Lev Semyonovitch Vygotsky1897~1934

Mini-Biography (傳記 )

Born in Belarus (白俄羅斯 ), then known as Russia during the time of the Russian Empire (俄羅斯帝國 ).

Attended the Moscow State University through a “Jewish Lottery”.

Studied medicine then law but continued his education in psychology.

He received no “formal” training in psychology. His knowledge was mostly self-taught.

Began his career working at the Institution of Psychology (心理學學會 ) and various other academic research institutions.

Greatly influenced by the works of Karl Marx, Jean Piaget and Arnold Gesell. (馬克斯 皮亞傑 格塞爾 )

Taught literature at a secondary school and psychology at a teacher’s college(師範學院 ).

Died at the age of 38, of Tuberculosis. (肺結核 ) (Source: Wikipedia)

Vygotsky’s Work

His work was unknown to the rest of the world until it was published in the 1960’s.

The reason for the inaccessibility to his work was due to the fact that it was banned in the Soviet Union.

The Ban on Vygotsky’s Work

Several deductions were made about why his work was banned.

Psychology was banned as a profession in the Soviet Union.

His criticism in the belief of Stalinists. Then, it was communist belief that proletariats (無產階級 )had the same level of capability as any educated person. It was unlawful to imply human improvement and development.

Possibly, his ethnic status as a Jew.

Vygotsky’s Beliefs

Development of mental functions is the result of society, its culture and history, not biological.

Interaction with adults and more capable peers is a crucial part of mental development in a child.

For learning to progress, mediation from adults and other peers is necessary. (Guided Participation) (指導性參與 )

Speech is the key tool in cognitive development. 1. Tools are material. (Pen and paper)2. Tools are symbols. (Languages and signs)

Society, its culture and history play important roles in the development of Language.

Human cognition can’t be explained through a single set of standards. (Pavlov’s theory of reflexology)

The differences between Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories

Piaget believed that cognition comes from within; a biological inclination to learn to adapt to one’s environment through self-discovery and activities and maturity of the brain.

Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is the result of social interaction through experiences with others.

Piaget believes a child experiments and learns from results.

Vygotsky believes a child is an apprentice that learns from social interaction.

Piaget regards language as a result of cognitive development.

Vygotsky regards language as a result of social interaction.

Vygotsky’s Aim

During Vygotsky’s time, Pavlov’s theory of reflexology (反射論 ), which narrowed human behavior down to simple reflexes was widely accepted. Vygotsky disagreed with Pavlov’s reflexology theory. He thought that there was more to human behavior than simple reflexes.

His aim was to create a unified theory about the social and psychological development of humans.

He believed sociocultural and socio-historical factors are important in the development of the mind.

The Sociocultural and Socio-Historical Theory

To Vygotsky, the development of a child’s mental functions is profoundly affected by the environment, its culture and history that surrounds him.

Example:A child in living in Korea, with access to computers and the internet, would have a different notion of education or entertainment compared to a Nepalese child.

Vygotsky’s Achievement

His most renowned achievement is the structuring of the ZPD (近側發展區間 ) Learning Model.

The zone of proximal development refers to the distance between a child’s capability of doing a task by himself and the doing the task under a more knowledgeable person or peer’s guidance.

In short, ZPD is the difference between what a learner can do by himself and what a learner can do with help. The zone of proximal development eliminated through social mediation.

Task or Activity

Example of ZPD

What are the next two pairs of letters below?

SO, ND, JF, MA, ??, ??

Scaffolding (鷹架 )

Long after Vygotsky’s death, theorists created a concept called scaffolding. It is the application of the ZPD theory to educational contexts.

It is the provision of assistance to a learner in the process of a task and then taking it away once the learner has the ability to continue the task on his own.

This concept was introduced in 1976 so the term was never used by Vygotsky. It was developed by sociocultural theorists Wood, Bruner and Ross. (Source: Wikipedia)

Scaffolding Picturized

The boy wants to make a cake.

His mother provides necessary assistance.

His mother stops helping and lets him do things on his own.

Result: He finishes making the cake by himself.

Social Cognition

The ZPD learning model is categorized as a form of social cognition.

Social Cognition is a psychological term ((心理學術語 )to describe the study (研究 ) of the way humans interact with each other and their environment in society and how the interaction can stimulate mental activities.

The study divides mental activities into two types; higher and lower mental functions.(高與低層次心智功能 )

Lower and Higher Mental Functions (高與低層次心智功能 )

Lower mental functions are characteristics (特徵 )that both animals and humans both possess innately (天生 ) such as being able to use one’s senses and hunger. Higher mental functions are present only in humans.

The Progression

It is an exclusive privilege of a human to be able to develop higher mental functions. For example, from incoherent blabbering to forming words.

Vygotsky’s idea is that higher mental functions can only be acquired through the growth of lower mental functions.

Language in Learning

Vygotsky regarded language as the key learning tool in the development of education. And in order to use that tool, interaction must exist between the learner and an adult or a more capable peer (MKO).

MKO (More Knowledgeable Other)For someone to achieve better understanding, his learning process or activity has to be mediated by a person or peer who is more knowledgeable. A MKO refers to someone who knows more about something than you do.

By using language, drawings and other tools ,knowledge can be acquired through social interaction.

Egocentric and Private Speech

Another aspect of language is personal speech.

Piaget’s viewpoint on speaking to oneself (egocentric speech) is that it is a sign of immaturity, which disappears over time.

Vygotsky’s viewpoint on speaking to oneself (private speech) is that it is a sign of development. He suggested that through private speech, a child can guide and constrain himself. Private speech later progresses into inner speech (thought).

Example One

Example Two

Internalization (內化行為 )

Internalization is the process in which a child learns how to do something from the society he lives in; such as opening a door or throwing garbage in a trash can.

An extension of internalization is appropriation (據為己有 ), where a child learns something from a MKO and makes it his own.

Once the necessary learning tools are acquired, a child breaks away from the assistance of adults or peers (other-regulated-他人調整 ) and does it himself (self-regulated-自我調整 ).

Substitution of Mental Growth Stimulants

To improve mental development, there must be interaction with other people. However, as technology improves, traditional social interaction is being replaced by video games and television. (Tools of the Mind, Bodrova & Leong)

Video and Computer GamesBy being reveled in video games, a child bars himself from engaging in social interactions that are beneficial to his learning.

Television"SpongeBob" negatively affected the problem solving skills, self-regulation abilities and memory of 4-year-olds. (American Journal of Pediatrics)Some cartoons are harmful to the mental development of children.

Task One

Please give an example of guided participation.

Task Two

Please explain the transition of a lower mental function activity into a higher mental function ability.

In the words of Vygotsky,

“Through others, we become ourselves”

“What the child can do in cooperation today he can do alone tomorrow”

“Instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of development”

Conclusion

Skinner, Pavlov and Bandura based their learning models on the curriculum.

Piaget’s learning model is centered on the students.

Vygotsky’s learning model is centered on teaching and learning methods.

Conclusion

A learner is unable to effectively learn on his own.

With the help of others, a learner can build his own knowledge.

Development is closely connected to its social context.

Personal Thoughts

Vygotsky’s theory was quite difficult at first. After working with my wonderful group members, it felt that everything seems to make more sense. Our collaboration proves that Vygotsky’s ZPD theory is correct.

Educational theorists seem to neglect the fact that fondness is also vital in the activeness of a learner.

Most children are active learners, until they are capable of distinguishing likes and dislikes. Once they are able to make distinctions, they might become passive learners.

Learning enthusiasm changes with age. When some children reach a certain age, they sometimes turn from passive to active learners and vice-versa.