GENERAL LECTUREGENERAL LECTURETTHEORIES OF MASS HEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATIONCOMMUNICATION

By. Hendra Manurung, S.IP, M.ABy. Hendra Manurung, S.IP, M.ALecturer of Mass CommunicationLecturer of Mass Communication

Faculty of CommunicationsFaculty of CommunicationsDepartment of Public RelationsDepartment of Public Relations

PRESIDENT UNIVERSITYPRESIDENT UNIVERSITYKOTA JABABEKA – CIKARANG BARU BEKASI 17550KOTA JABABEKA – CIKARANG BARU BEKASI 17550

INDONESIAINDONESIA

PowerfulPowerful Mass Media Mass Media to Minimal to Minimal EffectsEffects• Mass mediaMass media is a is a powerful persuasion tool powerful persuasion tool for public or for public or

audienceaudience– ““Powerful effects” model of mass mediaPowerful effects” model of mass media– ““Hypodermic” model: injecting ideas/opinionsHypodermic” model: injecting ideas/opinions

• War of the Worlds broadcastWar of the Worlds broadcast since 20th centuries since 20th centuries• Hitler’s use of media for persuasionHitler’s use of media for persuasion in Europe after in Europe after

defeated U.K, France, Netherlands, Russia during defeated U.K, France, Netherlands, Russia during World War II (1939-1945)World War II (1939-1945)

• Later replaced by minimal effects modelLater replaced by minimal effects model– ““Why we Fight” series of movies Why we Fight” series of movies

• Top movie directors used to motivate troopsTop movie directors used to motivate troops• Idea was to harness powerful mass mediaIdea was to harness powerful mass media• Tested on troops, but found little attitude changeTested on troops, but found little attitude change for for

the troopsthe troops– New view: media haveNew view: media have only only little effect on views opinions little effect on views opinions

of public, can not be represent as opinion leader.of public, can not be represent as opinion leader.

Minimal to Conditional Minimal to Conditional ModelModel• But was evidence that media did matter!But was evidence that media did matter!

– A more nuanced proposal emergedA more nuanced proposal emerged– Avoided extremes of earlier modelsAvoided extremes of earlier models

• Keys to new perspective:Keys to new perspective:– Mass media Mass media are are not all powerfulnot all powerful– Audience Audience is is not passive waiting to be manipulatednot passive waiting to be manipulated– Mass media can haveMass media can have only only an effect on people/society an effect on people/society

• Basic questions: Basic questions: – Who did it effect?Who did it effect?– When did it affect them?When did it affect them?– How did it affected them?How did it affected them?– Why mass media has so big power toward public ?Why mass media has so big power toward public ?

Theory of Theory of Agenda SettingAgenda Setting

• A reaction to “Minimal Effects” modelA reaction to “Minimal Effects” model– Explained why minimal effects foundExplained why minimal effects found in public opinion in public opinion

• People’s opinions People’s opinions usually usually don’t changedon’t change• Issue salienceIssue salience or or relevance does changerelevance does change• Mass media Mass media always always shape issue salience!shape issue salience!

– Revived mass Revived mass communicationcommunication “effects” research “effects” research

• Key: Key: Mass Mass Media’s agenda Media’s agenda public’s agenda public’s agenda (becoming opinion leader)(becoming opinion leader)– MediaMedia are are notnot good at telling us good at telling us what to think;what to think; media media areare

good at telling us good at telling us what to think aboutwhat to think about……– We judge important issues the media says is importantWe judge important issues the media says is important– We judge unimportant issues media ignores or downplaysWe judge unimportant issues media ignores or downplays

Research Results MixedResearch Results Mixed

• Early studiesEarly studies– Issues prominent in mediaIssues prominent in media is able to is able to predict predict

public’s issuespublic’s issues– A time lag from headlines to poll resultsA time lag from headlines to poll results

• Later, some critiquesLater, some critiques– Correlations: Directionality, third variableCorrelations: Directionality, third variable– AltAlternative ernative 1: public concern 1: public concern news news– AltAlternative ernative 2: reality 2: reality news news andand public public

concernconcern

Agenda SettingAgenda Setting

• Other factors shaping process?Other factors shaping process?– ““Need for Orientation”: Low Need for Orientation”: Low

knowledge/education/salience knowledge/education/salience high reliance high reliance on media?on media?

• Who Sets Gatekeepers’ Agenda?Who Sets Gatekeepers’ Agenda?– elite media?elite media?– politicians?politicians?– ““interest aggregations”?interest aggregations”?– definition of news?definition of news?– Media profit-making pressures?Media profit-making pressures?

• Win-lose gameWin-lose game

Uses and GratificationsUses and Gratifications

• Social cSocial changes the basic question about hanges the basic question about media’s rolemedia’s role : :– Used to be: “What do media do to us?”Used to be: “What do media do to us?”– Now was “What do we do with the media?” Now was “What do we do with the media?”

• Assumes an Assumes an activeactive audience audience in mass in mass communicationcommunication– We choose whether or not to use and what we We choose whether or not to use and what we

useuse– We choose what content to view/hear/readWe choose what content to view/hear/read– We decide how to interpretWe decide how to interpret– We decide how to respondWe decide how to respond– We decide how to evaluateWe decide how to evaluate

““Uses and GratUses and Gratificationifications”s”

• Desire for “gratifications” guides medium useDesire for “gratifications” guides medium use

• What “gratWhat “gratificationifications” do we seek from s” do we seek from media? media? – Diversion: stress relief, avoidanceDiversion: stress relief, avoidance

– Social/paraSocial/para--social relationshipssocial relationships

– Identity needs: Who we are/values clarificationIdentity needs: Who we are/values clarification

– Surveillance: Keep up with eventsSurveillance: Keep up with events

Uses and effectsUses and effects

• Are media or audience most powerful? Are media or audience most powerful? – Media content an important social forceMedia content an important social force– We decide what, when, how to engage contentWe decide what, when, how to engage content

• Maybe media and audience affect each Maybe media and audience affect each otherother– Might media use shape gratifications soughtMight media use shape gratifications sought– Maybe seeking gratifications leads to effectsMaybe seeking gratifications leads to effects

• Reconciles two perspectivesReconciles two perspectives– Role of audienceRole of audience– Role of media contentRole of media content

Theory of Theory of CultivationCultivation

• Long-term debate about media effects Long-term debate about media effects – Concerns that TV contributes to social problemsConcerns that TV contributes to social problems– Similar concerns about books, movies, comicsSimilar concerns about books, movies, comics– If can prove link, may lead to solutionsIf can prove link, may lead to solutions

• Focus: Long-term effects of violent Focus: Long-term effects of violent programsprograms– Exposure “cultivates” attitudesExposure “cultivates” attitudes– Attitudes reflect programmingAttitudes reflect programming’’s distortionss distortions

Television Distorts RealityTelevision Distorts Reality

• Violence Index: violence on TV steady, high Violence Index: violence on TV steady, high – 2/3rds of all programs contain violence2/3rds of all programs contain violence– Adult dramas: 5 violent acts/hourAdult dramas: 5 violent acts/hour– Kids’ shows: 20 violent acts/hourKids’ shows: 20 violent acts/hour– Kids see 13,000 violent deaths by 18Kids see 13,000 violent deaths by 18– Violence by villains Violence by villains andand heroes heroes

• Other distortions found in studiesOther distortions found in studies– Victims often female, minority, poorerVictims often female, minority, poorer, ,

minor religion or believersminor religion or believers– Fewer kids, women, minorities, elderly Fewer kids, women, minorities, elderly

appearappear

Effects of ExposureEffects of Exposure

• Cultivation Theory Hypotheses: Cultivation Theory Hypotheses: – ““Heavy viewers” Heavy viewers” “television answer” “television answer”– ““Light viewers” Light viewers” more realistic answers more realistic answers

• Heavy viewing Heavy viewing “Mean World “Mean World Syndrome”Syndrome”– Believe more likely to be victim, more fearfulBelieve more likely to be victim, more fearful– Believe police pervasive, aggressiveBelieve police pervasive, aggressive– More suspicious of others generallyMore suspicious of others generally

DescripDescriptions for Effectstions for Effects

• HomogenizationHomogenization– TV blurs, blends, bends viewsTV blurs, blends, bends views– TV promotes “TV mainstream” view of worldTV promotes “TV mainstream” view of world

• Some evidence in supportSome evidence in support– Groups w/different views among light viewers do Groups w/different views among light viewers do

not differ among heavy viewersnot differ among heavy viewers– Attitudes to emerge from “mean world” Attitudes to emerge from “mean world”

perceptions: generally more conservativeperceptions: generally more conservative

• Resonance: TV Resonance: TV reinforcesreinforces real-world real-world experiences with violence -- doubly powerfulexperiences with violence -- doubly powerful

Mass CommunicationMass Communication

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