176 employees (157 sworn ocers).

Because of the dierent sizes of the cities, dierent methods of surveyadministration were utilized. For Ann Arbor and Southeld, surveys weredistributed (total three hundred) to the entire department. For Detroit, due to itssize, the department authorized distribution of three hundred surveys to randomly

selected ocers in each of the six districts.Ohio: Two large cities, Columbus and Cleveland, were selected. Columbus,

with a population of approximately 763.351, is the capital city of Ohio. ColumbusPD, comprised of 2,114 employees (1,787 sworn ocers), is the second biggest localpolice department in Ohio, and is the twenty fourth biggest local police departmentin the U.S.

Cleveland, with a population of approximately 478.403, is the second biggestcity of Ohio. Cleveland PD is comprised of 2,386 employees (1,822 sworn ocers)and is the biggest local police department in Ohio, and is the twenty rst largest localpolice department in the U.S. In total, seven hundred surveys were distributed toCleveland and Columbus police departments (three hundred and y for each).

2.6 Dependent Variable

In this study, ocers’ job satisfaction was used as a dependent variable. Job satisfaction was measured by using four questions which were designed ona ve point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ = 1 to ‘strongly agree’ = 5 (seeAppendix). A high score reects higher levels of job satisfaction. Questions relating tosatisfaction with being a police ocer, looking forward to going to work every day, and

Table 1:Study Sites


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if they had a choice to restart their careers would they choose to become a police ocerwere among the questions included in this scale. All the items were loaded in theirintended scale, with item loadings ranging from .72 to .92 and communalities weregreater than .50. The job satisfaction factor explains 69 percent of the common

variance and has a Cronbach’s alpha of .84.

2.7 Independent Variables

Independent variables are divided into individual or demographic characteristicsand organizational and environmental dimensions.

Individual and Demographic Factors: These micro-level variables dominatethe police organizational culture literature (e.g. Crank, Payn, Jackson, 1993; Davis,1984; Fielding, Fielding, 1987; Shernock, 1992; Sun, Payne, 2004; Worden, 1993;Walker, 1983) and police job satisfaction literature (Belknap, Shelley, 1992; Buzawa,

1984, Buzawa et al., 1994; Hunt, McCadden, 1985; Dantzker, 1992, 1994; Sherman,1980; Zhao et al., 1999). This study includes the following variables: gender,education, experience, population of city of origin, and ocer rank.

Organizational culture and environmental dimensions: Management support, job challenges, loyalty, social cohesion, and citizen cooperation are included inthis study. Each of the dimensions is evaluated with between three and ve items/questions (see Appendix). The answer to each question is coded on a ve pointLikert scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ = 1 to ‘strongly agree’ = 5. The scalesare reliable, with all six scales having a Cronbach’s alpha of greater than .70, andthe lowest alpha being .70, associated with both ‘job challenge’, and the highestalpha of .86 associated with ‘improvement’ scale.

Overall, and drawing from previous literature, this article assumes thatindividual, organizational and environmental factors have signicant eects onpolice ocers’ perceptions of job satisfaction. Also this study believes that policeocers’ environment (in particular, State and City dierences) has the largest eecton police ocers’ perceptions given the decentralized nature of police organizationsin the U.S. It can also be assumed that dimensions of the organizational culture andorientation to police work explain more variance in the police ocers’ perceptionsthan individual and organizational factors do.

3 FINDINGS

Seven hundred questionnaires (350 in each city) were administered to randomlyselected police ocers and supervisors in Ohio’s two police departments, out ofwhich 350 useable surveys (50 percent response rate) were received. Six hundredquestionnaires were distributed in Michigan and 319 useable surveys were returned(53 percent response rate).


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3.1 Characteristics of the Respondent

The demographic characteristics of the police ocers in Michigan and Ohio arepresented in Table 2. In Michigan nearly a quarter of all the respondents are 30years or younger, 43 percent are in the age group of 31 to 40 years of age, and theremaining 34 percent are 41 years or older. From the Ohio group, only 6 percent ofthe ocers are in the age group of 30 years or younger, while 42 percent are in the31-40 years age group, and the remaining half of all ocers are 41 years or older.A lile over two-thirds of all respondents in Michigan and Ohio are male. A largerpercentage of ocers in Michigan have University degrees (43 percent) comparedto Ohio (29 percent). Michigan respondents are nearly equally distributed in theexperience categories of 10 years or less and 11 years and more. However, overtwo-thirds of the respondents from Ohio have 11 or more years experience andnearly 85 percent of the respondents from Michigan are line ocers comparedto Ohio’s 70 percent. Finally, 50 percent of Michigan respondents are non-white

compared to 28 percent from Ohio.

Michigan (n = 319)

Ohio(n = 350)

N % N %

Age

30 years or less 73 23 22 6

31-40 years 137 43 145 42

41 years and more 109 34 181 52

Gender

Male 227 72 268 78Female 89 28 77 22

Level of Education

Police School 181 57 248 71

University or above 137 43 101 29

Experience

10 years or less 152 48 95 27

11 years or more 162 52 255 73

Population of city of origin

250.000 or less 149 47 133 38

250.001 or more 167 53 215 62

RankSupervisors 46 15 103 30

Line Ocers 270 85 244 70

Race

Caucasian 157 50 249 72

Non-White 156 50 97 28

Table 2:Demographics

of PoliceOcers in

Midwest, U.S.(N = 669)


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3.2 Comparison of Organizational Characteristics

In addition to the individual and demographic characteristics, this study alsocompares the mean scores of the organizational dimensions included in thestudy. The ndings are presented in Table 3. On each of the ve organizationaldimensions included in our study Ohio’s police ocers rate their perceptionsfavorably towards each factor relative to Michigan’s respondents. For example,on the issue of management support, Ohio’s mean score was 24.43 compared toMichigan’s 19.09. This nding suggests that Ohio’s respondents are slightly morepositive about their management support and this mean dierence is found to

be statistically signicant. Similarly, Ohio’s respondents indicate that their jobsare slightly more challenging, have a stronger social cohesion, and enjoy morepositive citizen cooperation. All these mean dierences are found to be statisticallysignicant. On the issue of loyalty, there appears to be no strong evidence of loyaltyto their fellow ocers in both states. This nding is not statistically signicant.

Michigan(N = 319)

Ohio(N = 350)

SCALES M SD M SD F

Management Support (8-40) 19.09 8.04 24.43 6.66 **87.04

Job Challenges (5-25) 17.76 4.11 18.42 3.72 *4.58

Social Cohesion (4-20) 13.06 2.98 13.55 3.09 *4.20

Citizen Cooperation (3-15) 9.17 2.88 10.04 2.35 **18.44

Loyalty (3-15) 6.73 2.50 7.07 2.19 3.49

Mean scores: 1 represents strongly disagree and5 represents strongly agree on each of the items in each scale.

p < .05, ** p < .01 (two-tailed)

3.3 Determinants of Job Satisfaction in Michigan and Ohio

Findings on police ocers’ perceptions of job satisfaction are presented in Table4. This model suggests (R2.312) a combined variance of 31 percent of the variationin job satisfaction as explained by these variables. Police ocers’ perceptionsregarding the challenging nature of the police job is the strongest (Beta .261)predictor of ocers’ job satisfaction in Michigan. Diagnostics for multi-colinearity

are performed to make sure that the independent variables are not correlated. Thestatistical signicance of the regression coecients indicates that individual andorganizational factors have signicant eects on perceptions of job satisfaction.In Michigan, non-white ocers, as compared to white ocers, are less satisedwith their job. Ocers who perceive a high level of management support andpositive citizen cooperation are more likely to be satised with their jobs. Finally,the challenging nature of the police job positively contributes to the ocers’satisfaction with their jobs in the Michigan group.

Table 3:Comparisonof MeanDierencesamongStates forOrganizationalDimensions inU.S. (N = 669)


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Variables

Michigan(N=319)

Ohio(N=350)

B /SD Beta B/SD Beta

Individual Factors

Experience (Experienced =1) -.141/.405 -.019 -.587/.320 -.096

Gender (Male=1) -.724/.420 -.089 .071/.315 .011

Education (University or more=1) .162/.401 .022 -.109/.286 -.018

Race (Non-White=1) -1.396/.399 **-.192 .091/.215 .015

Ocer from larger population -.310/.405 -.042 .281/.262 .050

Rank (Supervisors =1) .555/.571 .054 .439/.307 .075

Organizational Culture Dimensions

Management Support .067/.025 **.150 .071/.021 **.172

Citizen Cooperation .287/.072 **.222 .016/.056 .014

Job Challenges .231/.047 **.261 .294/.037 **.400

Loyalty -.048/.075 -.033 -.028/.061 -.023

Social Cohesion .090/.067 .073 .154/.045 **.170

R2 0.312 0.333

F 11.354 14.244

In Ohio, police ocers who perceive a high level of management support andsocial cohesion in their work are more likely to be satised with their jobs. Thechallenging nature of policework positively contributes to ocers’ satisfaction withtheir job in the Ohio group. Individual factors do not signicantly contribute to themodel in Ohio. The R squared (.333) value indicates that 33 percent of the variationin job satisfaction is explained by these variables. Police ocers’ perceptions about

the challenging nature of the police job is the strongest (Beta .400) predictor ofocers’ job satisfaction in the Ohio group.

3.4 Determinants of Job Satisfaction in Detroit (MI), Columbus (OH),and Cleveland (OH)

The ndings in Table 5 indicate the relationship between various independentvariables and job satisfaction in three big police organizations in two MidwesternU.S. states. Statistical signicance of the regression coecients indicates thatindividual and organizational factors have signicant eects on perceptions of job

satisfaction.In Detroit, police ocers who perceive a high level of social cohesion in their

work are more likely to be satised with their jobs. The challenging nature of policework positively contributes to the ocers’ satisfaction with their jobs in the Detroitgroup. Individual factors do not signicantly aect ocers’ job satisfaction in theDetroit group.

Table 4: OLSRegression of

Job Satisfaction(N=669)


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Detroit (N=201) Columbus (N=187) Cleveland (N=163)

Variables B/Sd Beta B/Sd Beta B/Sd Beta

Individual Factors

Experience(Experienced =1) -.732/.585 -.099 -.413/.431 -.071 -.523/.502 -.084

Gender (Male=1) -.356/.578 -.045 .259/.452 .039 -.298/.455 -.047

Education(University ormore=1)

.014/.582 .002 .325/.350 .063 -1.172/.524 *-.156

Race (Non-White=1)

-.400/.595 -.051 .234/.469 .033 .301/.422 .052

Ocerfrom largerpopulation

.028/.604 .004 .403/.333 .078 .198/.437 .032

Rank

(Supervisors =1)

.416/.920 .036 -.095/.391 -.018 1.116/.515 .159*

Organizational Culture Dimensions

ManagementSupport

.046/.037 .095 .069/.030 .164 .049/.033 .118

CitizenCooperation

.178/.098 .140 .004/.079 .004 .020/.081 .018

Job Challenges .247/.063 **.289 .268/.048 **.396 .338/.060 **.426

Loyalty -.004/.106 -.003 .-035/.085 -.027 -.007/.097 -.006

Social Cohesion .193/.090 *.164 .120/.057 *.146 .216/.077 **.215

R2 0.213 0.302 0.387

F 4.032 6.658 7.639

The R square (.213) value indicates that 21 percent of the variation in the jobsatisfaction is explained by these variables. Police ocers’ perceptions about thechallenging nature of their work is the strongest (Beta .289) predictor of ocers’ jobsatisfaction in the Detroit group.

In Columbus, ocers who perceive a high level of management support andsocial cohesion in their work are more likely to be satised with their jobs. Thechallenging nature of their work positively contributes toward ocers’ satisfactionwith their jobs in the Columbus group. On the other hand, none of the individualfactors signicantly contributes to the model. The R squared (.302) value indicatesthat 30 percent of the variation in job satisfaction is explained by these variables.

The police ocers’ perceptions about the challenging nature of their work is thestrongest (Beta .396) predictor of ocers’ job satisfaction in the Columbus study.

In Cleveland, supervisors compare to line ocers and less educated ocerscompare to educated ocers and are more likely to be satised with their jobs.Ocers who perceive a high level of social cohesion in their work are more likelyto be satised with their jobs. The challenging nature of the police job positivelycontributes to ocers’ satisfaction with their jobs in the Cleveland study. TheR squared (.387) value indicates that almost 39 percent of the variation in jobsatisfaction is explained by these variables. Police ocers’ perceptions about the

Table 5: OLSRegression ofJob Satisfactionin the Midwest(N=669)


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appear to have a positive impact on job satisfaction. Social cohesion, a factorrepresenting a police culture with strong bonds and networks among the ocershas been found to be positively related to job satisfaction within all three cities. Thepresence of strong and cohesive police departments is not only reective of the

police culture in general but also of the strong organizational culture that promotessocial networks and camaraderie among its cadres.

A factor that is found to be strongly associated with job satisfaction amongocers in all three cities was the challenge oered by a particular role. That is,ocers who nd their job challenging also nd greater satisfaction in going towork. This further supports the earlier nding that management and supervisorysupport is crucial in creating positive work environments. Perhaps, the mostinteresting ndings are the lack of relationship between citizen cooperation andloyalty with job satisfaction. Regarding citizen cooperation, one can assume thatgiven that most police work relates to interacting with citizens, their perception ofcooperation has no impact on job satisfaction. Similarly, the perception of loyalty to

the group is not related to job satisfaction. These ndings are interesting given thatmost of the cities in the study group (with the exception of Detroit) have a formalorganizational mandate of community policing. Given these formal arrangementsfor establishing closer ties with the community, future research should addresswhether or not departments with formal community policing programs perceivegreater citizen cooperation and if such relationships positively impact upon jobsatisfaction.

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About the Authors:Kaan Boke , Ph.D., Turkey, Ankara, [email protected] or

[email protected] K. Nalla , Ph.D., School of Criminal Justice, Michigan State University,

East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA. Email: [email protected].

Appendix

Job Satisfaction: Intended to measure ocers’ job satisfaction. Items loadingsranged from .72 to .92 and communalities were greater than .50. Job satisfactionscale had Cronbach’s alpha of .84.

I am satised with being a police ocer.1.

If I had the opportunity to go back to the day I decided to become a police2.ocer, I would choose to become a police ocer again.I really look forward to coming to work every day.3.I measure up to the job’s standards.4.

Management Support: Intended to measure ocers’ perceptions aboutmanagement support. Items loadings ranged from .64 to .84 and communalitieswere greater than .45. Management support had Cronbach’s alpha of .92.


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There is a strong commitment to quality at all levels of this organization.1.Members of this organization show concern for the need for quality.2.Continuous quality improvement is an important goal of this organization.3.Top police managers in this organization follow up on suggestions for4.

improvement.Our top management tries to make this organization a good place to work.5.Top police managers in my department set clear goals for quality6.improvement.Police managers here try to plan ahead for changes that might aect our7.performance.People in this organization are aware of its overall mission.8.

Job Challenges: Intended to measure the extent to which police ocers feel thatpolice job demanded them to use a variety of abilities and provided them with newchallenges. Items loadings ranged from .55 to .73 and communalities were greater

than .30. Job challenges had Cronbach’s alpha of .70.

The job requires me to use a number of complex or high-level skills.1.I have new and interesting things to do in my work.2.My work challenges me.3.The job is simple and repetitive (Reverse Coded).4.I am never bored at work since I have many dierent things to do.5.

Loyalty: Intended to measure loyalty amongst the ocers. Items loadings rangedfrom .82 to .88 and communalities were greater than .67. Loyalty factor hadCronbach’s alpha of .82.

If my fellow ocer makes a mistake at work, it is my responsibility to protect1.him.I will never report against my fellow ocer even if he has violated rules.2.If I violate a rule, I expect my fellow ocer to protect me.3.

Citizen Cooperation: Intended to measure ocer’s perception about the citizencooperation with police. Items loadings ranged from .73 to .88 and communalitieswere greater than .53. Citizen cooperation factor had Cronbach’s alpha of .72.

Citizens would oen call the police if they saw something suspicious.1.

Citizens would oen provide information about a crime if they knew something2. and were asked by police.Citizens are willing to work with the police and try to solve neighborhood3.problems.

Social Cohesion: Intended to measure ocers’ perceptions about the social cohesionin the organization. Items loadings ranged from .67 to .88 and communalities weregreater than .40. Social cohesion scale had Cronbach’s alpha of .79.


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Ocers in my work unit enjoy their co-workers.1.Co-workers in my work unit are like a family.2.Problems exist here between co-workers. (Reverse Coded)3.I trust my fellow officers to do what is in the best interests of the4.

organization.


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