36
1 ., ., ., . , , Karpov I.A., Gorbich Y.L., Stoma I.O., Solovey N.V. Belarusian State Medical University, Minsk, Belarus « C.difficile- ». Review of the recommendations of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases "Update of the Treatment Guidance Document for Clostridium dif cile Infection". . C.difficile – . , C.difficile, . C.difficile- , . : C.difficile, , , . Resume. C.difficile - one of the key agents of nosocomial infection and prevalent cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis. Infections caused by C.difficile are characterized by the highest mortality compared to other pathogens of intestinal infections. This publication describes the main clinical and epidemiological features of C.difficile-associated infections, and gives recent recommendations of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases on the management of this nosology of varying severity. Keywords: C.difficile, antibiotic-associated diarrhea, pseudomebranous colitis, antibacterial therapy.

Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

Embed Size (px)

DESCRIPTION

c.difficile

Citation preview

Page 1: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

1

., ., ., .

, ,

Karpov I.A., Gorbich Y.L., Stoma I.O., Solovey N.V.

Belarusian State Medical University, Minsk, Belarus

« C.difficile-

».

Review of the recommendations of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology

and Infectious Diseases "Update of the Treatment Guidance Document for Clostridium

dif cile Infection".

.

C.difficile –

. , C.difficile,

.

C.difficile-

,

.

: C.difficile, ,

, .

Resume.

C.difficile - one of the key agents of nosocomial infection and prevalent cause of

antibiotic-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis. Infections caused by C.difficile are

characterized by the highest mortality compared to other pathogens of intestinal infections. This

publication describes the main clinical and epidemiological features of C.difficile-associated

infections, and gives recent recommendations of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology

and Infectious Diseases on the management of this nosology of varying severity.

Keywords: C.difficile, antibiotic-associated diarrhea, pseudomebranous colitis,

antibacterial therapy.

Page 2: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

2

. difficile -

.

,

. , , ,

20 .

, . difficile,

. – . difficile- ( ).

,

,

, ,

.

.

, .

. difficile

. ,

,

.

, ,

.

. « -

»

, . « »

, . ,

. ,

, .

. , 10%, , 30%

, ,

. ,

Page 3: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

3

.

.

. ,

. ,

. ,

. difficile. .

, . ,

, ,

. ,

.

, .

, ,

. , .

,

.

.

,

, ,

» ,

.

. , –

, . ,

.

.

,

. . ,

. , ,

.

.

Page 4: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

4

, . ,

.

. difficile .

, . ,

, ,

. .

.

[1], 2014

C.difficile- . ,

,

C.difficile ,

, .

, ,

GRADE (The Grades of Recommendation Assessment,

Development and Evaluation) ,

( 1).

1. .

:

A

B

C

D

:

I

II;

Page 5: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

5

« »

);

III,

,

r

t

( . ,

)

h

u

a,

. Clostridium difficile

( ), : 1) ,

C. difficile , ; 2)

.

,

CDI, , «

» , Clostridium difficile, .

,

CDI : 1) ( ) C. difficile

,

); 2)

C. difficile; 3) ,

: 16S , ,

.

Page 6: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

6

-

,

.

, (TcdB).

.

,

, , , C.

difficile .

, .

(TcdB) , ) C.

difficile , ,

Clostridium difficile, .

, –

C. difficile .

, ,

, C. difficile,

, ,

C. difficile.

CDI 2.

2. , C. difficile.

3

24

,

,

(>6 ),

Page 7: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

7

.

( , , ),

. ,

,

.

72

, .

,

3-5

. ,

.

, Clostridium difficile.

8

,

.

, (

), , C. difficile.

. , C. difficile,

, ,

,

,

( ),

.

, C. difficile,

, : 1) 65

; 2) ; 3)

; 4) .

, ,

3.

.

3. ,

.

Page 8: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

8

- ( >38,5 );

- ;

- ,

;

- ,

;

- ;

- ;

CDI ,

.

- (>15×109 );

- (

>20%);

- (>50%

);

- ( 5 );

-

(<30 ).

- ;

, ( , ,

,

),

- (>6 );

- ,

;

- ;

- (

);

(

« »,

).

Page 9: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

9

, .

. , ,

.

,

.

,

, C. difficile, .

.

, CDI,

, ,

C. difficile, ( )

.

, .

,

, .

, ,

( ,

). Bauer .

,

, 1105 .

,

CDI

, C. difficile [2].

, ,

, 24

, (<0,1×109 )

Page 10: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

10

12 . Miller

,

CDI ,

[3].

5 ,

, C. difficile, ,

.

: ,

, , .

, C. difficile ,

, CDI.

[4] 027 C.

difficile

. ,

, C. difficile -

027 ,

, ,

, .

.

Walker . , C. difficile

( ) [5].

C. difficile 027

,

078. ,

, . C. difficile, ,

.

C. difficile

.

C. difficile

,

. , C. difficile

,

Page 11: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

11

. ,

, .

,

, )

. , ,

. , ,

,

, C.

difficile, ,

.

. , C. difficile, ,

,

( . 3)

:

1. ( >15×109 ) IIrht).

2. (<30 ) IIr).

3. ( 133 1,5

) IIht).

( 65

) IIr), (B IIht),

, (B IIht),

.

,

C. difficile, :

1. (>65 ) IIrh).

2. ( -C. difficile )

IIrh).

3.

IIh).

4. ( ) IIt).

5. (

) (B IIrh).

6. (B IIht).

, CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE

Page 12: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

12

, C. difficile,

. : 1)

; 2)

; 3) ; 4)

; 5) ; 6) ; 7) /

, , ; 8)

; 9) .

, C. difficile,

, R.P. Vonberg

[6].

:

- ;

- ;

- ,

;

- .

,

,

, , ,

.

.

2011 15 ,

, C. difficile, , 12

.

CDI [7].

,

. ,

, ,

( 1).

Page 13: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

13

,

C. difficile, :

. , C. difficile: .

. , C. difficile.

. ,

C. difficile.

. , C. difficile.

. , C. difficile,

.

:

1. .

2. .

3. .

4. .

5. .

. , C. difficile: ..

.

.

,

( ).

( ),

,

[8–10].

79% , ,

71% , (3 ; n=335 ; 0,91; 95

% 0,81-1,03; p 0,14) [7].

( ),

( . . )

, [11].

(81,8 %

72,7 %; 1,681; 95 % 1,114-2,537; p 0,0134).

(p<0,01)

, (3,0

Page 14: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

14

, n=22), (4,6 , n=28) [12].

,

, C. difficile [13–16].

C. difficile, 027 [17].

, in vitro ,

( ) C.

difficile . Brazier et al. ,

C. difficile

, , (027, 106

001) [18]. ,

C. difficile [19].

; E-

[19,20].

[21,22]. ,

,

C. difficile

[19,23,24]. « »

,

C. difficile,

[25].

( ),

21% 30- .

, C. difficile

[25].

), , ,

, C. difficile,

[12,22]. , .

Page 15: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

15

, ,

0,25 9,5 ,

[26]. ,

.

,

[10].

( ).

,

, C.

difficile, [27].

, C. difficile, ,

,

, .

,

(n=17) (n=17), ,

, [28].

, C. difficile,

[29].

, C. difficile,

.

(VanA)

20 .

VanA , ,

,

, C. difficile [29].

, C. difficile, ,

.

, . difficile,

Page 16: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

16

, Candida spp.

,

[30], ,

.

Candida spp.

, C. difficile, .

[31].

, [9,32].

, [7,32]. in vitro

C. difficile [33]. 2013

, C. difficile,

. ,

.

,

,

.

[34]. ,

[35]

[36].

.

,

,

[37].

[38].

.

,

.

.

Page 17: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

17

, C. difficile,

.

, ,

,

. .

. , C. difficile

( )

,

48 ,

.

.

, 4.

4.

, Clostridium difficile,

, 500 3 – 10 I

, 125 4 – 10 I

, 200 2 – 10 I

, 500 4 – 10 I

48 II

4.

1.

, .

2. [7,10]

.

Page 18: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

18

3. :

[7].

4.

( C. difficile 027 ) –

III [39].

5.

125 4 500 4 [40].

6.

.

.

, C.

difficile.

.

, C. difficile,

.

( ).

,

[15,41]. ,

, .

,

[15].

[42].

, C. difficile,

,

[43]. , ,

,

, C.

difficile [44].

-

, C. difficile,

.

Page 19: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

19

(Saccharomyces boulardii) [45,46]. ,

[47].

.

,

, C. difficile.

B. , C. difficile.

. 6 17

. , 4 6

.

.

,

C. difficile, [10,22].

500 4 ) , C.

difficile, [14]

. ,

>125 4

[40].

, C. difficile,

[39,48].

, C.

difficile, 5.

5.

, Clostridium difficile,

, 125 4 – 10 I

, 500 4 – 10 III (Ia)

Page 20: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

20

, 200 2 – 10 I

, 500 3 – 10 D (

)

I

a – , ,

.

5.

1.

,

[40].

2.

( III) [39,48].

3.

, C. difficile,

.

4.

0,125 4

C. difficile 027) [39].

5.

,

[10].

6.

[49].

, C. difficile.

. ,

C. difficile,

,

[15].

19 % 71 %

[50].

. ,

Page 21: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

21

,

[51]. ,

[52].

, , , :

( ),

(>5 mM), ,

[50,53–56].

,

.

[52].

,

,

.

.

3350 ,

, .

.

10 [57].

.

. :

1. .

2.

,

,

. , ,

, . ,

, (

, 5,0 mM).

Page 22: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

22

,

(

).

. , C.

difficile.

. 3 17

, C. difficile,

.

.

.

[48,58,59].

,

( n=79 n=80) [59].

,

. ,

, C. difficile

027, C. difficile

[48]. , ,

, C. difficile,

(B-I)

.

, C. difficile,

6.

6.

, Clostridium difficile,

, 125 4 – 10 B I

Page 23: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

23

, 200 2 –

10

I

, 500 3 –

10

C I

, 500 4 – 10 III

6.

1.

[7,9,32].

2.

III) [39,48].

3.

[59].

4.

, [7,10,32,60].

[61].

5.

,

[40].

D. ..

. ( )

.

, ,

[30,59]. ,

,

, .

,

.

Page 24: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

24

:

– –

[62].

7 8.

. ,

..

,

[63]. (500 3

) ,

[15,64].

, , .

, ,

.

,

. ,

,

[65,66].

, , ,

[67,68].

7.

( , ).

125 4 10 ,

(125-500

2-3 ) 3

IIt

125 4 10 ,

:

125

IIt

Page 25: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

25

200 10 IIrt

500 4 10 IIrt

500 3 10 D IIrt

8. ( )

( )

, ).

500 4

, 4 +

+

I

+

Saccharomyces boulardii

D I

+

Lactobacillus spp.

D I

D I

9.

.

500 3

10

IIu

500 3

IIru

Page 26: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

26

10 +

500 100 0,9%

NaCl 4 10 B III

500 3

10 +

500

100 0,9% NaCl 4

/

10

IIru

III

50 2 14

III

.

,

, ,

.

( ).

.

. , ,

C.difficile , .

,

, .

, .

: , .

5-7 ,

24 , , .

Page 27: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

27

:

,

.

:

(>6 )

.

:

( )

,

, ,

.

:

- ( > 15 109 )

- (< 30 )

- (> 133 1,5

)

. , <

8 , , ,

.

. ,

, ,

( , ,

) .

3 , , .

, , 3-5

.

.

.

(SoE: I-III) (SoR: -D)

. – 1.

. : .

.

Page 28: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

28

( ) ,

,

48 ,

,

( -II).

.

500 3 10 ( -I).

125 4 10 ( -I).

200 2 10 ( -I).

. .

.

125 4 10 ( -I).

200 2 10 ( -I).

:

- 500 4 10

(B-III)

- ,

(D-III)

(D-I).

.

:

-

- ,

; ,

.

. , ,

( 5,0 ).

, (

).

. .

Page 29: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

29

.

200 2 10 ( -I).

125 4 10 (B-I).

500 3 10 ( -I).

:

, .difficile 027 -027 .

D. .

.

200 2 10 ( -II).

125 4 10 , (B-II)

125 4 10 ,

( -II).

.

,

,

( -I).

. , .

: 500 3 10 ( -

II).

: 500 3 10 ( -II)

500 100 0,9%

4 500

4 10 ( -III).

,

(QoE: I-III) (SoR: A-D)

1.

.

1. Debast, S.B. et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and

Infectious Diseases: update of the treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile

infection / S.B. Debast et al. // Clinical microbiology and infection: the official publication

of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. – 2014. – Vol.

20 suppl 2, – P. 1–26.

Page 30: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

30

2. Bauer, M.P. et al. Renal Failure and Leukocytosis Are Predictors of a

Complicated Course of Clostridium difficile Infection if Measured on Day of Diagnosis /

M.P. Bauer et al. // Clinical Infectious Diseases. – 2012. – Vol. 55, Suppl 2. – P. S149–

s153.

3. Miller, M.A. et al. Derivation and validation of a simple clinical bedside

score (ATLAS) for Clostridium difficile infection which predicts response to therapy /

M.A. Miller et al. // BMC infectious diseases. – 2013. – Vol. 13, – P. 148.

4. Miller, M. et al. Health care-associated Clostridium difficile infection in

Canada: patient age and infecting strain type are highly predictive of severe outcome and

mortality / M. Miller et al. // Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the

Infectious Diseases Society of America. – 2010. – Vol. 50, 2. – P. 194–201.

5. Walker, A.S. et al. Relationship between bacterial strain type, host

biomarkers, and mortality in Clostridium difficile infection / A.S. Walker et al. // Clinical

infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. –

2013. – Vol. 56, 11. – P. 1589–1600.

6. Vonberg, R.-P. et al. Infection control measures to limit the spread of

Clostridium difficile / R.-P. Vonberg et al. // Clinical microbiology and infection: the

official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious

Diseases. – 2008. – Vol. 14 suppl 5, – P. 2–20.

7. Nelson, R.L. et al. Antibiotic treatment for Clostridium difficile-associated

diarrhea in adults / R.L. Nelson et al. // The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. –

2011. – 9. – P. Cd004610.

8. Teasley, D.G. et al. Prospective randomised trial of metronidazole versus

vancomycin for Clostridium-difficile-associated diarrhoea and colitis / D.G. Teasley et al. //

Lancet. – 1983. – Vol. 2, 8358. – P. 1043–1046.

9. Wenisch, C. et al. Comparison of vancomycin, teicoplanin, metronidazole,

and fusidic acid for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea / C. Wenisch

et al. // Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases

Society of America. – 1996. – Vol. 22, 5. – P. 813–818.

10. Zar, F.A. et al. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the

treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity / F.A.

Zar et al. // Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases

Society of America. – 2007. – Vol. 45, 3. – P. 302–307.

11. Johnson S, Gerding D, Davidson D et al. Ef cacy and safety of oral

vancomycin versus oral metronidazole for treatment of Clostridium dif cile- associated

Page 31: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

31

diarrhea (CDAD): pooled results from two randomized clinical trials. Poster presentation

ID 2012. Available at https://idsa.confex.com/idsa/2012/webprogram/Paper35060.html.

12. Wilcox, M.H. & Howe, R. Diarrhoea caused by Clostridium difficile:

response time for treatment with metronidazole and vancomycin / M.H. Wilcox, R. Howe //

The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy. – 1995. – Vol. 36, 4. – P. 673–679.

13. Bauer, M.P. et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and

Infectious Diseases (ESCMID): treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile

infection (CDI) / M.P. Bauer et al. // Clinical microbiology and infection: the official

publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. –

2009. – Vol. 15, 12. – P. 1067–1079.

14. Cohen, S.H. et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile

infection in adults: 2010 update by the society for healthcare epidemiology of America

(SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA) / S.H. Cohen et al. //

Infection control and hospital epidemiology: the official journal of the Society of Hospital

Epidemiologists of America. – 2010. – Vol. 31, 5. – P. 431–455.

15. Surawicz, C.M. et al. Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention

of Clostridium difficile infections / C.M. Surawicz et al. // The American journal of

gastroenterology. – 2013. – Vol. 108, 4. – P. 478–498; quiz 499.

16. Cheng, A.C. et al. Australasian Society for Infectious Diseases guidelines

for the diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile infection / A.C. Cheng et al. // The

Medical journal of Australia. – 2011. – Vol. 194, 7. – P. 353–358.

17. Freeman, J. et al. Effect of metronidazole on growth and toxin production

by epidemic Clostridium difficile PCR ribotypes 001 and 027 in a human gut model / J.

Freeman et al. // The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy. – 2007. – Vol. 60, 1. – P.

83–91.

18. Brazier, J.S. et al. Reduced susceptibility of Clostridium difficile to

metronidazole / J.S. Brazier et al. // The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy. – 2001. –

Vol. 48, 5. – P. 741–742.

19. Baines, S.D. et al. Emergence of reduced susceptibility to metronidazole in

Clostridium difficile / S.D. Baines et al. // The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy. –

2008. – Vol. 62, 5. – P. 1046–1052.

20. Moura, I. et al. Analysis of metronidazole susceptibility in different

Clostridium difficile PCR ribotypes / I. Moura et al. // The Journal of antimicrobial

chemotherapy. – 2013. – Vol. 68, 2. – P. 362–365.

Page 32: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

32

21. Kuijper, E.J. & Wilcox, M.H. Decreased effectiveness of metronidazole

for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection? / E.J. Kuijper, M.H. Wilcox // Clinical

infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. –

2008. – Vol. 47, 1. – P. 63–65.

22. Al-Nassir, W.N. et al. Comparison of clinical and microbiological

response to treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with metronidazole and

vancomycin / W.N. Al-Nassir et al. // Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of

the Infectious Diseases Society of America. – 2008. – Vol. 47, 1. – P. 56–62.

23. Johnson, S. Sanchez, J.L. & Gerding, D.N. Metronidazole resistance in

Clostridium difficile / S. Johnson, J.L. Sanchez, D.N. Gerding // Clinical infectious

diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. – 2000. –

Vol. 31, 2. – P. 625–626.

24. Peláez, T. et al. Reassessment of Clostridium difficile susceptibility to

metronidazole and vancomycin / T. Peláez et al. // Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy.

– 2002. – Vol. 46, 6. – P. 1647–1650.

25. Purdell J. Investigation of outcome in cases of Clostridium dif cile

infection due to isolates with reduced susceptibility to metronidazole. In: 21st European

Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ECCMID); 2011 in Milan,

Italy. Abstract: O499.

26. Bolton, R.P. & Culshaw, M.A. Faecal metronidazole concentrations during

oral and intravenous therapy for antibiotic associated colitis due to Clostridium difficile /

R.P. Bolton, M.A. Culshaw // Gut. – 1986. – Vol. 27, 10. – P. 1169–1172.

27. Al-Nassir, W.N. et al. Both oral metronidazole and oral vancomycin

promote persistent overgrowth of vancomycin-resistant enterococci during treatment of

Clostridium difficile-associated disease / W.N. Al-Nassir et al. // Antimicrobial agents and

chemotherapy. – 2008. – Vol. 52, 7. – P. 2403–2406.

28. Sethi, A.K. et al. Skin and environmental contamination with vancomycin-

resistant Enterococci in patients receiving oral metronidazole or oral vancomycin treatment

for Clostridium difficile-associated disease / A.K. Sethi et al. // Infection control and

hospital epidemiology: the official journal of the Society of Hospital Epidemiologists of

America. – 2009. – Vol. 30, 1. – P. 13–17.

29. Miller, M. et al. Lack of increased colonization with vancomycin-resistant

enterococci during preferential use of vancomycin for treatment during an outbreak of

healthcare-associated Clostridium difficile infection / M. Miller et al. // Infection control

Page 33: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

33

and hospital epidemiology: the official journal of the Society of Hospital Epidemiologists

of America. – 2010. – Vol. 31, 7. – P. 710–715.

30. Louie, T.J. et al. Fidaxomicin preserves the intestinal microbiome during

and after treatment of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and reduces both toxin

reexpression and recurrence of CDI / T.J. Louie et al. // Clinical infectious diseases: an

official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. – 2012. – Vol. 55 suppl

2, – P. S132–142.

31. Nerandzic, M.M. et al. Reduced acquisition and overgrowth of

vancomycin-resistant enterococci and Candida species in patients treated with fidaxomicin

versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection / M.M. Nerandzic et al. // Clinical

infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. –

2012. – Vol. 55 suppl 2, – P. S121–126.

32. De Lalla, F. et al. Prospective study of oral teicoplanin versus oral

vancomycin for therapy of pseudomembranous colitis and Clostridium difficile-associated

diarrhea / F. de Lalla et al. // Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy. – 1992. – Vol. 36,

10. – P. 2192–2196.

33. De Lalla, F. et al. Treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated disease

with teicoplanin / F. de Lalla et al. // Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy. – 1989. –

Vol. 33, 7. – P. 1125–1127.

34. Löfmark, S. Edlund, C. & Nord, C.E. Metronidazole is still the drug of

choice for treatment of anaerobic infections / S. Löfmark, C. Edlund, C.E. Nord // Clinical

infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. –

2010. – Vol. 50 suppl 1, – P. S16–23.

35. McGrath, N.M. Kent-Smith, B. & Sharp, D.M. Reversible optic

neuropathy due to metronidazole / N.M. McGrath, B. Kent-Smith, D.M. Sharp // Clinical &

experimental ophthalmology. – 2007. – Vol. 35, 6. – P. 585–586.

36. Howard-Thompson, A. et al. Intracerebral hemorrhage secondary to a

warfarin-metronidazole interaction / A. Howard-Thompson et al. // The American journal

of geriatric pharmacotherapy. – 2008. – Vol. 6, 1. – P. 33–36.

37. Aradhyula, S. et al. Significant absorption of oral vancomycin in a patient

with clostridium difficile colitis and normal renal function / S. Aradhyula et al. // Southern

medical journal. – 2006. – Vol. 99, 5. – P. 518–520.

38. Weiss, K. Allgren, R.L. & Sellers, S. Safety analysis of fidaxomicin in

comparison with oral vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infections / K. Weiss, R.L.

Page 34: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

34

Allgren, S. Sellers // Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious

Diseases Society of America. – 2012. – Vol. 55 suppl 2, – P. S110–115.

39. Cornely, O.A. et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for infection with

Clostridium difficile in Europe, Canada, and the USA: a double-blind, non-inferiority,

randomised controlled trial / O.A. Cornely et al. // The Lancet infectious diseases. – 2012. –

Vol. 12, 4. – P. 281–289.

40. Fekety, R. et al. Treatment of antibiotic-associated Clostridium difficile

colitis with oral vancomycin: comparison of two dosage regimens / R. Fekety et al. // The

American journal of medicine. – 1989. – Vol. 86, 1. – P. 15–19.

41. Abougergi, M.S. & Kwon, J.H. Intravenous immunoglobulin for the

treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: a review / M.S. Abougergi, J.H. Kwon //

Digestive diseases and sciences. – 2011. – Vol. 56, 1. – P. 19–26.

42. Hempel, S. et al. Probiotics for the prevention and treatment of antibiotic-

associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis / S. Hempel et al. // JAMA: the

journal of the American Medical Association. – 2012. – Vol. 307, 18. – P. 1959–1969.

43. Johnston, B.C. et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile-

associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis / B.C. Johnston et al. // Annals

of internal medicine. – 2012. – Vol. 157, 12. – P. 878–888.

44. Pillai, A. & Nelson, R. Probiotics for treatment of Clostridium difficile-

associated colitis in adults / A. Pillai, R. Nelson // The Cochrane database of systematic

reviews. – 2008. – 1. – P. Cd004611.

45. Enache-Angoulvant, A. & Hennequin, C. Invasive Saccharomyces

infection: a comprehensive review / A. Enache-Angoulvant, C. Hennequin // Clinical

infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. –

2005. – Vol. 41, 11. – P. 1559–1568.

46. Muñoz, P. et al. Saccharomyces cerevisiae fungemia: an emerging

infectious disease / P. Muñoz et al. // Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of

the Infectious Diseases Society of America. – 2005. – Vol. 40, 11. – P. 1625–1634.

47. Besselink, M.G.H. et al. Probiotic prophylaxis in predicted severe acute

pancreatitis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial / M.G.H. Besselink et al.

// Lancet. – 2008. – Vol. 371, 9613. – P. 651–659.

48. Louie, T.J. et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile

infection / T.J. Louie et al. // The New England journal of medicine. – 2011. – Vol. 364,

5. – P. 422–431.

Page 35: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

35

49. Musher, D.M. et al. Relatively poor outcome after treatment of

Clostridium difficile colitis with metronidazole / D.M. Musher et al. // Clinical infectious

diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. – 2005. –

Vol. 40, 11. – P. 1586–1590.

50. Bhangu, A. et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of outcomes

following emergency surgery for Clostridium difficile colitis / A. Bhangu et al. // The

British journal of surgery. – 2012. – Vol. 99, 11. – P. 1501–1513.

51. Stewart, D.B. Hollenbeak, C.S. & Wilson, M.Z. Is colectomy for

fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis life saving? A systematic review / D.B. Stewart, C.S.

Hollenbeak, M.Z. Wilson // Colorectal disease: the official journal of the Association of

Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland. – 2013. – Vol. 15, 7. – P. 798–804.

52. Koss, K. et al. The outcome of surgery in fulminant Clostridium difficile

colitis / K. Koss et al. // Colorectal disease: the official journal of the Association of

Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland. – 2006. – Vol. 8, 2. – P. 149–154.

53. Sailhamer, E.A. et al. Fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: patterns of

care and predictors of mortality / E.A. Sailhamer et al. // Archives of surgery (Chicago, Ill.:

1960). – 2009. – Vol. 144, 5. – P. 433–439; discussion 439–440.

54. Longo, W.E. et al. Outcome after colectomy for Clostridium difficile

colitis / W.E. Longo et al. // Diseases of the colon and rectum. – 2004. – Vol. 47, 10. –

P. 1620–1626.

55. Chan, S. et al. Outcomes following colectomy for Clostridium difficile

colitis / S. Chan et al. // International journal of surgery (London, England). – 2009. – Vol.

7, 1. – P. 78–81.

56. Lee, D.Y. et al. Predictors of mortality after emergency colectomy for

Clostridium difficile colitis: an analysis of ACS-NSQIP / D.Y. Lee et al. // Annals of

surgery. – 2014. – Vol. 259, 1. – P. 148–156.

57. Neal, M.D. et al. Diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage: an

alternative to total abdominal colectomy for the treatment of severe, complicated

Clostridium difficile associated disease / M.D. Neal et al. // Annals of surgery. – 2011. –

Vol. 254, 3. – P. 423–427; discussion 427–429.

58. Dudley, M.N. et al. Oral bacitracin vs vancomycin therapy for Clostridium

difficile-induced diarrhea. A randomized double-blind trial / M.N. Dudley et al. // Archives

of internal medicine. – 1986. – Vol. 146, 6. – P. 1101–1104.

59. Cornely, O.A. et al. Treatment of first recurrence of Clostridium difficile

infection: fidaxomicin versus vancomycin / O.A. Cornely et al. // Clinical infectious

Page 36: Karpov Obzor Recomendacij c.dif

36

diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. – 2012. –

Vol. 55 suppl 2, – P. S154–161.

60. Pépin, J. et al. Management and outcomes of a first recurrence of

Clostridium difficile-associated disease in Quebec, Canada / J. Pépin et al. // Clinical

infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. –

2006. – Vol. 42, 6. – P. 758–764.

61. McFarland, L.V. Elmer, G.W. & Surawicz, C.M. Breaking the cycle:

treatment strategies for 163 cases of recurrent Clostridium difficile disease / L.V.

McFarland, G.W. Elmer, C.M. Surawicz // The American journal of gastroenterology. –

2002. – Vol. 97, 7. – P. 1769–1775.

62. Van Nood, E. et al. Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent

Clostridium difficile / E. van Nood et al. // The New England journal of medicine. – 2013. –

Vol. 368, 5. – P. 407–415.

63. Friedenberg, F. et al. Intravenous metronidazole for the treatment of

Clostridium difficile colitis / F. Friedenberg et al. // Diseases of the colon and rectum. –

2001. – Vol. 44, 8. – P. 1176–1180.

64. Voelker, R. Increased Clostridium difficile virulence demands new

treatment approach / R. Voelker // JAMA: the journal of the American Medical

Association. – 2010. – Vol. 303, 20. – P. 2017–2019.

65. McFarland, L.V. Alternative treatments for Clostridium difficile disease:

what really works? / L.V. McFarland // Journal of medical microbiology. – 2005. – Vol. 54,

Pt 2. – P. 101–111.

66. Musgrave, C.R. et al. Use of alternative or adjuvant pharmacologic

treatment strategies in the prevention and treatment of Clostridium difficile infection / C.R.

Musgrave et al. // International journal of infectious diseases: IJID: official publication of

the International Society for Infectious Diseases. – 2011. – Vol. 15, 7. – P. E438–448.

67. Herpers, B.L. et al. Intravenous tigecycline as adjunctive or alternative

therapy for severe refractory Clostridium difficile infection / B.L. Herpers et al. // Clinical

infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. –

2009. – Vol. 48, 12. – P. 1732–1735.

68. Larson, K.C. Belliveau, P.P. & Spooner, L.M. Tigecycline for the

treatment of severe Clostridium difficile infection / K.C. Larson, P.P. Belliveau, L.M.

Spooner // The Annals of pharmacotherapy. – 2011. – Vol. 45, 7-8. – P. 1005–1010.