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1. Kenapa bapak tersebut nafsu makannya menurun ? Kenapa berat badan penderita makin lama makin menurun ? 2. Apa hubungan penyakit penderita dengan berkeringat banyak malam hari dan demam ringan ? 3. Mengapa pasien mengeluh batuk berdahak dan kadang bercampur darah ? 4. Macam-macam BTA dan penyakitnya apa ? Species or complexes that are significant causes of disease are outlined below. Mycobacterium avium Complex The Mycobacterium avium complex is often called the MAC or MAI (M avium-intracellulare) complex. These organisms grow optimally at 41 °C and produce smooth, soft, nonpigmented colonies. They are ubiquitous in the environment and have been cultured from water, soil, food, and animals, including birds. MAC organisms infrequently cause disease in immunocompetent humans. However, in the United States, disseminated MAC infection is one of the most common opportunistic infections of bacterial origin in AIDS patients. The risk of developing disseminated MAC infection in HIV-infected persons is greatly increased when the CD4-positive lymphocyte count declines to < 100/ L. (See Case 17 in Chapter 48: Cases & Clinical Correlations.) Gender, race, ethnic group, and individual risk factors for HIV infection do not influence the development of disseminated MAC infection, but prior Pneumocystis jiroveci infection, severe anemia, and interruption of antiretroviral therapy may increase the risk. During the first 15 years of the AIDS epidemic, approximately 25% and perhaps as high as 50% of HIV-infected patients developed MAC bacteremia and disseminated infection during the course of AIDS. Subsequently, the use of azithromycin or clarithromycin prophylaxis has greatly decreased the incidence of disseminated MAC infection in AIDS patients.

Kenapa Bapak Tersebut Nafsu Makannya Menurun(1)

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Page 1: Kenapa Bapak Tersebut Nafsu Makannya Menurun(1)

1. Kenapa bapak tersebut nafsu makannya menurun ? Kenapa berat badan penderita makin lama makin menurun ?

2. Apa hubungan penyakit penderita dengan berkeringat banyak malam hari dan demam ringan ?

3. Mengapa pasien mengeluh batuk berdahak dan kadang bercampur darah ?

4. Macam-macam BTA dan penyakitnya apa ?

Species or complexes that are significant causes of disease are outlined below.

Mycobacterium avium Complex

The Mycobacterium avium complex is often called the MAC or MAI (M avium-intracellulare) complex. These organisms grow optimally at 41 °C and produce smooth, soft, nonpigmented colonies. They are ubiquitous in the environment and have been cultured from water, soil, food, and animals, including birds.

MAC organisms infrequently cause disease in immunocompetent humans. However, in the United States, disseminated MAC infection is one of the most common opportunistic infections of bacterial origin in AIDS patients. The risk of developing disseminated MAC infection in HIV-infected persons is greatly increased when the CD4-positive lymphocyte

count declines to < 100/ L. (See Case 17 in Chapter 48: Cases & Clinical Correlations.) Gender, race, ethnic group, and individual risk factors for HIV infection do not influence the development of disseminated MAC infection, but prior Pneumocystis jiroveci infection, severe anemia, and interruption of antiretroviral therapy may increase the risk.

During the first 15 years of the AIDS epidemic, approximately 25% and perhaps as high as 50% of HIV-infected patients developed MAC bacteremia and disseminated infection during the course of AIDS. Subsequently, the use of azithromycin or clarithromycin prophylaxis has greatly decreased the incidence of disseminated MAC infection in AIDS patients.

Environmental exposure can led to MAC colonization of either the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract. Transient bacteremia occurs followed by invasion of tissues. Persistent bacteremia and extensive infiltration of tissues resulting in organ dysfunction result. Any organ can be involved. In the lung, nodules, diffuse infiltrates, cavities, and endobronchial lesions are common. Other manifestations include pericarditis, soft tissue abscesses, skin lesions, lymph node involvement, bone infection, and central nervous system lesions. The patients often present with nonspecific symptoms of fever, night sweats, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss. The diagnosis is made by culturing MAC organisms from blood or tissue.

MAC organisms routinely are resistant to first-line antituberculosis drugs. Treatment with either clarithromycin or azithromycin plus ethambutol is a preferred initial therapy. Other drugs that may be useful are rifabutin (Ansamycin), clofazimine, fluoroquinolones, and amikacin. Multiple drugs often are used in combination. Therapy should be continued for life. Therapy results in decreasing counts of MAC organisms in blood and amelioration of clinical

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symptoms. Rifabutin prophylaxis decreases the incidence of bacteremia by about 50% and decreases the clinical symptoms when disseminated disease occurs.

Mycobacterium kansasii

M kansasii is a photochromogen that requires complex media for growth at 37 °C. It can produce pulmonary and systemic disease indistinguishable from tuberculosis, especially in patients with impaired immune responses. Sensitive to rifampin, it is often treated with the combination of rifampin, ethambutol, and isoniazid with good clinical response. The source of infection is uncertain, and communicability is low or absent.

Mycobacterium scrofulaceum

This is a scotochromogen occasionally found in water and as a saprophyte in adults with chronic lung disease. It causes chronic cervical lymphadenitis in children and, rarely, other granulomatous disease. Surgical excision of involved cervical lymph nodes may be curative, and resistance to antituberculosis drugs is common. (Mycobacterium szulgai and Mycobacterium xenopi are similar.)

Mycobacterium marinum & Mycobacterium ulcerans

These organisms occur in water, grow best at low temperature (31 °C), may infect fish, and can produce superficial skin lesions (ulcers, "swimming pool granulomas") in humans. Surgical excision, tetracyclines, rifampin, and ethambutol are sometimes effective.

Mycobacterium fortuitum-chelonae Complex

These are saprophytes found in soil and water that grow rapidly (3–6 days) in culture and form no pigment. They can produce superficial and systemic disease in humans on rare occasions. The organisms are often resistant to antimycobacterial drugs but may respond to amikacin, doxycycline, cefoxitin, erythromycin, or rifampin.

Sumber : jawetz

5. Apa yang dimaksud dengan proses spesifik pada kedua apex paru pada RO thorax ?The reactivation type is usually caused by tubercle bacilli that have survived in the primary lesion. Reactivation tuberculosis is characterized by chronic tissue lesions, the formation of tubercles, caseation, and fibrosis. Regional lymph nodes are only slightly involved, and they do not caseate. The reactivation type almost always begins at the apex of the lung, where the oxygen tension (Po2) is highest.Sumber : jawetz

6. Mengapa pada pemeriksaan fisik saat perkusi paru didapatkan redup di apex paru dan saat auskultasi ronki basah pada apex paru ?

7. Apa yang dimaksud dengan pemeriksaan hasil positif satu kali ?8. Kenapa terapinya membutuhkan waktu 6 bulan ?

Agar bakteri benar-benar matiTipe penderita ?

Page 3: Kenapa Bapak Tersebut Nafsu Makannya Menurun(1)

9. Cara penularan ?

10. Patogenesis pada kasus ?

1-2 If the infection progresses, the host isolates the pathogens in a walled-off lesion called a tubercle (meaning lump or knob), a characteristic that gives the disease its name.3-4 When the disease is arrested at this point, the lesions slowly heal, becoming calcified. These show up clearly on X-ray films and are called Ghon's complexes. (Computedtomography ICT] is more sensi tive than X rays in detecting lesions of TB.)5 If the body's defenses fail at this stage, the tubercle breaks down and releases virulent bacilli into the airways of the lung and then the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems.Sumber : tortora

Page 4: Kenapa Bapak Tersebut Nafsu Makannya Menurun(1)

11. Manifestasi klinis ?Batuk produktif yang berkepanjangan (lebih daro 3 minggu), nyeri dada, dan hemoptosis. Gejala sistemik termasuk demam, menggigil, keringat malam, kelemahan, hilangnya nafsu makan, dan penurunan berat badan.Sumber : patofisiologi sylvia

12. Pemeriksaan penunjang ? Tes tuberkulin intradermal (mantoux)

Dnegan menyuntikkan tuberkulin sebanyak 0,1 ml yang mengandung 5 unit tuberkulin secara intradermal pada sepertiga atas permukaa n volar atau dorsal lengan bawah setelah kulit dibersihkan dengan alkohol.Untuk memperoleh reaksi kulit yang maksimum diperlukan waktu antara 48 sampai 72 jam sesudah penyuntikan dan reaksi harus dibaca dalam periode tersebut, yaitu dalam cahaya yang terang dan posisi lengan bawah sedikit ditekuk.Yang harus dicatat diameter indurasi dalam satuan milimeter, pengukuran harus dilakukan melintang terhadap sumbu panjang lengan bawah.5 mm atau lebih dianggap reaksi positif pada kelompok tertentu, dan mencerminkan adanya sensitivitas yang berasal dari infeksi dengan basil.10 mm atau lebih juga diklasifikasikan positif pada kelompok tertentu.15 mm atau lebih adalah positif pada semua orang dengan faktor risiko TB yang tidak diketahui

Pemeriksaan radiologi Pada orang dewasa, segmen apeks dan posterior lobus atas atau segmen superior lobus bawah merupakan tempat-tempat yang sering menimbulkan lesi yang terlihat homogen dengan densitas yang lebih pekat. Dapat juga terlihat adanya kavitas dan gambaran penyakit yang menyebar biasanya bilateral.

Pemeriksaan bakteriologikSediaan apus digenangi dengan zat karbolfuksin yang dipanaskan, lalu dilakukan dekolorisasi dengan alkohol asam. Sesudah itu diwarnai lagi dengan metilen blue atau briliant green. Sumber : patofisiologi sylvia

13. DD ?14. Komplikasi ?15. Penatalaksanaan serta efek samping dari masing-masing obat ?

Obat-obat untuk pengobatan TB pada orang dewasa (dosis dalam mg/kg)

Nama obat

Harian Dua kali seminggu

Tiga kali seminggu

Efek samping Pemantauan reaksi

keterangan

Obat lini pertama

Isoniazid (INH)

5 (300 mg)

Maks. 15 (900 mg)

Maks. 15 (900 mg)

Kemerahan, kadar enzim hepatik, hepatitis, neuropati perifer, efek sistem saraf

Mengukur tingkat dasar enzim hepatis

Piridoksin dapat mencegah neuropati perifer

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pusat ringan

Rifampin (RIF)

10 (600 mg)

10 (600 mg)

10 (600 mg)

Gangguan pencernaan, interaksi obat, hepatitis, masalah-masalah perdarahan, kemerahan, gagal ginjal, demam

Pengukuran dasar trombosit CBC dan enzim hepatitis

Interaksi nyata timbul akibat pemakaian metadon, kontrasepsi, dan obat-obat lain. RIF menyebabkan warna cairan tubuh menjadi oranye.

Rifabutin (RIF)

5 (300 mg)

5 (300 mg)

Tidak diketahui

Kemerahan. Hepatitis, demam, trombositopenia

Pengukuran dasar trombosit, CBC, dan enzim hepatis

RFB merupakan kontraindikasi untuk pasien yang menggunakan ritonavir atau delavirdin, warna cairan tubuh menjadi oranye

Pirazinamid (PZA)

15-30 (2 g)

50-70 (4 g)

50-70 (3 g)

Hepatitis, hiperurisemia, gangguan pencernaan, kemerahan

Pengukuran tingkat dasar asam urat dan enzim hepatis

Hiperurisemia diobati hanya bila terdapat gejala pada pasien, mungkin menyebabkan pengontrolan glukosa menjadi lebih sulit pada penderita diabetes

Etambutol (EMB)

15-25 50 25-30 Neuritis optikus Uji ketajaman penglihatan dan penglihatan warna dasar setiap bulan

Dapat timbul efek okular lain dan peningkatan gagal ginjal

Streptomisin (SM)

15 (1 g)

25-30 (1,5 g)

15-30 (1,5 g)

Ototoksik, keracunan pada ginjal

Tes dasar untuk pendengaran dan fungsi ginjal diulang

Untuk orang dewasa di atas 60 tahun dosis harus dihindari atau diturunkan

Page 6: Kenapa Bapak Tersebut Nafsu Makannya Menurun(1)

Obat lini kedua

Kapreomisin

15-30 (1 g)

- - Keracunan pada auditorius, vestibular ginjal

Menilai fungsi vestibular dan pendengaran , tes fungis kreatinin dan BUN

Digunakan dengan hati-hati pada orang tua

Etionamid

15-20 (1 g)

- - Gangguan pencernaan, hepatotoksik, hipersensitivitas

Pengukuran enzim hepatis

Dimulai dengan dosis rendah dan ditingkatkan sesuai toleransi

Sikloserin

15-20 (1 g)

- - Psikosis, kejang, sakit kepala, interaksi obat

Penilaian keadaan mental, pengukuran tingkat serum obat

Dimulai dengan dosis rendah dan ditingkatkan sesuai toleransi

Kanamisin

15-30 (1 g)

- - Keracunan pada auditorius, vestibular, ginjal

Menilai fungsi vestibular dan pendengaran, tes fungsi kreatinin dan BUN

Setelah terdapat perubahan bakteriologis, dosis dapat diturunkan 2-3 kali setiap minggu, namun tidak disetujui oleh FDA

Asam para-aminosalisilat

150 (12 g)

- - Gangguan pencernaan, hepatotoksik, hieprsensitivitas, natrium berlebihan

Pengukuran enzim hepatis, pengukuran volume yang berlebihan

Dimulai dengan dosis rendah dan ditingkatkan sesuai toleransi, menatau tingkat natrium jantung pasien

Sumber : patofisiologi sylvia