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Technical
Communication
fohn
M. Lannon
U n
iversity
of
Massachusetts,
Daftmouth
Laura
f.
Gurak
University
of Minnesota
Boston
Columbus lndianapolis
NewYork
San Francisco Upper
Saddle tuver
Amsterdam
Cape Town Dobai
London Madrld
Milan Muni.h
paris
Montr€al
Toronto
Delhi
Mexico
City
Sao Paulo Sydney
HongKong
Seoul
Singapore Taipei
lokyo
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Lannon,
John
M.
Technical
communication/lohn
M.
Lannon,
University
ofMassachusetts,
Dartmouth'
Laura
l.
Curak,
University ofMinnesota.
13th
edition.
pages
cm
Includes index.
ISBN l3i 978-0-321'89997
2
(student)
ISBN l3r
978-0-321-895a2
a
(exam
copy)
ISBN
i0;0
321-89997 0
(Student
ISBN l0r 0-321-89542
I
(exam
copy)
1.
Technical
writing. 2. Communication
oftechnicat
information
l Gurak,
Laura
l.
II. Title.
T
tl.L24
2014
808'06'66-dc23
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Credits:
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by
lohll
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Lannon
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What
ls Technical
Communication?
>
Define technical communication
>
Understand
that technical communication has
a
global
reach
>
Appreciate
the
role
of technical communication in most careers
>
ldentify the main features and aims of technical communication
)
Recognize
a
typical technical document
>
Observe
the challenges facing one communicator
at
work
WHAT
IS
TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION?
Technical
communication is
the exchange of information that helps people interact Technjcar
with technology and solve complex
problems.
Almost every day, we nrake
decisions
;oi:'-l'?tionr
or
nle
rctions that depend
r.rn
techni.al irtformation. When we in:,trrll
.rn1
ne*
*'r[
r"ir'.otsy
i.
device,
from a microwave oven
to
a new
printer,
it's the
setup
intbnnation
th.t we
our dailv
lives
look
for
as
soon
as
we
open the box.
Before we
opt for
the
latest
high-tech
medical
treatment, we learn
all
we can
about
its
benefits
and
risks. From
banking systems to
online
courses to business negotiations,
countless
aspects
ofdaily life
are
affected by
technology.
To interact with
technology in so many lvays, we need information that
is not only technically accurate but also easy to understancl and use.
Technical
communication
serves various needs
in
various
settings.
People
may Technicat
need to
perform
a task
(say,
assemble
a
new exercise machine), answer
a
question
(say,
::IT'iltlli:"
aboLrt
the safety
ofa flu shot), or
make a
decision
(say,
about
suspending
offshore
"rl
i;H;'":;::";"..
drilling). In the workplace, we are not only consumers
of technical conmunicirtion,
but
producers
as well. Any document or presentation $€ prepare
(memo,
letter, report,
Web
page,
PowerPoint) must
advance the
goals
ofour readers,
yiewers,
or listeners.
Figure
l.l
shows
a sampling of the kinds
of
technical cornmunication
yorr
might encounter
or
prepare,
either
on
the
job or
in
the
community.
Typical
Kinds
ol
Technical
Communication
MEMO PROCEDURES
a
project's
progress
rogulations
FIGURE 1.1 Technical Communication
Serves Various Needs
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Digiial
technology
is
no
substitute
for
human interaction
Ouestions
that
only
a
person
can
Digiral
communication
requires
attention
to style and
tone
Write to
a diverse
audience
CHAPTER 1 lntroduction toTechnical Communication
TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
IS A
DIGITAL
AND A HUMAN ACTIVITY
In today's world of digital tools, we write and communicate more than ever:
emailing, using social networking
sites,
looking up
research and news
i
on the Web, video conferencing
with
colleagues, and so forth. We do all this
such speed that we often forget to
pay
attention to basic
professional
standards
workplace
communication.
For instance, we sometimes
use
an informal, chatty tone-appropriate for
but
not
for the
office-when
sending
a
workplace email.
Or
we
might
be
in a
and fail to notice our
use
of humor, which may
be
welcomed in
person
but
could
misunderstood in an email. An unclear or inaccurate email could
easily
cause
a
conflict or a safety error; a tone that seems inappropriate could
result
in
wasted
spent resolving the interpersonal situation instead
ofworking
on the
project.
Despite the power of digital technology, only humans can give meaning to
the
information
that
we convey and receive.
Information technology
is
no
for human
interaction.
People make information meaningfirl
by
thinking
and addressing
questions
that
no
computer can answer:
o
Which information
is
relevant
to this situation?
o
Can I veri& the accuracy of this source?
o
What
does
this information
mean?
o
What
action
does
it
suggest?
o
How
does
this information affect
me
or
my
colleagues?
.
With whom
should
I
share
it?
.
How might others interpret this information?
With so
much information
available
via the Web and other
sources,
no
one
can
afford to
"let
the data speak for themselves."
TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION REACHES
A GLOBAL AUDIENCE
Electronically linked, our global community shares social,
political, and financial
interests. Corporations are increasingly multinational, and diverse cultures exist within
individual nations. To connect with all readers, technical documents need to reflect
global and intercultural diversity. In his article,
"Culture
and
Communication,"
Robert G.
Hein
defines
culture and its impact on communication:
Our
accumulated knowledge
and
experiences, beliefs andvalues, attitudes and roles-
in other words, our cultures-shape
us
as individuals and
differentiate
us as a people.
Our
cultures, inbred
through family
life, religious
training, and
educational
and work
How
cultures
shape
communication
styles
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l'ith
for
be
iegal
all
Technical Communication ls Part
of
Most
Careers
experiences
.
. .
manifest
therrseh'es
. . .
in our thoughts and
feelings,
our actions and
reactions, and
our
vielvs
ofthe world.
Most
important lor
communicators, our cultures manifest themselves
in
our
information
needs
and our
styles
of communication .
. . our c\peclations as
to
how
information should be organized, what
should
be
included
iu its content, and how
it should
be expressed.
(125)
Cultures
difier over which
behaviors
seem
appropriate
for
social
interaction,
business
relationships,
contract negotiation, and communication practices.
An
effective communicatior.r style
in
one culture may be offensive elsewhere.
For
example,
one sun'e). of
top international
executives reveals
the following attitudes
toward
U.S.
communication style
(Wandycz
22 23):
.
Latin America:
"Americans
are
too straightforward,
too direct."
.
Eastern Europe:
"An
imperial tone
knorv best."
.
Southeast
Asia:
"'I'o
get rny respect,
American business
lpeople]
should know
sol.rething
about
Iour
cuiture]. But they don't."
.
Western
Europe:
"Americans
miss the srnall points."
.
Central
Europe:
"Americans tend to oversell themselves."
In additjon to being broadly accessible, any document prepared
for a
global
audi-
ence must reflect sensitivity to
cultural differences. For more on cross-cultural
communication,
see
Chapters
3 and
5.
TECHNICAL
COMMUNICATION IS
PART
OF
MOST
CAREERS
Whatever your
job
description,
expect to be evaluated, at least
in
part,
on
your
cornmunication
skills. At one
IBM
subsidiary,
for
example, 25 percent
of an
employee's evaluation is based on how effectively that person
shares
information
(Davenport 99). Even
ifyou
don't
anticipate
a
"writing"
career, expect to be
a
part-
time technical communicator, who rvill routinely face situations
such as
these:
.
As
a
medical
professionai,
psychologist,
social worker, or accountant, you will
keep precise records that are, increasir.rgly,
a
basis
for
legal
action.
.
As
a
scientist, you
will report
on
your
research and explain its significance.
.
As a trranager, you rvill rvrite
melllos,
personnel
evaluations,
inspection reports,
and
gir,e
oral preser.rtations.
r
As
a
lab
or seryice technician, you
will
keep daily activity records
and help
train colvorkers in installing, using, or servicing
equipment.
.
As an
attorney, you
r,r'ill research
and interpret
the law for clients.
It's
always
about how
fArnericans]
How
various
cultures
view tl.S.
communication
style
Most
professionaLs
serve as
pa
rt
time
technical
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as
(For
bro-
Focus
on the
reader,
not
the
writer
What
readers
expect
Main
Features
of Technical
Communication
broad
range
ofskills,
technical
communicators
often
enter related
fierds
such
as
pub
llshing,
magazine
editing,
Web
site
management,
television,
and
college
teaching.
MAIN
FEATURES
OF
TECHNICAL
COMMUNICATION
Aimost
any form
of
technical
communication
displays
certain
shared
features:
The
communication
is reader
centered,
accessible
and
efficient,
often produced
by
teams,
and
delivered
in
both
paper and
digital
versions.
Reader-Centered
Unlike poetry,
fiction,
or college
essays,
a
technical
document
rarelv
fbcuses
on
the writer's
personal
thoughts
and
feelings.
This
doesn't
mean
that your
document
should
have no personality (or
voice),
but it
does
mean
that
the
needs
ofyour
read
er'
come
first.
,
Workplace
readers
typically
are
interested
in
,,who
you
are,,only
to the
extent
that.th-ey
want
to krrow
what
you
have
done,
what
yo.,
.".o--.nj,
or
how you
speak
for your
company.
Reader-centered
documents
focus
on what people
need
to
learn,
do, or
decide.
Accessible
and
Efficient
Readers
expect
to find
the information
they
need
and
to
get questions
answered
cJearly. For
instance,
the document
shown
in
Figure
1.2
(see
page
9) is written
and
designed
so
that
a
nontechnical
audience
can
find
and foliori,
the information.
Instead
oflong
technical
passages,
the
content
is
presented
in
short
chunks,
in
the
fonn
of
questions
that readers
might
ask.
An
accessible
and
efficient
technical
document
includes
elements
such
as
those
displayed
in
Figure
1.2
and listed
below.
r
worthwhile
content-includes
all
(and
only)
the information
readers
need
r
sensible
organization-guides
the
reader
and
emphasizes
important
material
r readable
style-promotes
fluid
reading
and
accurate
understanding
r
effective
visuals-clarify
concepts
and relationships,
and
substitute
for words
whenever
possible
o
effective page
design-provides
heads,lists,
tlpe
styles,
white
space,
and
other
aids
to
navigation
.
supplements (abstract,
appendir,
glossary,
linked
pages,
and
so
on)_allow
readers
to focus
on
the
specific
parts
of
a long
document
that
are
relevant
to
their purpose
Accessible,
efficient
communication
is
no mere
abstract
notion:
In
the event
of
a lawsuit,
faulty
writing
is treated
Iike
any
other
faulty product.
If
your
inaccurate,
Make
documents
easy to
navigate
and understand
Elements
that
make
a document
accessible
and
efficient
Recognize
your
legal
accountability
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Prepare lor
Select
the
appropriate
mediLrm
or
combination of
med ia
CHAPTER
1 lntroduction
toTechnical
Communication
unclear, or
incomplete
information
leads to
injury,
damage,
or
loss,
you and
company or
organization
can be
held responsible.
NOTE Make
sure
your
message
is clear ond
straightforward
but do not oversim-
plify.
Information
designer Nathan Shedrof reminds us that,
while
clarity
makes
information easier to understand, simplicity
is hften responsible
for
the
'dumbing
down'
of information
rather tha
the
illumination
of
it"
(280).
The
"sound
bytes" that
often
masquerade
as
network
news reports serve
as
a
good
cqse
in
point,
Often
Produced by Teams
Technical documents are often
complex. Instead of being
produced
by a
writer, complex documents usually
are created
by
teams composed of
Web designers, engineers or scientists,
managers,
legal experts, and other
sionals.
The teams might be situated at one site
or location or distributed
different
job
sites,
time
zones, and countries.
Delivered in Paper and Digital
Versions
Technical documents
can be
delivered in
a
variety of media
such as
copy), CDs, Web
pages,
PDF documents,
ebooks,
podcasts,
and online
videos,
fact, distinctions between
and digital
communication
are
becoming
Figure
1.2
is
a
good example: The document is
in PDF format and can be read
the Web, downloaded
to your own computer
for
future
reading, or
printed
paper. Technical communicators must write well but must also be
able to
about
page design and media choices.
NOTE
In
mony coses,
documents
are still the
basis
for
much of o company\
communication.
Despite
continued
advances
in
electronic
communication,
paPet
is not
goingawaf.
PURPOSES
OF
TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
Most forms of technical communication
address one of three
primary
(i)
to anticipate and answer
questions
(inform
your readers):
(2)
to enable
to
perform a task or follow
a
procedure
(instruct
your
readers);
or
(3)
to
people's
thinking
(persuade
your readers). Often, as
in Figure 1.2, these
will overlap.
Documents
that
lnform
Informational documents are designed to
inform-to
provide
information
answers
readers' questions clearly and efficiently.
Figure 1.2 is
primarily
mational.
It
is
designed
for
a
wide audience ofreaders
who
may
know little
the
topic.
What
purpose
or
combination of
purposes
will
your
document
serve?
Anticipate and
readers'questions
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Bar
graph
provides
an
informative
and
persuasive
function
Docume
Persuasion
(such
as a
ments
can
example, e
low amoun
PREPAR
Whether
y
scientist, te
nicating, th
CHAPTER
1 lntroduction
toTechnical
Communication
FIGURE
1.2
(Continued)
Documents that lnstruct
Instructional
documents help
people do something: assemble
a
new computer,
perform
CPR,
or, in the
case
of
Figure
1.2,
install and then
dispose
ofa fluorescent
light bulb
safely. On
page
2 ofthat document
the steps are
grouped
under
specific
headings and
written
using action
verbs
("unscrew
the light bulb by
its
base";
"seal
the bulb in two
plastic bags"). Cautions about
what
not
to do
appear as
needed
("Never
send
a
fluorescent
light bulb
. .
.
to
an
incinerator.").
for
this gro
Other
c
for example
ment and
s
workplace
ment r)?ica
and
describe
lnstructions
are
easy
to follow
Enable
your
readers to
perlorm
certain tasks
Tolal Mercury Emissions, CFLS and
lncandescent
6
a
e
fr
8:
E
1
0
mMftlnendes@nt
l3MttCFL
Because
CFLS
also
help to.educe
grcenhouse gasses,other
polutants
associaled
wilh
eeclricity
produciion
and landnllwasle
(becalse
the bubs asl lonser),lhey arc clearly
lhe environmenlal winner when compared to
traditional
ncandescent
I
ghl
bulbs.
What
orecautions should I take when
usino
CFLS
in mv home?
CFLS
are made or glass and can break if dropped
or
rcugh y
handled. Be
carelu
when remov
ng
the
bu b
ftom
is
packasins
installng it
or
replacing
it.
Always screw and
unscrewlhe
lighl
bub by
ts base
(notlhe glass),
and
never
forcefully bdistlhe
CFL
inlo a ioht socket Used
CFLS
shor d
be
disposed ot
prcpeny
(see
below).
what
should I do
with
a CFL
when it burns out?
EPA
recommends lhatconsumers lake actanlage of availabb
localrecyclng oplonsfor compact
fllorescenl
lishl
bulbs. EPA is
working
wilh
CFL
manufaclurers and major U.S.
letalers
to expand.ecyclins
and
disposal
opiions.
Cons mers
can
conlacl
the
r localmlnicpa
solidwasle agency direclly,orgo lo
or
Mearlhgl
1 .orc to dentify
local recyclinq options
lf
your
siate or local envkof
menia requlalory agency
permits
you
lo
pul
used
or broken
cFLs in
the
garbage
sealthe
bulb in lwo
pasllc
bags and
pul
t
into
lhe
outside
lrash
or
other
protected
outsde ocation,iorthenext
norrnallrash collection
Neve. send
a
fuorescenl light
bulb
orany other
mercury containing
producl
to an
lf
your
ENERGY
STAR
qualifled
CFL
producl
burns
oul belore
itshould.look
at
ihe CFL base lofind lhe
manufaclurer s name.Vis t the manlfacturcfs
web
srie
lo find lhe customer service conlacl
informat
on
to
nquire abouta
rerlnd or replacement. Manufaclurers
producing
ENERGY STAR
qualilied
CFLS arc rcquned to
oller at leasta hro-year lmiled
watranty
(covering
manufaclurer defects)ior
CFLS
used
al home
ln thefuture,
sava
you'recprpls
lo
doLurenl he d.le o'pur.hd'F.
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Preparing Etfective Technical Documents
Documents
that Persuade
Persuasion
encourages
people
to
take
a desired action. While some
documents
(such
as a sales
letter) are explicitly
persuasive, even the most technical
of
docu
ments
can have
an
implicitly
persuasive purpose. The bar graph in Figure
1.2,
for
example,
encourages
readers to use compact
fluorescent bulbs
by
showing
their
low amount
of mercury
emissions relative to traditional
light bulbs.
PREPARING
EFFECTIVE
TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS
Whether
you
are a
full-time communication
professional or an ettgineer.
nurse,
scientist,
technician,
legal expert, or anyone
whose
job
requires
writing
and
commu-
nicating,
the
main question
you
face
is
this:
"How
do I
prepare
the right document
for
this group ofreaders
and this
particular
situation?"
Other
chapters
in
this book
break dorvn the
process in more detail. In Chapter
2,
for
example,
you will learn about
analyzing the audience
and
purpose for
any
docu-
ment
and situation.
Later,
you
will see
examples ofdocument tlpes
tlpically used
in
workplace
environments. But regardless
of the
q?e,
producitrg
an
e{l-ective
docu-
ment
gpically
requires
that
you
complete
the four basic tasks depicted
in
Figure
1.3
and
described
on
page
12.
FIGURE
1.3 How
an
Effective Document
ls Produced
Motivate
your
readers
A
main
question
Vou
must
answer
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A workplace
CHAPTER 1 lntroduction toTechnical
Corrmunication
o
Deliver
inforrnalirr r:.;r.1"-;r earr
use
because different people
in
different
iriirrii i;1-', r
;
tr:l
::
,-1iltr-:ni
iltbrmation
needs.
(Chapter
2)
Ure persuasive
reasoning-because
people
often disagree
about what
the
inl(rnnation
means
and what
action should
be taken.
(Chapter
3)
.
Weigh the ethical
issues-because
unethical
communication lacks
credibility
and could alienate
readers.
(Chapter
4)
.
Practice
good
teamwork
because
working
in
teams
is
how
roughly
90 percent
of U.S.
workers
spend
some
part
of
their day
("People"
57).
(Chapter
5)
"Can
lprovide
exactly what
The
short cases that follow
illustrate
how
a tlpical
professional
confronts
these
tasks in
her own day
to
day communication
on the
job.
Providing
lnformation
Readers
Gan
Use
Sarah Burnes
was hired two
months
ago as a
chemical
engineer
for
lVillisun,
a
leading
maker
of cameras. multipurpose
film,
and
photographic
equipment,
Sarah's
first
major assignment is
to
evaluate
the
plant's incoming and
outgoing
water.
(Waterborne
contaminants
can taint film
during
production,
and the
produc-
tion
process
itself can
pollute
outgoing water.)
Management
wants
an
answer to
this
question:
How
often should
we change water
filters? The
filters are
expensive
and
hard to change, halting
production
for up to
a day at a time. The
company
wants as much
"mileage"
as
possible
from
these filters,
without
either incurring
government
fines
or tainting its
film
production.
Sarah
will
study endless
printouts
of
chemical analysis, review
currenl research
and
government
regulations,
do
some testing
of
her
own. and
consult with her
col-
leagues. When
she finally
determines
what
allthe data indicate,
Sarah
will
prepare
a
recommendation
report for her
bosses.
Later,
Sarah will
collaborate
with
the company
training manager
and
the
main-
lenance
supervisor
to
prepare
a manual, instructing
employees on how
to
check
and
change the filters.
To cut
publishing
costs, the
company has
asked
Sarah to
design and produce
this
manual using its desktop
publishing
system.
Sarah's report,
above all, needs
to be accurate;
otherwise, the
company gets
fined
or
lowers
production.
Once
she
has
processed
all the
information,
she faces
the
problem
ofgiving
readers
what they need:
How much explaining
should
I
do? How
will I
organize
the manual? Do
I
need
yisuals?
And.
so
on.
In other
situations,
Sarah
will
face
a
persuasion
problem
as well, for
example,
when decisions
must
be made or actions
taken
on the
basis of incomplete
or
inconclusive
facts
or conflicting interpretations
(Hauser
72).
In
these
instances,
5arah
will
seek
con>en.,us
lor her
view.
l\4illisun
and
the
port
for a
effluents
Sarah is on a
Agency
to
clean
Enraged
themselves
aG
analysis
dispersing
th€
contaminants
but
team
Sarah's
team
memb€r8
environmental
ommends
public
as
well
as she
In
the
differ
about
Pressures
and
son,
Sarah
Sarah's
way? Canl
To ensure
to
test ths
{ilters
ous
levels
to the
tested
fol
filters
zene
Assume
the issuo
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Preparing Effective Technical Documents
the
5./,.
u
n,
to
to
or
Being Percuasive
Millisun
and other electronics
producers
are located
on
the shores of
a
small
harbor, "can linftuence
the
port
for
a
major fishing fleet, For twenty
years,
these companies have
discharged
peop
e
to
see
^
effluents
containing
metal
compounds,
PCBS,
and
other toxins directly into the harbor.
lhrngsmvwav/
Sarah
is
on
a
multicompany team, assigned to work with the Environmental Protection
Agency
to
clean
up
the harbor. lMuch
of
the team's collaboration
occurs
via
email.
Enraged
local citizens are demanding immediate action, and
the
companies
themselv-.s
are anxious
to
end
this
public
relations nightmare. But
the
team's
anaiysis
reveals that any type of cleanup would stir up harbor sediment,
possibly
dispersing
the solution into surrounding waters and the atmosphere.
(fMany
of the
contaminants
can
be
airborne.)
Premature
action
might actually increase danger,
but
team members disagree on the degree of risk and on how to
proceed,
Sarah's
communication
here takes on a
persuasive
dimension:
She
and her
team
members
first
have to resolve
their own
disagreements
and
produce
an
environmental
impact
report that reflects
the
team's
consensus.
lf the report
rec-
ommends
further study. Sarah
will
have to
justify
the delays to her bosses and the
public
relations office, She
will
have
to
make other
people
understand the dangers
as well as
she does.
In the
preceding
case,
the
facts
are
neither
complete
nor
conclusive, and
views
differ
about what
these
facts mean. Sarah rvill have to balance the
various political
pressures and
make
a case
for her interpretation. Also,
as
company
spokesper-
son,
Sarah
rrill
be
expected to
protect
her company's interests. Some
elements
of
Sarah's
persuasion
problem: Are
other
interpretations
possible?
Is
there
a
better
way?
Can
I
expect
political
or
legal
fallout?
considerino the Erhical lssues
i
To
ensure compliance
with
OSHA1 standards
for worker safety, Sarah is
assigned
"can
lbe honesr
to
test the air
purification
system in Millisun's chemical division, After finding the
and-slill
keep
mv
i
filters hopelessly
clogged,
she
decides to test the air
quality
and
discovers
danger-
loD
ous
levels of benzene
ia
potent
carcinogen). She reports these findings in a memo
to the
production
manager,
with
an
urgent recommendation that all
employees be
tested
for benzene
poisoning.
The manager
phones
and tells Sarah to "have the
filters replaced," but says nothing at all about her
recommendation to
test
for
ben-
zene
poisoning.
Now
Sarah
has to decide what to do about this lack of response:
Assume the test is being handled, and bury the memo in some file cabinet? Raise
the issue again, and
risk
alienating
her boss?
Send copies
of her original memo to
someone else
who might take action?
I
Occupational Safet.v and
Health
Administration.
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CHAPTER
1 lntroduction
toTechnical
Communication
As
the
preceding case
illustrates,
Sarah
also
will have
to reckon
with
the ethical
in.rplications
of
her
writing,
with the
question of'doing
the
right
thingi'
For in-
stance,
Sarah
might
feel
pressured to overlook,
sugarcoat,
or
suppress
facts
that
would
be costly
or
embarrassing
to her company
Situations
that corrrPromise
truth and
fairness
present
the hardest
choices
of
all: remain
silent
and
look the other
way, or
speak
out and
risk being
fired Some
elements
of
Sarah's
ethics
problem:
Is
this
fair?
Who
might
benefit
or suJJerz'
What
other
consequences
could this
have?
In addition
to solving
these
various
problems' Sarah
has
to work
in a
team set-
ting:
Much ofher
writing
will be
produced in collaboration
with
others
(editors,
,ounng".r,
graphic artists),
and
her audience
will
extend
beyond
readers
from
her
own
culture.
GENERAL
l.
Write a
m
ment for t
help
you
b
Chapter
14
2.
Locate
a W
graduates
cal
knowle
skills
does
Discuss
yo
memo
to o
cation skills
or
a
similar
TEAM
Introducing
a
Class
members
To
help everyon
introduce
to
th
(That
person,
in
procedure:
a. Exchange
ma]or,
intended
five
b.
Take
c. Take
tion
lou
who
Working
on a Team
and
Thinking Globally
"Can
lconnect
with
all these
different
colleagues?"
Recent
mergers
have
transformed
Millisun
into a
multinational
corporation
with
branches
in
eleven countries.
all
connected
by an
intranet.
Sarah
can
expect to
collaborate
with coworkers
from
diverse
cultures
on research
and
development
and
with
government
agencies
of the
host countries
on
safety
issues.
patents
and
ticensing
rights,
product
liability
laws, and environmental
concerns.
Also, she
can
expect
to
confront
the
challenges
of
addressing
the
unique
needs
and expecta-
tions of
people
from
various
cultures
across
the
globe.
She will
need
to
be careful
about
how
she
writes
her daily
email status
reports,
for
example,
so that these
reports convey
respect
for cultural
differences.
ln order
to standardize
the sensitive
management
of the toxic,
volatile,
and even
explosive
chemicals
used
in
film
production,
Millisun
is developing
automated
procedures
for
quality
control,
troubleshooting'
and
emergency
response
to chem-
ical
leakage. Sarah
has been assigned
to a team
that is
preparing
computer-based
training
packages
and
instructional
videos
for all
personnel
involved
in Millisun's
chemica
I
management
worldwide.
As
a
further
complicatior.r,
Sarah
will
have to
develop
working
relatioltships
with
people she
has never
met
face-to-face,
people
from other
cultures,
and
people she
knows
only
via an electronic
medium.
For
Sarah
Butnes,
or any
of
us,
writing
is
a
Process
of
discovering
what
we
want
to say,
"a
way to
end
up
thinking something
[we]
couldn't
have started olrt
thinking"
(Elbow
15).
Throughout
this
process
in the workplace,
we
rarely
work
alone
but instead
collaborate
with
others
for information,
help in writing,
and
feedback.
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Projects
GENERAL
l. Write
a memo to your
boss,
justifying
reimburse
ment
for this
course.
Explain how the
course
will
help
you
become more effective on the
job. (See
Chapter 14
for memo
elements
and format.)
2.
Locate
a Web site for
an organization that hires
graduates
in
your
major. In addition
to techni
cal knowledge, what writhg and
communication
skills does
this organization
seek in
job
candidates?
Discuss
your
findings in
class
and write
a short
memo to
other
students,
e)elaining
what communi-
cation
skills
they require
in order
to
find ajob in
this
or
a similar organization.
TEAM
Introducing a
Classmate
Class members will work
together often this semester
To
help
everyone become acquainted, your
task is to
introduce to the
class
the person
seated
next to
you.
(That
person,
in turn, will
introduce you.) Follow
this
procedure:
a.
Exchange with your
neighbor
whatever
personal
information you
think
the
class needs:
background,
maior, career
plans, communication
needs of your
intended profession,
and so on. Each person
gets
five minutes
lo tell
her
or
his stor1.
b.
Take
careful notes;
ask
questions
if you
need to.
c. Take your
notes
home
and
select only
the
inforrna-
tion
you
think
the class
will find
useful.
d. Prepare a one-page
memo telling your
classmates
who this person
is.
(See
Chapter 14 for
memo
ele-
ments and
format.)
e. Ask your neighbor to
review
the memo for
accu-
racy; revise
as
needed.
f.
Present the
class
with
a
two-minute
oral
paraphrase
of your memo, and
submit a
copy
of
the memo
to
your instructor.
DIGITAL AND
SOCIAL MEDIA
With a
team of
2-3
other
students, visit
a
government
Web
site, such as the Food and Drug
Administra-
tion
<www.fda.gov>,
the Centers for Disease
Control
<www.cdc.gov>,
NASA
<www.nasa.gov>,
or the Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency <www.epa.gov>.
Locate
documents that
are
similar in purpose to Figure
Ll
in
this
chapter
Analyze
these
documents,
noting whether
they
are
available
in
PDF and
whether
they
conform to
one of the three purposes
(informative,
instructional,
persuasive)
described
in this
chapter or whether they
are a blend of these purposes.
Also, locate the Face-
book page for
NASA and compare it with
NASAi Web
site.
How
is
content presented
differently
on
each site?
Does
the Facebook page
appear to have
a different pur-
pose
from the
Web site? Ifso, what are the
differences?
GLOBAL
Look back at the
Sarah Burnes case in
this chapter.
Assume
that
you
are
about to
ioin
a
team at
work,
a
team
that has members from Ireland,
India,
China,
and the
United
States.
Use the Internet to learn what
you
can about
patterns
of communicationj
issues
to
Iook
for
include politeness,
turn taking, use of
first
names or titles,
and gender roles. Describe
your
find
ings
in
a
short memo to your instructor
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>
Understand
>
Picture
>
Consider
)
Consider
>
Pinpoint
>
ldentifythe
Analyze
You
r
Docu
ment's
Audience
and Purpose
Assess the Audience's
Tech nica
I
Backg rou
nd
ldentify
the Audience's
Cultu ral
Backg rou nd
Anticipate
Your Audience's
Prefe
rences
Guideiines lor Analyzing
You
r
Audience
and its
Use
of the Document
Develop
an
Audience
and
Use
Profile
Check
You
r
Document
for
Usability
Checklist: Usability
Projects
>U
All,T;lffii
"Audience
makes all the
difference. I write for
students,
small
groups
of scholars,
and
general
readers. I
pitch
grant proposals
to larger
groups
of
scholars, either nationally
(as
for the National
Endowment
for the Humanities)
or locally
(among
colleagues throughout
the disciplines
at
my
university). I
assume
my
audiences
are happy enough
to
listen to me at first,
but that to
keep
them
read-
ing I need
to
supply varying degrees
of
background
and explanation
pitched
to their
background and
familiarity
with the
subject matter."
-John
Bryant, Professor
docunent:
sonething,
Before
you
document
and
for example,
rnce
clients
sLrmelhrng-as
look
like. You
technician
pr0p]se
Preparing
al
rnd
the
Because
tailored
lo iB
problems,
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Meetinq
the Needs of Specific
Audiences
>
Understand
the
key concepts
of
"audience"
and
"purpose"
>
Picture
exactly who will use
your
document and why
)
Consider
your
audience's technical
background
)
Consider
the
audience's
cultural
background
>
Pinpoint
the
needs and
goals
of
your
audience
>
ldentify the length, format,
tone, and other
qualities your
audience
prefers
>
Understand the concept
of usability in relation to
audience and
purpose
/\J1
technical
communication
is intended for people
who
will
use
and
react
hto
the intormation.
These
people
are
considered
to
be the
audience for your
document: people
who are reading the material
in order to
do
something or
learn
something.
Before
you
start
writing,
you need
to identif'
precisely
who will
be
reading
the
document and
to
understand how
that
particular
audience
will
use
your
material.
For example,
you
rnight need
lo
dertne something
as
in
explaining
to
insur-
ance clients what the term
"variable
annuity" means.
You
might
need
to describe
something-as in
showing an architectural client what a new office
building will
look like. You might
need to explqin
something-as in
instructing
an auto repair
technician how
to
reprogram the
car's electronic ignition.
Or
you
might need
to
propose
something-as in arguing for
change
in your
company's
sick-leave policy.
Preparing
an effective document
requires systematic
analysis of
your
audience
and the ways in which they will
use
your
document
(Figure
2.1).
Because
people's
basic requirements vary,
every audience expects
a message
tailored to its
own specific interests, social
conventions,
ways
of
understanding
prublem
s,
lnd
in lb
rnrat
iorr needs.
Providing Useful lnfomation
How will I
give
readers
what
they
need?
FIGURE 2.1
Communicators Begin by
Considering Their Audience
enough
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Ouestions
for
analyzing
a
document's
audience
"What
is my
relationship with
this audience?"
"Who
is the main
audience
for this
document?"
"Who
else
is
likely
to
read it?"
CHAPTER 2 Meeting
the
Needs
of
Specific Audiences
ANALYZE
YOUR
DOCUMENT'S
AUDIENCE
AND
PURPOSE
Explore
all
you
can about
who will
use
your
document,
why
they
will
use
it,
and
how
they will
use
it.
Begin by
analyzing your
audience and
the
background,
needs,
and
preferences
of these readers.
Among
the
questions
you
must
answer
are these:
o Who
is the
main
audience for
this document?
o
Who else
is
likely to
read it?
.
What is your
relationship
with
the audience?
r
Are multiple
ty?es
of relationships
involved?
.
What
information
does
this audience
need?
o
How
familiar might
the audience
be
with
technical details?
o
Do
these readers
have
varying
levels
ofexpertise?
o
What culture
or cultures
does
your
audience represent?
.
How might
cultural
differences
shape
readers' expectations
and interpretations?
Answer
these
questions
by considering the
suggestions
that follow.
Primary
and
Secondary
Audiences
When
writing a technical
document, keep two audiences
in mind.
Most
documents
are geared
to an immediate
audience
ofreaders.
This is your
primary
audience.
For
instance,
a set
of instructions for installing
new email
software
for
an office
net-
work
might be
directed primarily
toward
the computer
support
staffwho
would
be
doing the installing.
But most
documents
also
have
a secondary
audience,
those
individuals
out_
side the immediate
circle
of
people
who
will
be
needing
the information
directly.
For
example,
a
secondary
audience
for
software
instructions
might
be
managers,
who
will
check to
see
if
the instructions comply
with
company
policy,
or lawyers,
who
will
make
sure the instructions meet
legal
standards.
Generally, primary
readers are decision makers
who
requested
the
document.
Secondary readers
are those who
will
carry out the
project,
who
will
advise
the
decision makers,
or who will
be
affected
by
this decision
in
some
way.
Your Relationship
to Your
Readers
Besides
identifying your
audience in
a
general
way, you
also need
to
understand
your
relationship
with everyone involved.
In your
situation,
will
the readers
be
su
perior
level
of
inside
o
decide
h
If
so,
pe
or
to
res
persuasiv
both
ins
documen
Purpos
Speil
out
pect
reade
o
What
o
What
o
What
Answer
th
follow.
Primary
Most
forms
cussed
in
C
will
affect
t
Many
primary
pu
audience
ho
companies
or
a
lawnmo
safety
hazar
with
the
mec
In
plann
target
audien
example
[ita
employees
o
procedures
p
program
mer
to install
the
virus
scans-"
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Analyze Your
Document's
Audience and Purpose
superiors, colleagues, or subordinates? Your answer
will
help you determine the
level of formality and authority to use
in
the document. Are the readers
from
inside
or outside
your
organization?
Answering
this
question
will
help
you
decide how
confidential
you
need
to
be. Do you know
the
readers
personally?
If
so,
perhaps
you can adopt
a
more informal
tone. Are they
likely
to welcome
or
to
resist
your information? Knowing
the answer
will
help
you
decide how
persuasive
you
need
to be. Are they
a
combination ofpeople from various levels,
both inside and outside the company? The answer
will
help you tailor your
document
for
various readers.
Purpose
of Your
Document
Spell
out
precisely
what
you
want your document to
accomplish and
how you
ex-
pect
readers to use it. In other words, determine
your purpose.
Ask these
questions:
.
What is the main purpose of the
document?
.
What
other
purpose
or
purposes
does the
document
serve?
o
What
will
readers
do with this information?
Answer
these
questions
by
considering the
suggestions
in the
sections
that
follow.
Primary
and
Secondary
Purposes
Most
forms
of technical communication fulfill a specific
primary purpose.
As dis-
cussed
in Chapter
l, the
primary purpose
(to
inform, to instruct, or to
persuade)
will affect the document's overall shape and substance.
Many documents have one
or
more
secondary
purposes. For example,
the
primary purpose
in a
gpical
instruction manual is to instruct,
that
is,
to teach an
audience how to assemble or
use
the
product. But for ethical
and
legal reasons,
companies also
want
people
to
use
the
product
safely.
A
manual
for
a
power
tool
or
a
lawnmower,
for instance, almost always begins with
a
page
that spells out
safety hazards and
precautions,
before instructing readers about how to
proceed
with the mechanism.
In
planning
your
document,
work from
a clear statement
that
identifies
the
target audience as well as
the document's
primary and
secondary
purposes.
For
example
[italics
added],
"The
purpose
of
my document is
to
inform
company
employees
ofthe
new
absentee
policy
and
to
instruct them
on
how to follow the
procedures
properly,"
or
"The
purpose
of my documentis to inform my division's
programmers
about the
new
antivirus software, as well as to instruct them onhow
to install the software and to
persuade
lhem of the importance of
running
weekly
virus scans-"
Ouestions
for
deciding
on
the
purpose
of
your
document
Write
a clear
purpose
statement
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"How
will
readers
use
this
Oueslions
for
anticipating
how
your
document
wiji
be used
CHAPTER
2
Meeting the Needs of Specific Audiences
lntended
Use of
the Document
In addition to determining purposes
of
a document
from your
own
perspective,
also consider how and why
it will
be used
by others. As you plan your
document,
answer
these
questions:
o
Do my
readers
simply want
to learn facts
or understand
concepts?
o
Will they
use
my information
in making
some
q?e
of
decision?
o
Will
people
act immediately
on the
information?
o
Do
they
need
step-by-step instructions?
o
In my audience's
view, what
is most
important
about
this document?
Besides
answering
these
questions,
try asking
members
ofyour audience
directly,
so
you
can
verify what they
want to know.
ASSESS
THE AUDIENCE'S
TECHNICAL
BACKGROUND
When
you
write for
a
close
acquaintance
(coworker,
engineering
colleague,
chem-
istry
professor
who reads your
lab reports,
or supervisor), you
adapt your
report
to
that person's
knowledge,
interests,
and needs. But
some audiences
are larger
and
less
defined
(say,
for a
journal
article,
a
computer
manual,
a set of first-aid
procedures,
or an
accident
report).
When you
have only a general
notion
about
your
audience's
background,
decide whether your
document
shotid l:e
highly
technical, semitechnical,
or nontechnical,
as
depicted in Figure 2.2.
Highly
Readers
need-w
reports
and
resu
For
cal term
findings
her
colle
knows
drrp), sh
main qu
Iem? Wh
"How
much
expeftise
does
this
aLrdience
possess?"
4
T
FIGURE
verst0n
ls
+
+
Just the
Facls & Figures
Exp a fed
Exp ained
rn
Srmp
est Terms
FIGURE 2.2
Deciding
on
a
Document
Level
ofTechnicality
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Expe rt
readers
need facts and
figures,
which
they can
interpret
for
themselves
Assess the Audience's
Technical Backoround
Highly Technical
Audience
Readers at
a
specialized
level
expect to
be
presentecl
the
facts
and figures they
need
rvithout long
explanations.
In
Figure
2.3, an emergency-roorn
physician
reports
to thc
patient's
doctor, who
needs
an exact record
of symptorns, trertmen[,
and resuits.
For her expert colleague,
this
physician
doesn't need
to dellne the
techni-
cal
terrns
(ptrlnonary
edema, sinus
rhythm).
Nor
does she need
to interpret
lab
findings
(,1+
protein,
eletated
serum
trdnsaminase).
She uses abbreviations
that
her
colleague
clearly
understands
(wbc,
B
UN, 5o/o D & W).llecause
her colleague
knorls all
about specific treatments
and
meclications
(de.fibrillation,
Xylocaine
d
p),
she
does not explaiir their
scientific bases. Her report
answers concisely
the
main questions
she
can anticipate fiom
this
particular
reader:
l4/ftat nas
tlrc
prob
leml What
was
the treatment?
What wera the results?
The
patient
was
brought to
the
ER by
ambulance at
1:00 A.M.,
September
27,
2010. The
patient
c0mplained
of
severe
chest
pains,
dyspnea, and vertigo.
Auscultation
and EKG revealed a massive
cardiac infarction
and
pulmonary
edema marked by
pronounced
cyanosis. Vital
signs: blood
pressure,
S0/40;
pulse,
140/min; respiration,
35/min. Lab:
wbc,
20,000; elevated serum
transaminase;
urea
nitrogen,60
mg%.
Urinalysis
showed 4+
protein
and
4+
granular
casts/field,
jndicating
acute
renal
failure
sec0ndary to
the
hypotension.
The
patient
received
10
mg of morphine stat, subcutaneously,
followed
by nasal oxygen and
5%
D
&
W
intravenously.
At 1:25
A.N,1. the
cardiac
monitor
recorded
an
irregular
sinus
rhlthm, indicating
left
ventricular
fibrillation.
The
patient
was defibrillated
stat and
given
a
50
mg
bolus of Xyiocaine
intravenously.
A
Xylocaine
drip
was
started,
and sodium
bicarbonate
administered
until
a normal
heartbeat
was established.
By
3:00
A.ra.,
the
oscilloscope was recording
a
normal
sinus rhythm.
As
the heartbeat
stabilized and cyanosis
diminished,
the
patient
received
5
cc of
Heparin intravenously,
to
be repeated
every six hours. By
5:00 A.M. the
BUN had
fallen t0
20 mg% and
vital
signs had srabilized:
btood
pressure,
110/60;
pulse,
105/min;
respiration,
22lmin. The
patient
was now
conscious
and responsive.
FIGURE 2.3
A
TechnicalVersion
of
an
EmergencyTreatment
Report This
version
is
written for medical
experts.
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CHAPTER
2
Meeting
the
Needs of Specific Audiences
Semitechnical
Audience
In certain
cases, readers
will
have some
technical background, but not as much as
the experts. For instance, first-year medical students have specialized knowledge,
but less than advanced students. Yet all medical students could be considered
semitechnical. Therefore, when you
write for
a semitechnical audience,
identify
the lowesf level of understanding in the group, and write to that level. Too much
explanation
is
better
than
too
little.
The partial
version of the
medical report
in Figure
2.4
might appear in
a
text-
book for medical or nursing students,
in a
report for
a
medical social worker, or
in
a monthly report for the hospital administration.
This version
explains
the raw
data
(highlighted
in yellow).
Exact dosages are
omitted because no one in this audience actually will be treating this patient. Normal
values
oflab
tests and
vital
signs, however, help readers
interpret
the
report
results.
Examination by
stethoscope
and
electrocardiogram
revealed a massive
Iailure
o{
the heart
muscle along
with tluid buildup
in
the
lungs,
which
produced
a
cyanotic
discoloration
oI
the lips
and
fingertips from lack
of
oxygen.
The
patient's
blood
pressure
at 80 mm Hg
(systolic)i40
mm Hg
(diastolic)was
dangerously below
its normal measure of 130/70.
A
pulse
rate
of
140/minute
was
almost
twice the
normal rate of
6G-80.
Respiration
at 35/minute
was
more than
twice the
normal rate
of
12-16.
Laboratory
blood tests
yielded
a
white
blood cell count o,f20,000/cu
mm
(normal
value;5.000
10,000),
indicating
a severe
inflammatory
response by
the
heart muscle. The elevated serum
transaminase
enzymes
{produced
in
quantity
only
when the
heart muscle
fail}
confirmed
thes
earlier
diaqnosis. A blood urea
nitrogen
level of
60
mg%
(normal
value:
12-16 mg%)
indicated that the
kidneys had
ceased to
lilter
out
metabolic
waste products.
The 4+
protein
and
casts
reported from
the urinalysis
(normal
value: 0) revealed
that the
kidney
tubules were degenerating
as
a
result
ol
the lowered
blood
pressure.
The
patient
immediately received
morphine
to
ease
the chest
pain,
Iollowed by oxygen t0 relieve strain on the cardiopulmonary system, and
an
intraven0us
solution
of dextrose and
water to
prevent
shock.
FIGURE
2.4
A
SemitechnicalVersion of an
EmergencyTreatment Report
This
version
is
written for readers who are not experts but who have some medical
backgrou
nd.
(Experts
know
would
be
espe
a typical
heart
Nontechni
People
with
n
of
complex
d
people
under
want enough
action.
They
left
unexplain
reading
it
on
The
nonte
written for
th
for
a docume
(highlighted
normal
value
and
why thes
lniormed
but
nonexpert
readers
need
enough
explanation to
understand
what
the
data mean
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Assess the
Audience's
Technical Background
(Experts
know the
normal values.)
Knowing
what
medications
the
patient
received
would
be
especially
important
in answering
this audience's
central question:
Hore
is
a
tfpical heart
attdck treated?
Nontechnical
Audience
People
with
no specialized
training
(lalpersons)
look
for the
big
picture
instead
of
complex
details. They
expect
technical data
to
be
translated
into
words most
people
understand.
La;persons
are
impatient
with abstract
theories,
but
they
want enough
background
to help them
make the
right
decision
or take the
right
action. They
are bored
or confused
by excessive
detail,
but frustrated
by raw
facts
left unexplained
or uninterpreted.
They expect
to understand
the
document
after
reading
it
only once.
The
nontechnical
version
ofthe medical
report
shown
in
Figure
2.5 might
be
written for
the
patient's
spouse
who
is
overseas on
business,
or
as
part
of a script
for
a documentary
about
emergency-room
treatment.
Nearly all interpretation
(highlighted
in
yellow),
this version
mentions no
specific
medications,lab
tests,
or
normal values.
It
merely
summarizes
events
and
briefly
explains what
they
mean
and why these
particular
treatments
were given.
Heart
sounds and
electrical
impulses
were
both
abnormal, indicating
a
massive
heart
aftack caused
by
failure
of
a large
part
ofthe
heart
muscle.
The
lungs
were
swollen with
fluid and the
lips
and
fingertips
showed
a
bluish
discoloration
from lack
of
oxygen.
Blood
pressure
was dangerously
Iow,
creating
the
risk of
shock.
pulse
and respiration
were
almost
twice
the normal rate,
indicating
that the
heart
and lungs
were
being overuuorked
in keeping
oxygenated
blood
circulating
lreely.
Blood
tests conlirmed
the
heart
attack
diagnosis
and
indjcated
that
waste
products
usually
filtered
out by the kidneys
were
building
up in
the
bloodstream.
Urine tests showed
that
the
kidneys
were failing
as a
result
of the lowered
blood
pressure.
The
patient
was
given
medication to
ease
the chest
pain,
oxyqen
to
ease
the strain
on
the heart
and lungs,
and
intravenous
solution
to
prevent
the
blood vessels
from
collapsing
and
causing irreversible
shock.
FIGURE 2.5
A NontechnicalVersion
of an EmergencyTreatment
Report
This
version
is
written for readers
who have
no
medical
background.
Laypersons
need
evertthing
translated into
terms
they
understand
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How
to tailor
a document
to
address
differenl
technlcal
backgrou
nds
Different
readers
have
differing
information
needs
CHAPTER
2
Meeting
the
Needs of Specific
Audiences
In
a
different
situation,
however
(say,
a malpractice
trial),
the
lalperson
jury
would
require detailed
technical
information
about
medication and
treatnent
Such
a report
would naturally
be much
longer-basically a short
coutse
in emet-
gency coronary
treatment.
Audiences
with
Varying Technical
Backgrounds
The
technical
background oflarge
and diverse
audiences can be
variable and
hard
to
pin
down.
When
you must write for
audiences at different
levels,
follow
these
suggestions:
r
If the
document
is short
(a
letter, memo,
or
anything less
than
two
pages),
rewrite it at
different levels
for different
backgrounds.
o
Ifthe
document
exceeds
two
pages, address the
prirnary
readers.
Then
provide
appendices
for
secondary
readers.
Transmittal
letters, informative
abstracts,
and
glossaries can also
help nonexperts
understand
a
highly
technical
report.
(See
Chapter
22 for use and
preparation ofappendices
and other supplements.)
For an
illustration
ofthese
differences, consider
the
following
case
In
the
p
lzean, where
sions. Unles
will
be worth
Web-Bas
Web
pages
Figure
2.6
a
IDENTIFY
BACKGRO
Within Nor
are culturallv
complexity
explained.
S
cultures pre
friendly,
enc
North
A
to
the
point,
more ambigu
Martin
and
C
"What
do these
findinqs
mean?"
"How
did
you
arrlve
at these
conclusions?"
Tailoring
a
Single
Document lor
Multiple
Audiences
You are a
metallurgical
engineer
in
an automotive
consulting
firm.
Your supervisor
has asked
you
to test the fractured
rear axle of a
2009 Delphi
pickup
truck
recently
involved
in
a
fatal accident.
Your assignment
is to determine
whether
the
fractured
axle caused
or resulted
from lhe accident.
After testing
the hardness
and chemical
composition of
the metal and
examin-
ing
microscopic
photographs
of
the fractured
surfaces
(fractographs), you
con-
clude that the
fracture resulted
from stress
that developed
during the
accident.
Now
you
must report
your procedure
and
your
findings
to
a
variety
of readers
Because
your
report
may serve
as courtroom
evidence,
you
must
explain
your
findings in
meticulous detail.
But
your
primary
readers
(the
decision
makers)
will
be nonspecialists
(the
attorneys
who have
requested the
report.
insurance
representatives,
possibly
a
judge and
a
jury),
so
you
must translate
your
report,
explaining
the
principles
behind the
various tests,
defining specialized
terms such
as
"chevron
marks,"
"shrinkage
cavities," and
"dimpled
core," and showing
the
signiflcance
of these
features as evidence.
Secondary
readers will
include
your
supervisor
and outside
consulting
engi-
neers
who
will
be evaluating
your
test
procedures
and
assessing
the validity of
your
findings. Consultants
will
be focusing on
various
parts
of
your
report,
to
verify that
your
procedure
has been exact and
faultless
For this
group,
you
will
have
to include appendices
spelling out
the technical
details of
your
analysis:
how hardness
testing of the axle's
case and
core indicated
that the axle
had been
properly
carburized;
howchemical analysis
ruled out
the
possibility
that the manu-
facturer had used
inferior alloys;
how lig ht-microscopic
fractographs
revealed
that
the origin
of
the fracture,
its direction of
propagation,
and
the
point
of
final rupture
indicated
a ductile
fast
fracture,
not
one
caused
by torsional
fatigue
itate
to
ask f
disagreement
is
very difficu
(Rowland
47)
Consider
situation.
and
ANTICIPA
Readers
details,
the
ate
tone, as
wel
Length
The
length
learn
about
tions,
or
do
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Anticipate
Your
Aodience's
Preferences
In
the
previous scenario, primary readers need to
know
what
your
findings
nean, whereas secondary
readers
need to know how
you
arrived at
your
conclu-
slors.
Unless it serves
the
needs
of
each
group independently, your information
rvillbe worthless.
Web-Based
Documents for Multiple Audiences
\\'eb
pages
are
ideal
for
displaying and linking various levels
of
information.
Figure 2.6
accommodates different
levels of interest
and
expertise.
IDENTIFY THE
AUDIENCE'S
CULTURAL
BACKGROUND
Within North America and beyond, intbrmation needs and
preferences
often
are
culturally determined. For exanrple, certain cultures value thoroughness and
conplexity
in
their documents, with lists of data and every detail included and
explained. Some
cultures
place
high
value
on
a
formal,
businesslike
tone.
Other
cultures
pref-er multiple
perspectives
on
the rnaterial, lots
of
graphics, and a
friendly, encouraging tone
(Hein
125-26).
North Anrerican
business
culture
is
accustomed to
"plain
talk" that
gets
right
to the
point,
but Eastern cultures tend to consider this rude,
preferring
indirect,
more ambiguous
messages,
which leave interpretation up to the reader
(Leki
151;
Martin and
Chaney
276-77). To avoid seeming
impolite,
some
people
might
hes-
itate to ask for clarification
or
additional information.
ln
certain
cultures.
even
disagreement
or
refusal rnight be
expressed
as
"We
will
do our
best" or
"This
is very
difficult"
instead of
"No"
to avoid oftending and to
preserve harmony
(Rowland
47).
Consider how cultural differences nright create misunderstanding
in
your
situation, and seek an approach that bridges these diffbrences.
ANTICIPATE YOUR AUDIENCE'S
PREFERENGES
Readers
approach any document with certain preferences: its
desired
length and
details, the format
and
medium in which
it
should
be
presented,
and
the appropri-
ate
tone,
as well as
deadline and budget expectations.
Length
and
Details
The length
and amount of detail
in
your
document depends on what
you
can
learn about
your
audience's needs. Were
you
asked
to
"keep
it
short" or to
"be
comprehensive"? Are
people
nrore interested in conclusions and recommenda-
tions,
or
do
they
want
everlthing
spelled
out?
"What
cultural
differences ex ist
in
th
is audience,
and
how
can
I bridge those
differences?
"
Give readers
only
what they need
8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34
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Links
of
general
interest
Meeting
the
Needs of Specific Audiences
FIGURE 2.6 AWeb
Page Designed for
Multiple Audiences This
page
addresses
diverse
groups
including
non-English
speakers
(links
listed under Fesources
ForYoul.
For science
professionals
and other specialized
readers, links include
Biotechnology
and Science and Research.
Source:
U-S. Food
and
Drug
Administration <www.fda.gov/food>.
Format
a
Does
your
report with
pages
533-3
lists) make
tion medium
Tone
The tone o
image that
a
business
l
company
d
the upcorn
both
the
i
and reader.
forward
yo
tone
used
i
tious
("1
am
At the
encouraging
employees
resentful.
In
ing
to
peop
Always
avo
and emails
Due
Dat
Does your
ls there a b
schedule
of
too
long
to
Budget
Does your
save
money
the docume
sion to use
binding,
an
Links
to
specific
topic areas
of
interest
Links
to various
audiences'needs
U,S, Food and Druq Administration
A z lndex
s€arch
l@
HonE
I
F@d Drugs
I
Medical
Devrces I Vacc
nes.
Blood A
Biologics
Animal &
V6le nary
I Cosrelics
I
Fadialion.Eniliing
Produ.ls
I
Tobacco
Producls
Food
nshare
o€marrhE
6;j#,",.
E Er
chanse
Fofr
s ze
ffi
ydroll|:ed Vegetable
Prolein Product
Recatls
salmonella risk
in
lhis
,oo
Foodsafety.gov
FOA Basics
Visil Foodsatety.gov,
your
Ask
Questions. cet
galeway
to
lederal
iood
Answors, M@l FOA
Slaf.
Spotlight
.
New Reportable Food
Reducos lndusty
Bu.den
,
Gullol Mexico
Qil Spill
Update
'
May
5.2010
.
ForConsurers:The
HVP
,
Red
a
Bl&k
P€ppd Spi.e
R€.alls
Unked lo the
Srmrel/a
Monlevideo
Oulb.eak lnvesligation
ludated
March
30 2at0)
.
Slim-Fasl
RecallQ&A
. FOA
B€all lnldrolion
on
.
Sign Up
tq
Fea[
Tools & Resources
.
Goidance
Documnts
.
Fmd
Delense
Eesource
Maren.ls
order F6r6
.
lolernalional Oulieach &
Tehnlcal
Assist@e
Contact Us
Oulreadr
and lniormarbn
cem€l
1HF9009)
B
].88&SAFEFOOD
B
1,888.723,3366
Cenler lor Food Salely and
Fmd
and Drug Adminislralion
5100 Paint Branch
Padway
College
Pa.k.lVD
207,10
FDA
s
tol@hmlogy
policy.
consuhation
Frequently
reqlested
iniormarion. including
Food Oeiense
&
Emerqency Respons€
FDA works to
reducelherisk
ol
c.iminalor
iero.isl aclions on the iood slpply
Food
rngredlenrs
&
Packaglng
Solected
topics ot
inleresr
ab.ut iood
inqredients
dd tood conlacl
substances
Producl-speilic
inlormation
on sealood, ku ts.
vegelables. milk,
canne
ioods. and infani
Guldancei Compllance
&
Fegularory
Food codpliance
programs.
label ng
guides,
and olher
auidarce
deumenls
lnternarlonal
Acrlvlrles
lnle.naloml
oulreach,
expodlnq and
immrlinc
inlo
lhe U.S
.
lrade
agreenenls
Labeling
reqLnements ior
loods under the
Federal
Food. Drug and
Cosmelic
Acl.
Press Gleases. upcom
ng
meetings
For
consume.s. heallh
carc
prolessionals.
Fesearch
areas. laboralory m6thods. selected
scientilic
publicalions
and
prGentatons
News
and Announcements
.
April30,2010 FDATakes
Sleps
lo lncreaseSaloty
ol
Foods
.
April 01
,
2010 Federal
Govehmenl
Seeks
Permanent
lnjuncllon Againsl
Texas Egg Boll Manulacturer
. March
27. 2010
Public
Heallh Agercies Collaborate to
Prevenl Furlher lllnesses
tom
Norovirus Outbreak
Associared
wirh Oysters
R&6ntly
Haruesled t
om Area Near
.
March
26.2010 Publc
HeathAgencies
Wam ol
Oulbreaks
Beialed to Drinking Faw Milk
.
March
26.2010
FDA
Tal6s
Aclion Aqainst
New
Yolk
Dairy
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Anticipate
Your
Audience's
PreJerences
Format
and
Medium
Does
your
audience expect a letter, a meflo, a
short
report,
or
a long, formal
report
with
supplements
(title
page,
table
of
contents, appendixes,
and so
on-see
pages
533-36)? Can visuals and
page
layout
(charts,
graphs,
drawings, headings,
Iists)
make the material more
accessible?
In this instance, is
the
proper
distribu-
tion medir:m via hard copy, email
or
attachment, Web
posting,
or other
means?
Tone
'fhe
tone
of
yor:r
writing
conveys an image
of
who you are:
your
persona-the
image
that comes through between the lines.'Ione
can range
from formal
(as
in
a business letter to a client) to semiformal
(as
in a memo
announcing a change in
company dress
policy)
to informal
(as
in
a
quick
email to
colleagues
rnnouncing
the upcoming compirny
picnic).
Workplace readers expect a tone that reflects
both
the
in.rportance
or urgency of the topic and the relationship
between writer
and
reader. For
example, the letter to a client that
begins
with
"We
irre
pleased
to
tbrward
your
annual investment statement"
is
probably appropriate. But
a similar
tone
used
in
the memo
about the
company picnic
would
seeni
stufty
and preten-
tious
("1
am
pleased
to announce...").
At
the
same
time, the tone
of
your rvriting
can range from friendly and
encouraging to distant and hostile.
For example,
a bossy
tone in
a
memo to your
ernployees
("lt
would behoove
you
to...") would make them feel
demeaned and
resentful. In short, your
tone
is
effective when you sound like
a
likable person
talk-
ing
to
people in
a workplace setting.
The
noli<tn
of
workplace
setting
is
key here:
Ahvays
avoid the kind offree-for-all tone that
is
comnlon in
tweets, text ntessages,
and emails irmong casual
friends
outside
of
work.
Due
Date
and
Timing
Does
your
document
have
a
deadline?
Workplace documents almost
always
do-
ls
ther-e
a
best
time
to
subnit
it? Do you
need to break down the
deadline
into
a
schedule
of
rr.rilestones?
Will
any
of your infbrmation
become
outdated if
you
wait
too
long
to complete the document?
Budget
l)oes
your
document have
a
production
budget? Ifso, how
much? Where can you
save money? How much time
can
your
company afford to allot you for creating
the document or Web
page?
How
much money can you spend obtainirg permis,
sion to use rnaterials
fron
other
sources?
How nuch
can
you
spend on
printing,
binding,
and
distributing
your
document?
Decide
how
your
document will
look and
will
be
distributed
Decide on
the
appropriate
tone
for
your
situation
to submit the
Calculate
the
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CHAPTER 2
Meeting the
Needs
ofSpecificAudiences
NafE
Although
a detailed analysis can tell you a great
deal,
rarely
is it
possible
to
pin
down an audience
with certainty-especidlly
when the audience is large and diverse.
B{ore
submitting
q
fndl
documenL
examirc
every ospect,
trying
to
anticipate sPeciJic audie ce
questiol1s
or
objections.
Bctter
yet, ask
selected readers
for
feeclback
on
early
drafs.
>
Picture exactly what
these readers need and how they expect
to
use
your docu-
ment. Whether
it's the company
president
or the
person next to you in
class,
that
person
has
specific concerns and
information needs. Your readers may
need to
complete
a
task, solve
a
problem, make a decision, evaluate your
performance, or
take
a
stand on
an issue. Think carefully about exactly
what you want your read-
ers
to be
able
to do.
>
Learn all
you
can
about who will use
your
document.
Are your primary readers
superiors,
colleagues,
or subordinates?
Are
they
inside or outside your organiza
tion? Who
else
might be
interested or affected? What do readers already
know
about this topic?
How much do they care? Are they
likely to welcome or reject
your
information?
>
In
planning your document, work
fron
a clear
statement of
audience and
purpose. For example,
"The
purpose
of
my document is to
Idescribe
using
verbs:
persuade,
instruct, inform) the target
audience
fidentifu
precisely:
colleagues,
supe
riors, clientsl."
>
Consider
your
audience's
technical background. Colleagues
who
speak
your
technical language
will understand raw data. Managers
who have
limited
techni-
cal
knowledge expect interpretations and
explanations. Clients
with little or
no
technical background want to
know what this information means to them,
per-
sonally
(to
their health,
pocketbook, safety). However,
none
of
these
generaliza'
tions might apply
to your situation. When in doubt,
aim for low technicality.
>
When you don't
know
exactly
who will be reading
your document,
picture
the "general
reader." A nontechnical audience
will
expect complex
information
to be explained in ways that
have meaning
for
them, personally, and
insofar as
possible in everyday
language.
(For
example, refer to
"heart
and lungs"
instead
of
"cardiopulmonary
system." Instead
of
"A
diesel
engine
generates l0
BTUs
per gallon
of
fuel compared with 8 BTUs
generated by a conventional
gasoline
engine,"
write
"A
diesel engine
yields 25 percent better
gas
mileage than
its
gas-
burning counterpart.")
>
Consider readers' cultural backgrounds.
Identiff as
closely
as
possible your
au-
dience's specific
customs and values. How might
cultural differences
play
a
role
in
readers' interpretation of
your
presentation?
Anticipate
bad,
will
s
Should
yo
informatio
ofhand.
>
Anticipat
ers
have
should
I
form
this
How
muc
instead
o
your
pos
>
Anticipat
mat,
med
tion
allow
DEVELOP
In
order
to
f
cussed
in
this
Sheet
shown
sheet as
need
Assume
that
out
of
your
work
load,
As
you
to
This
one-
or
major
and
tional
Ada
pt
some
Audience
Audienco
>
Who
>
Any
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pin
to
or
Develop
an Audience
and
Use
profile
>
Anticipate your
audience's reactions.
If
the topic is
controversial
or the news
is
bad, will
some
people
resist your
message?
Will
some feel
threatened
or offended?
Should
you
be
bold
and outspoken
or tread lightly?
No matter
how accurate
yorr
information
or how
sensible
your ideas,
an alienated
audience
will
reject them
out
ofhand.
>
Anticipate your
audience's questions.
Based
on their
needs and
concerns, read-
ers
have questions
such
as these:
What
is the purpose
of this
document?
Why
should I read
it? What
happened,
and why? Who
was involved?
How
do
I
per
form this
task?
How
did
you
perform
it? What
action should
be taken,
and why?
How
much will it
cost? What
are the risks?
Give readers
what they
need to know,
instead
of what
they already know.
Give them
enough
material
to understand
your position
and to
react
appropriately.
>
Anticipate
your audience's
preferences.
Try
to
pinpoint
the length,
detail, for-
mat, medium,
tone, timing,
and budget
preferred
by this audience.
As the
situa-
tion allows, adjust
your docurnent
accordingly.
DEVELOP
AN AUDIENCE
AND
USE
PROFILE
In order to focus
sharply
on
your
audience, purpose,
and the
ntany factors
dis-
cussed
in this
chapter,
develop
your
own version
of the Audience
and
Use
profile
Sheet shou'n
in Figure
2.7
(page
3t)
for any
document you prepare.
Modifi
this
sheet
as needed to
suit
your
own
situation,
as
shown in the
following
case.
f
Developing
an Audience
and
use
profile
Assume
that
you
face
this situation;
First-year
students increasingly
are dropping
out of
your
major
because
of low
grades
or stress
or inability
to keep up
with the
work
load.
As part of
your
work-study duties,
your
department chairperson
asks
you
to
prepare
a "Survival
Guide" for next
year's
incoming
students to the
major.
Thjs
one- or two-page
memo
should focus
on the challenges
and
the
pitfalls
of the
major and
should include
a brief motivational
section
along with whatever
addi-
tional information
you
decide
readers need.
Adapt
Figure 2.7
(page
31)to
develop
your
audience
and use
profile.
Here
are
some
possible
responses:
Audience
and Use
Prolile
Audience and Purpose
>
Who is
my
primary
audienceT
lncoming
students
to the major
>
Any
secondary
audiences?
Department
faculty
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CHAPIER 2 Meeting the Needs oI Specific Audiences
>
What is
my relationship with
everyone involved? Primary
audience: student
col-
leagues who
don't
know me very
well; secondary audience:
major
faculty,
who
must approve the
final
document.
>
What is the
purpose
of
the
document?This
document has multiple
purposes:
to
inform, instruct,
and
persuade.
>
Audience
and
purpose
statement:fhe
purpose
of this document is
to
explain
to
incoming
students the challenges and
pitfalls
of
year
1 of our major,
I
will
show
how
the
number of dropouts
has increased, describe
what
seems
to
go wrong
and explain why, suggest steps
for
avoiding common mistakes, and emphasize
the benefits of enduring the first
year.
>
lntended
use of this document:fo
enable
students
to craft their own survival
plan
based
on
the information,
advice, and encouragement
provided
in
the
document.
>
lnformation needs.
lncoming students know very little
about
this
topic. They
need everything spelled
out.
>
Technical background: ln regard
to this topic, the
primary
audience
can be con-
sidered laypersons.
>
Cultural considerations:
fhe
document
will
refer readers
from other
countries
and cultures
{exchange
students,
nonnative
speakers
of
English,
and so on) to
designated advisors
for additional
assistance.
>
Probable questions (along
with
others you
anticipate):
"How big
is
the
prob-
lem?" "How
can
this
problem
affect me
personally?"
"How
much time
will I
need
to devote to homework?" "How should I budget my
time?"
"Can
I
squeeze in a
part-time
iob?"
"Why
do so many students drop out?" "Whom
should
I
see if I'm
having a
problem?"
>
Probable
reaction to document: Most
readers
should welcome this information
and take it
seriously.
However,
some students who don't know the
meaning
of
failure might feel
patronized
or
offended.
Some
faculty
might resent any
sugges-
tions that
courses
are
too demanding.
Audience Preferences
about
the
Document
>
Length
and detail:
Because
the
documenl
was requested by the
department
and
not
by
the
primary
audience, I can't expect
students to
tolerate more than a
page
or
two.
>
Format and medium: Paper memo mailed to
each
student
(along
with
a
briel
welcoming
cover
letter),
and a PDF version
posted
to the departmentWeb
site.
>
Ione.'Since
we
students
are
all
in
this situation together,
a
friendly, informal.
and
positive
(to
avoid
panic)
but serious tone seems best.
>
Due date and timing:Ihis document
must be
available
before students
arrive
next fall-but not so early that it
gets
forgotten
or overshadowed by other regis-
tration
paperwork.
>
Budget:fhis
document will be sent
as a
via email. No
printing
costs
are
involved.
Audien
Prima
Secon
Relatio
Purpos
Audien
lntend
lntorm
Techni
Cultura
Probab
Probab
Audien
Length
Format
Tone:
Due
dat
Budqet:
FIGURE
2.7
adapt
this
s
profile
in
a
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col-
who
to
to
the
con
to
in a
l'm
of
Develop
an
Audience
and
Use Profile
Audience
and
Purpose
Primary
audience:
hame. title)
Secondary
audiencels): (techn
c
ans, nanagers.
other)
Relationship
with
audience:
lcolleague.
emplover.
other)
Purpose of
documenl'.
linform, instruct,
persuade)
Audience
and
purpose
statement:
lntended
use of docu
menl
(perforn
tasks.
solve
a
problem.
other)
lnformation
needs:
lbackground.
basic facts.
other)
Technical
backgroun
d:
llavoerson,
expert.
other)
Cultural
considerations:
llevel
of
detail
or directness.
other)
Probable
questions:
Probable
reaclion'.
(resistance,
aDproval,
anqer,
other)
Audience
Plelerences
about
the
Document
length
and
detail
lcomprehensive.
conscise,
other)
Format
and
medium:
lettet,
memo,
Web
Dostinl, other)
fone:
lbusinesslike,
confident.
infornal.
other)
Due
d
ate a nd
tim ing:
(neet
deadline,
wa it for
the
best
time.
othe
Budgel:
fuhat
can be
soent on
what)
FIGURE
2.7
Audience
and
Use Profile
Depending
on
your
situation,
you
can
adapt this
sheet,
as
shown in
the case
that
begini
on
page
29.
For
a
completed
profile
in
a
persuasive
situation,
see Figure
3.5,
page
5g.-
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CHAPTER
2 Meeting
the Needs of
Specific
Audiences
CHECK
YOUR
DOCUMENT FOFI USABILITY
A
usable
doctment
is
safe,
dependable, and easy to
read
and
navigate. Regardless
ofthe
t)?e or format
or
digital) ofthe
document,
a
usable
document allows
people to do three things
(Coe,
Human Facfors 93; Spencer
74):
o
easily locate the
information
they need
o
understand
the
information
immediately
o
use
the information safely and successfully
For more on usability
see
pages
482-86
in
Chapter
20.
To
guide
your writing
and revision, consult
the
following Usability
Checklist. This checklist
identifies broad usability standards
that apply to vir-
tually any document.
In addition, specific elements
(visuals,
page
layout)
and
specific documents
(proposals,
memos, instructions)
have
their own
standards
as
well. These standards are detailed
in the
individual
checklists for usability
throughout
this book.
GENERA
1.
Find
a
article
Style
al
ls
i-l
ls
I
Ar
Ar
ls
Page
r.-
ls
Are
I
Are
[-'
Do
aud
Ethica
fl
Do
L-
l
Do
Doe
ff;
(Numbers
in
parentheses
refer to
the
fust
page
of
discussian)
Content
n
ls ail material
relevant to thrs reader for this task?
(28)
n ls
all material
techn cally accurate?
(12)
n
ls the
level
of
technica ity appropriate for this audlence?
(20)
n Are warnings
and
cautions inserted where
needed?
(468)
n
Are
claims,
conclusions, and
recommendat ons supported by evidence?
(48)
fl ls the material free of
gaps,
foggy
areas,
or needless detai
s?
(25)
ll
Are
al key
terms
c
early
def
ined?
(409)
tl Are
all
data sources documented?
(648)
0rganization
1s the structure of the document
v s ble at a
g
ance?
(193)
s
there
a
clear
ine
of
reasoning that emphasizes
what
ls
most important?
(193)
s material organ
zed in the sequence
readers
are expected
to folow?
(193)
n
ls everything easy
to
ocate?
(193)
L]
ls
the
materla
"chunked"
into easily digestable
parts?
(205)
vanced
est leve
transla
on pag
from
a
lation
a
technica
originai
tion
of
2.
Assume
8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lannon-1-34 33/34
Projects
vir
and
Style
-l
ls
each
sentence understandable
the
first
time t ls read?
(21
1)
L-]
ls rich information
expressed in
the
fewest
words
possible?
(216)
L
Are
sentences
put
together wlth enough variety?
(225)
I
Are
words chosen for
exactness, and not for
camouflage?
(225)
s the tone appropriate ior
the situation and audience?
(232)
Page Design
I ls
page
des
gn
invrt
ng,
accessible, and appropriate
for the readers' needs?
(293)
Are there adequate
aids to navlgation
(heads,
lsts,
type styles)?
(297)
f
Are
adequate visua s
used to ciarify, emphasize,
or summar ze?
(246)
I
Do supplements
(front
and
end
matter)
accommodate
the
needs
of
a
dlverse
audience?
(533)
Ethical, Legal,
and Cultural Considerations
I
Does
the document reflect sound
ethicaljudgment?
(63)
tl
Does the
document comply with copyright law
and
other
egai standards?
173)
Does the document
respect
readers'
cultura diversity?
(51)
GEN ERAL
l. Find
a
short
article from your field
(or
part
of a
long
article or
a
selection from your
textbook for
an
ad,
vanced
course).
Choose a
piece
written at the high-
est level oftechnicality
you
can
understand
and
then
translate
that
piece
for a lalperson,
as
in
the example
on
page 23. Exchange
translations with
a classmate
from
a
different
major. Read your neighbor\
trans
lation
and write a paragraph
evaluating its level
of
technicaliry
Submit to
your
instructor a copy
ofthe
original, your
translated version, and your
evalua
r ron
oIyour neighbor\ tran.lat ion.
2. Assume
that
a
new
employee
is takhg
over
your
job
because you
have been
promoted.
Identifr
a specific
problem
in
the
job
that couJd cause difficulty for
the
new
employee.
Assume that you
will need to write
instructions for the
employee
to
help
him
or
her
avoid
or
cope
with
the
problem.
Create an audience
and
use
profile
based
on
Figure 2.7
(page
3l).
Use
the
page
29 Case
as a model
for your responses.
TEAM
Form
teams
of3
6 people. Teammates
should
be
ofthe
same
or similar majors
(electrical
engineering,
biology,
graphic design,
etc.). Research the
job
market
for gradu
ates
in your
major, including specific
tlpes of skills that
employers
seek
beyond
those
courses
in
your
specialty
(such
as
technical communication, public
speaking, oral
presentations,
Web design,
or
the
like).
The final docu-
ment will
be
posted
to the depadmenti Web
site.
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CHAPTER
2
Meeting
the
Needs of Specific
Audiences
Before
you can
prepare this document,
you
need
a
thorough analysis
of
your
audience
and
purpose.
Complete
your
audience
and use
profile using
the
worksheet
on page 31
or
a modified
version of this
worksheet.
Include a clear and
specific audience
and
purpose statement.
Appoint a
team
member to
present the complete
Audience
and
Use
Profile
for
class
evaluation, com
parison, and
response.
DIGITAL AND
SOCIAL MEDIA
Locate
a
Web site that accommodates
various
readers
at
different levels of
technicaliry
Sites
for government
agencies such
as
those
listed below
are
good
sources of
both general and
specialized
information.
Environmental
Protection
Agency
(EPA)
<www.ePa.8ov>
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC)
<www.nrc.gov>
National
Institutes of
Health
(NIH)
<www.nih.gov>
Food
and Drug
Administration
(FDA)
<www.fda.gov>
Examine one ofthese
sites
and
find
an example
of(a) ma-
terial
aimed at a
general
audience,
ald
(b)
material on
the same
topic aimed at a specialized
or
exPert audience.
First,
list
the specific
features
that
enabled
you to
identiry
each
piece's level
oftechnicality.
Next,
using the
Audience
and Use
Profile
Sheet
(p.
31),
record the
assumPtions
about the audience
made by the author
ofthe nontechni-
cal
version. Finally,
evaluate
how
well that
piece addresses
a
nontechnical
reader's information
needs.
(Hiafr
Check
out,
for
instance, the
MEDLINE link
at the NIH site.)
Be
prepared to
discuss
your evaluation
in
class.
GLOBAL
The
U.S.
Immigration
and Naturalization
Service's
Web
site,
at
<www.ins.gov>,
is designed
for
a
truly
global
au-
dience.
After visiting the site, answer
these
questions:
o
Would this
site
be
easy
for virtually
any English
speaker
to
navigate?
List
the features
that
accom
modate
readers
from
diverse
areas
ofthe
globe.
.
Could
improvements be
made
in
the site's
ease
of
use? What
changes would you
recommend?
out
relevant
site
pages and be
prepared to discuss
your conclusions
in class.
ldentify
Goal
Try
to
Pr
Expect
A
Know
Ho
Audience
Allow
fo
Ask
for
a
Never
As
Recogniz
Conside
Emotion
Support
Consider
Guideline
Shaping
Checklis
Proiests