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Mi Museo y VosGranada, Nicaragua. December 2013 Year 7 No. 26

Ancient and modern Nicaraguan pottery

Editor: Nora Zambrana Lacayo

Writers:Oscar Pavón Sánchez Geoffrey McCafferty Ligia Galeano Rueda Edgar Espinoza PérezJessica Manion

Design and diagramation:Nora Zambrana Lacayo

English translation: Linda Heatherly

Owner: Peder Kolind

www.mimuseo.orgmimuseo@hotmail.comwww.facebook.com/mimuseo.granada

Ancient and modern Nicaraguan pottery ................. 2

Preliminary investigations at Sonzapote, Zapatera Island .................................................................. 5

The year zero in the Valley of Managua ..................... 14

Feathered Serpents of Pacific Nicaragua ................... 19

Visits to Mi Museo .............................................................. 25

Table of Contents

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Ancient and modern Nicaraguan pottery

Oscar Pavón SánchezArqueólogo, Mi Museo

Tola Trichrome effigy vessel (A.D. 300-500)

he path that has ancient pottery of Nicaragua is part of the cultural identity of our ancestors, that has

existed in the course of our history as a pre-Columbian legacy that generations have passed on their knowledge in the use and management of different wor-king techniques.

To date there are some towns like San Juan de Oriente, Masaya , La Paz Cen-tro, León, Ducuale Grande in Estelí and Matagalpa, who continue working pottery.

Individually I have selected artisans of San Juan de Oriente because there are different varieties of handicrafts, as well as the majority of its population is enga-ged in the production of this art because there the best pottery experts in the field, their activity work is specifically focused on the manufacture of pots, pans, bowls, plates, cups and more.

Today in this community are some arti-sans who are developing the same pottery techniques used in the past, for example the use of the modeling technique: it is to create clay rolls, which are placed on each other in circular form, with the inten-tion of providing height to the piece, and was subsequently shapes with hands, using some non rotary instruments.

In the art of molding a container inside is hollow, which will marked a portrait prints, mainly used for figurines, zoomor-phic, anthropomorphic and media used stamps.

Currently there are artisans who work with other technical ceramics for manu-facturing, this technique is oriented to the use of the potter's wheel, the function is to provide centrifugal force around a lump of clay placed in the center of the disc - wheel, using human-powered or electrical. Pug The ball must be well cen-tered over the wheel and turn requires a minimum of one hundred revolutions per minute to start up and acquire the form, pressing with your fingers, create the potter. The aim, in short, to hands the clay receives energy through the rotation of the wheel.

It should be emphasized that the tech-nique of using the lathe was introduced in this community since 1978, thanks to the collaboration of the Banco Central de Nicaragua, this institution provided arti-sans technical training workshops provi-ded them with its own oven.

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Once the form passes a ceramic firing process to be consistent, so that in the past the open urn used today are using the closed oven.

The treatment used for cera-mic surface co-rresponds to the color finish that gives the piece befo-re and after cooking, this process in-curs a lot of work, emphasizing the appli-cation of slip and prints, as well as the smoothing and po-lishing of the work-piece.

As for the decor of the room depends on the genealo-gy of the ar-tist, which is characte-rized by incisions, graffiti, printed, patter-ned, applied, burns and painted.

Modern ceramics prepared by Jacobo Potosme.

Modern ceramics prepared by Enmanuel Maldonado

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Potter Helio Gutierrez

Preliminary investigations at Sonzapote, Zapatera IslandGeoffrey McCafferty (University of Calgary), Oscar Pavón Sánchez (Mi Museo) and Ligia Galeano Rueda (UNAN, Managua)

The paints used for painted patterns on the surface of the ceramic. Also, the mo-tifs used include: geometric, anthropo-morphic, zoomorphic, fitoform, abstract.

The ancient techniques used to make pottery merged with other foreign art, but these skills do not stop being a continuity between past and present.

This time, My Museum will present the public ancient and modern ceramics, in the modern craft display in clay potters of the best teachers who have represented Nicaragua at special events, these works of art today are testimony the inexhausti-ble strength of a people, as is San Juan de Oriente.

n August of 2013 a joint project in-volving the University of Calgary, Mi Museo, and the Universidad Nacional

Autónoma de Nicaragua conducted preli-minary investigations on Zapatera Island, at the site of Sonzapote. The project was funded by the National Geographic/Waitt Foundation, with additional support from Mi Museo and the University of Calgary. Sonzapote is one of the most famous ar-chaeological sites in Nicaragua because of the monumental statuary first discove-red in the late 19th century. Many of these sculptures are now displayed at the Ex-Convent San Francisco Museum.

Sonzapote was first published by Swedish naturalist Carl Bovallius in 1886 in his book Nicaraguan Antiquities, in which de-tailed images and descriptions of dozens of monolithic sculptures were presented (Figure 1). Importantly, he also identified where these sculptures were found in as-sociation with low stone mounds. Since Bovallius’ initial publication the Sonza-pote sculptures have been the subject of numerous interpretations, notably by

I Samuel Lothrop (1921), Clemente Guido Martinez (2004), and Rigoberto Navarro Genie (2007). These (and other) scho-lars have associated the sculptures with Mesoamerican-related cultures, espe-cially the Chorotega who may have mi-grated into Pacific Nicaragua about AD 800 and were one of the dominant ethnic groups in the region when the S p a n i s h arrived in the early 1 5 0 0 s . For exam-ple, inter-pretations have at-tempted to link these sculptures with the Chorotega re l ig ious pantheon. Figure 1: Statues from Sonzapote

(drawings from Bovallius 1886).

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Figure 3: Example of standing architecture from Mound 8.

Unfortunately, whereas much attention has been paid to the sculptures, relati-vely little archaeological investigation has been conducted at the site of Son-zapote itself (but see Castillo Barquero 1989; Navarro Genie 2007). Thus the understanding of the archaeological con-text of the statues has been tenuous. The purpose of our recent excavations was to produce a high quality survey map of the site center, inventory monuments that still exist at the site, and excavate into and around one of the existing mounds in order to date the structure and infer its possible function.

After obtaining permits from the Institu-to Nicaragüense de Cultura (INC) and the Office of the Medio Ambiente y Re-cursos Naturales (MARENA), and with the permission of the local community, a brief field season was conducted. A team of about 20 archaeologists and archaeology stu-dents were housed at the Santa Maria Eco-Lodge on Za-patera Island, which also served as the field laboratory for initial processing of the recovered arti-facts. Ligia Galeano Rueda, a professor at the UNAN, super-vised a group of Ni-caraguan students who gained valuable

field experience. Oscar Pavón Sánchez, Director of Mi Museo, co-directed exca-vations and later permitted use of Mi Mu-seo for the final analysis of the materials. Jorge Zambrana Fernández, Director of Archaeology for the Department of Cul-tural Patrimony, conducted an inspection of the project and assisted in excavations during his visit.

One of the significant results of the pro-ject was a survey map of the site center (Figure 2). Seventeen structures were mapped in total, although reconnais-sance beyond the site core indicates that many more mounds remain to be documented. The mounds ranged in height from 1 to 3 m, and were made of unmortared volcanic stone. In places the well-preserved masonry was intact, with wall alignments, corners, and even

Figure 2: Survey map of Sonzapote (map by Shawn Morton).

possible staircases (Figure 3). The spa-tial layout of the site indicates the pre-sence of plaza groups, and some of the rectangular buil-dings seem to have shared a common orientation. The complex cluster of buildings suggests a degree of urban organization, though additio-nal research will be required in order to investigate this possibility.

The second goal of the pre-liminary research project created an inventory of over 50 monuments that are still located at the site. Some of these are fragments of additional statues (Figure 4), and consist of standing and seated human figures

carved out of locally available volcanic rock. Other monuments are petroglyphs,

Figure 4: Sculpture fragments from Sonzapote.

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Figure 8: Looter’s trench in Mound 14.Figure 9: Excavation on southwest corner of Mound 14.

including complex figures as well as rows of pecked holes that may represent unfinis-hed petroglyphs interrupted during their creation (Figure 5). Another class of ‘monu-ment’ that was documented were natural boulders at the site that were modified with multiple holes, probably for processing some vegetal substance (Figure 6). The-se were often located near water resources, and some had small channels attached to the holes for draining off liquid.

The final objective of the Sonzapote project was the partial excavation of a mound in order to document the construction techniques, and to recover material re-mains to date the structure and interpret the building’s function. Mound 14 was se-lected for excavation becau-se of its good state of pre-servation (Figure 7). Mound 14 measures 22 m by 12 m, and about 2 m in height. A looter’s trench on the east side was cleared in order to inspect the construction technique (Figure 8), which was revealed to be solid sto-ne rubble without any interior organization. Large stones to the north of the looter’s trench

Figure 5: Petroglyphs from Sonzapote.

Figure 6: Modified boulder from Sonzapote.

Figure 7: Southeast corner of Mound 14.

may retain evidence that they were part of a large staircase.

Excavations were conducted on the southwest corner of Mound 14, where the surface suggested relatively intact archi-tecture. Four 2 x 2 m units were partially excavated (Figure 9). Unit D was located at the building’s corner and featured nu-merous burial urns dating to the Sapoa period (AD 800-1250). These included both ovoid shoe-pots and ollas (Figure 10). Human skeletal remains were found both within the vessels and also directly in the soil surrounding the urns (Figure 11). One urn contained six greenstone beads (Figure 12).

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Figure 11: Human remains from southwest corner of Mound 14.

Figure 12: Greenstone beads from Mound 14.

Figure 13: Espinoza Red Banded burial urn from Mound 14.

Unit B was located to the west of Mound 14, and was excavated in order to expose the original ground surface associa-ted with the base of the structure. A large burial urn was discovered in association with a pac-ked earth walking surfa-ce (Figure 13), providing a secure context for rela-tive dating of the building occupation. The urn was of the Espino-za Red Banded type, diagnostic of the Late Tempisque period (AD 1-300; Jorge Zambrana Fernández, personal commu-nication). Other diagnostic pottery from the same time period included Jobo In-cised. Skeletal remains from within the Espinoza urn and associated samples of carbonized wood will be subjected to radiocarbon dating to confirm this date.

Figure 10: Burial urns near southwest corner of Mound 14.

Discussion

Although these preliminary investiga-tions at Sonzapote only lasted a week, all of the basic objectives were achieved. The tentative conclusions significantly impact the interpretation of the site: the civic-ceremonial center features densely organized and well-built structures that imply incipient urbanism. The tentative date ascertained at Mound 14 suggests that this could be one of the earliest ur-ban centers in Central America. If the site dates to the Late Tempisque period as indicated, then Sonzapote is 1000 years older than previous interpretations, and the associated statues cannot be related to Mesoamerican parallels.

The cultural group that occupied Pacific Nicaragua during the Late Tempisque period is currently unknown; the use of Usulutan-like resist ware pottery at con-temporary sites in Managua (such as La Arenera and Las Delicias) suggests a northern connection with El Salvador and Honduras (Dennett et al. 2011). But no Usulutan-like pottery was found at Son-zapote, and instead the Jobo Incised pot-tery (Figure 14) is more common in the Chontales region of central Nicaragua (Jorge Zambrana Fernández, personal communication).

Another surprising discovery was the presence of Sapoa period burials asso-ciated with the corner of Mound 14. Sin-ce these date to hundreds of years af-ter the site’s abandonment it suggests a strong social memory in which the Sapoa

period residents continued to revere the site and its monuments within their sym-bolic landscape. The Sapoa period is most closely associated with the Choro-tega culture, but evidence is building that there may have also been an autochtho-nous population of original inhabitants (McCafferty and Dennett 2013). It is pos-sible that these native peoples maintai-ned or even ‘re-invented’ their symbolic connection with the ancestral shrines of Sonzapote.

Interestingly, the most prominent ceramic type associated with the later occupation of the site was Castillo Engraved (Figu-re 15). Relatively rare were examples of white-slipped pottery such as Papagayo Polychrome. Since Papagayo and rela-ted polychromes are often associated with the arrival of the migrant Chorotega,

Figure 14: Jobo Incised rim sherd.

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Figure 15: Castillo Engraved rim sherd.

References cited:

Bovallius, Carl1886 Nicaraguan Antiquities. Serie Arqueologica No. 1, Swedish Society of Anthropology and Geography. Stockholm, Sweden.

Castillo-Barquero, Julio Magdiel1989 The Context and Meaning of the Zapatera Sculptures: Punta del Zapote. Mound I. Master's Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin, Texas.

Dennett, Carrie L., Lorelei Platz, and Geoffrey G. McCafferty2011 Preliminary ceramic compositional analysis from the La Arenera site, Pacific Nicaragua. La Universidad 14-15: 373-397. Universidad de El Salvador.

Guido Martínez, Clemente2004 Los dioses vencidos de Zapatera: Mitos y realidades. Academia Nicaragüense de la Lengua, Managua, Nicaragua.

Lothrop, Samuel K. 1921 The Stone Statues of Nicaragua. American Anthropologist 23(3): 311-319.

McCafferty, Geoffrey G. and Carrie L. Dennett 2013 Ethnogenesis and Hybridity in Proto-Historic Nicaragua. Archaeological Review from Cambridge 28(1):191-215

Navarro Genie, Rigoberto2007 Les Sculptures préhispaniques en pierre du versant Pacifique du Nicaragua et du nord ouest du Costa Rica et leur contexte archéologique. PhD Thesis, Universidad de París I (Panthéon-Sorbonne), Paris, France.

its relative scarcity may also indicate that the Sonzapote rituals were related more to the autochthonous culture. This may be further demonstrated by the animis-tic vessel supports that did not include the typical Ehecatl supports common of Chorotega vessels, or the lack of hollow female figurines also typical of the Sapoa period.

While investigations at Sonzapote were brief, they nevertheless added valuable archaeological context with which to in-terpret the site. Plans are underway for additional large-scale research to conti-nue in 2014. The preliminary indication is that Sonzapote is one of the most impor-tant sites in Nicaragua, with the potential to significantly change interpretations of the pre-Columbian history.

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The year zero in the Valley of Managua

Edgar Espinoza Pérez Academy of Geography and History of Nicaragua

Figure 1: Stone quarries at El Recreo site. In Howell 1954.

he geographer Robert Kates, an expert in human disasters related to seismic activity, once said that

the choice of the capital Managua in Nicaragua had been more of a political settlement but a geophysical nonsense, and that is that our capital is located in an area of high volcanic activity since immemorial time, this is evidenced by the presence of at least five crater lakes (Asososca, Nejapa, Tiscapa, Acahua-linca and Chiltepe complex which inclu-des the lagoons of Jiloa and Apoyeque). Even though these are "off", Managua is located on land crossed by many geolo-gical faults (Incer 2001: 36). Moreover, the vicinity of the volcanoes of Masaya

and Las Sierras de Managua have also seriously impacted human activities, be-ginning with hunter-gatherer societies to modern societies.

For our sorrows, it seems that every two thousand years, activate a mixture of strong volcanic activity, earthquakes, huge tsunamis and landslides from Managua's Lake that affected popula-tions in the Valley. This article is a small overflight to these calamities.

The Managua Valley 4000 years ago

Huellas de Acahualinca site is one of the best places in the formative stages of the peopling of Managua. At least 15 people left their footprints printed on volcanic mud, like several animal species. Studies have shown that the source of emission of different volcanic pulses from Masa-ya Volcano came about ten kilometers. Although there is still no exact extension of these deposits, at the Museum of Aca-hualinca you can see that the eruption is about a meter thick, and some old qua-rries in the city as the site of El Rodeo the

volcanic tufa have thicknesses greater two meters (Figure 1).

Over the subsequent layers to the foot-prints you can see at least two major vol-canic moments, the oldest belonging to a eruption of Jiloa volcano consisting of pomaceous eruptions. Followed by the formation of a fossil soil.

This moment of volcanic rest allowed small sedentary populations began to po-pulate the Valley of Managua, the phases La Piñata (000-2000 BC) and Tiscapa (2000 BC-300 BC) in the local sequence are evidence of early settlements. The people settled near the Laguna de Tisca-pa, who was already an extinct volcanic cone, and could use their water for sus-tenance. Not much is known about these groups, but judging by the styles of their ceramics can be said to have much to do with the complex early Gran Nicoya, mainly in Guanacaste Tronadora Pha-ses and early complexes reported by Dr. Wolfgang Haberland on Ometepe Island (Figure 2). In Tiscapa shows that the site was exposed to volcanic sands and this may lead to site abandonment.

The Managua Valley 2000 years ago

Later there is a major eruptive event from Masaya volcano, known locally as Tufas el Retiro, this eruption could occur ap-proximately 500-150 AD (Espinoza Pe-rez: 1995:92).

In the early centuries or near the first years of our present calendar, Mana-

gua Valley is densely populated with a significant dispersion of archaeological sites deployed on the edge of the crater lakes and the shores of Lake Managua. The most important sites are located in the ancient Hacienda El Retiro, Villa Tis-capa (Espinoza 1995, Pullen 1995, Las Delicias (Moroney 2010) on the coast of Lake Nicaragua, La Chureca and La Arenera (Espinoza 1997)), which in re-gional sequence corresponding to the Colony Complex (500 BC-300 AD). But this population growth was cut short by new volcanic eruptions, which affected not only to human populations, but the whole environment was badly damaged.

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Bibliography:

Boyette Melissa y Jorge Zambrana 1995. Análisis de la Muestra Lítica: Proyecto Arqueología de la Zona Metropolitana de Managua, 1995. En Descubriendo las Huellas de Nuestros Antepasados. El Proyecto “Arqueología de la Zona Metropolitana de Managua. Editado por Frederick W. Lange. Alcaldía de Managua. Pág. 51-61.

Brown Marshall Margaret Krieg y Christopher Wilmott. 1996. La Segunda Temporada en el Sitio Villa Tiscapa (N-MA-36). En Abundante Cooperación Vecinal. La Segunda Temporada del Proyecto “Arqueología de la Zona Metropolitana de Managua. Editado por Frederick W. Lange. Alcaldía de Managua. Pág. 9-37.

Denet L Carrie, Lorelei Platz, Geoffrey McCafferty 2011. Preliminary Ceramic Compositional analysis from The La Arenera Site, Pacific Nicaragua. En La Universidad Vol. 14-15. Pág. 373-397. Universidad del Salvador.

Espinoza Pérez Edgar 1995. La Cerámica Temprana de Nicaragua y sus Vínculos Regionales. En Descubriendo las Huellas de Nuestros Antepasados. El Proyecto “Arqueología de la Zona Metropolitana de Managua. Editado por Frederick W. Lange. Alcaldía de Managua. Pág. 17-251995. Acahualinca al Pie de la Letra. En Descubriendo las Huellas de Nuestros Antepasados. El Proyecto “Arqueología de la Zona Metropolitana de Managua. Editado por Frederick W. Lange. Alcaldía de Managua. Pág. 91-95.

Haberland Wolfgang y W. Gave.1957. Prehistoric Footprints from El Salvador, American Antiquity 22 282-85.

Hughes Neal 1980. Urn Burial in Prehistoric Nicaragua. Tesis de Maestría. George Washington University.

Lange, F. W.1995. (editor) Descubriendo Las Huellas de Nuestros Antepasados. El Proyecto "Arqueología de la Zona Metropolitana de Managua". Alcaldía de Managua, Managua.

At the bottom of the hill known as Motas-tepe, an indigenous group was practica-lly buried by several meters of volcanic sand. Although not determined the origin of this eruption, but due to its proximity is presumable that the Nejapa volcano could be the center issuer of the sand that buried the site, however, as argued by Dennett and colleagues (Dennett et al. 2011: 387), another possibility is that the Chiltepe complex could become ac-tive simultaneously, affecting La Arenera in particular and the Valley in general, causing serious damage to human sett-lements, crops, environment including fauna and flora Valley and water sources. This is consistent with the archaeological evidence at the site Las Delicias, a site of cemeteries where there are thick layers of altered volcanic ashes for burial of indivi-duals has not yet been shown that these deaths were caused by volcanic activity.

Elsewhere on the shores of Managua Lake known as La Chureca have repor-ted some evidence of volcanic ash, but these did not cause the abandonment of the site.

But unfortunately does not come alone, and after volcanic eruptions of cones near Managua, the Masaya Volcano became active again, releasing large amounts of ash and water, which produ-ced a new hardpan known as Tufas el Retiro. This eruption probably occurred about two hundred years after the bir-th of Christ, leaving completely terrified populations and forcing them to move to other areas.

Finally the volcanic calm returned to the Valley and in the last two thousand years Managua has remained peaceful from the point of view of eruptions, but not so quietly, a series of earthquakes destro-yed the city forcing people to relocate temporarily or ultimately to other parts of Nicaragua.

Figure 2: Early ceramics of Managua Valley.

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Feathered Serpents of Pacific Nicaragua

Jessica Manion1 y Geoffrey McCafferty2

1 Master’s Student. Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary.2 Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary.

Lockley, M. G., García-Vásquez, R., Espinoza, E., and Lucas, S. G. 2007. Notes on a famous but ‘forgotten’ human footprint site from the Holocene of Nicaragua. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 42: 97–102.

Prat Cristian. 1991. Etude du Talpetate, Horizon Volcanique Endure de la Region Centre-Pacific du Nicaragua, Genese Caracterizacion Morphologique, son rol Dans lérosion des sol. Tesis de Doctorado Universidad de Paris VI France.

Prat Cristian y P. Quentin.1992. Origen y Génesis del “Talpetate”, Horizonte endurecido de los suelos volcánicos de la Región Centro Pacífico de Nicaragua. En Terra. Vol. 10 Sociedad Mexicana de las Ciencias del Suelo. Pág. 267-83.

Pullen Heidi 1995. Prospección Arqueológica en Villa Tiscapa. Sitia N-MA-36. En Descubriendo las Huellas de Nuestros Antepasados. El Proyecto “Arqueología de la Zona Metropolitana de Managua. Editado por Frederick W. Lange. Alcaldía de Managua. Pág. 41-51. Stauber Daniel 1996. Excavaciones Arqueológicas e investigaciones Preliminares en el sitio Los Placeres (N-MA-1). En Abundante Cooperación Vecinal: La Segunda Temporada del Proyecto Arqueología de la Zona Metropolitana de Managua. Editado por Frederick Lange. Alcaldía de Managua. Pág. 49-69.

Williams Howell1952. Geologic observations on the ancient human footprints near Managua, Nicaragua. Carnegie Institution.

olychrome vessels from the Grea-ter Nicoya region of Central Ameri-ca often feature feathered serpent

motifs, which are most abundant during the Sapoá period (800-1250 AD). This is a period when historical documents indi-cate the arrival of migrants from central Mexico, and the presence of feathered serpent iconography is used as archaeo-logical support for these origins. This pa-per examines specific elements of the feathered serpents on different pottery types to deconstruct how these features vary between types, and therefore how the ceramics reflect the migration pro-cess and the enculturation of new arrivals with existing groups.

P According to ethnohistorical sources from the sixteenth century, migrants from cen-tral Mexico arrived in Pacific Nicaragua about 800 CE. These were members of the Oto-Manguean-speaking Chorotega culture who may have originated from the highland city of Cholula, famous as the center of the religious cult of Quet-zalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent god, and also for its role in long distance exchange. Cholula is also well-known for its beauti-ful polychrome pottery. Parallels between Cholula polychrome and whiteware poly-chromes from Pacific Nicaragua demons-trate shared stylistic patterns, while the importance of feathered serpent imagery implies broader ideological influences.

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Figure 1: Quantification of characteristic features in the images of snake in polychrome vessels Papagayo and Vallejo types.

The feathered serpent is present in Me-soamerica starting in the Middle For-mative period (1000 BCE), and is found prominently at sites such as Teotihua-can, Tula, Xochicalco, and Chichen Itza. Quetzalcoatl is first present in Mesoame-rican examples as a serpent covered with feathers, but is later represented anthro-pomorphically in the Postclassic period as a deity with characteristic costume elements. These elements include a red buccal mask and cut-shell elements. Early Colonial period accounts of Nahua cosmology associate Quetzalcoatl with the planet Venus, wind and air, and scho-larly knowledge; avatars of Quetzalcoatl include the wind god Ehecatl, and the god of long distance trade, Yacatechut-li. Interpretations of the Epiclassic and Early Postclassic in Mesoamerica have suggested that the 'cult' of Quetzalcoatl was used by elites as a unifying ideolo-gy, of which certain suites of diagnostic artifacts are associated. The chronology associated with the cult of Quetzalcoatl corresponds with the historical arrival of Mexican migrants to the Greater Nicoyan region, precisely when feathered ser-pents and Ehecatl vessel supports are in-troduced in the region. The feathered ser-pent motif first appears in Greater Nicoya during the Sapoá period (800-1250AD), though earlier serpent imagery may form a precedent for later transformation. This brings up a fundamental question: are all serpent motifs really 'feathered ser-pents'? Do the feathery serpents of Paci-fic Nicaragua have the same symbolic as-sociations as the feathered serpents that

characterize the Quetzalcoatl cult of Me-soamerica? Can we observe in the pain-ted images the evolution of the concept from earlier, Central American designs to more Mexican symbols? To investigate these questions we con-ducted a detailed iconographic analysis of serpent imagery on polychrome ves-sels, based on collections at the Universi-ty of Calgary and Mi Museo. First the pre-iconographic identification of forms was conducted wherein specific elements of the motifs were identified and quantified; followed by iconographical connection of artistic motifs with traditional themes or concepts; and then iconological focus on finding the underlying principles which re-veal attitudes and meaning of motifs. The first level of analysis, therefore, involved the recording of presence or absence of characteristic traits. This may be seen in the break-down of features such as tho-se provided in Figure 1, where elements such as volute eyebrows, curled snouts and the presence of arms are quantified. Figure 2 represents a basic chart that shows some examples of the traits that were quantified among feathered serpent representations. The second level of analysis examined suites of characteristics associated with the feathered serpents in both Mesoa-merica and the Greater Nicoya region, and compared the two. In a related stu-dy, Sarah Keller concluded that there is ambiguous evidence that the feathered serpents present in the Greater Nico-ya region possess the same symbolic

meaning as that of Quetzalcoatl in Me-soamerica. We wanted to examine this using the larger collections and specifica-lly for the Papagayo Serpiente (Figure 3) and Vallejo polychrome types (Figure 4). Initial research was conducted at the University of Calgary, based on a collec-tion that the Archaeology Department museum received from the Glenbow Mu-seum of Calgary. This collection includes over 500 objects from Central America, with many of the ceramics identifiable with types from the Greater Nicoya re-gion. Additional feathered serpent mo-tifs were analyzed from the Mi Museo

collection in Granada, Nicaragua. This private collection consists of more than 5000 pieces and is accessible through its on-line catalogue. This study sample consists of 30 feathered serpent motifs, including 13 Papagayo Serpiente exam-ples and 17 Vallejo examples. With the recent refinement of the regio-nal chronology, especially for the Sapoá period, it is possible to suggest that the Papagayo Serpiente type was the initial polychrome beginning at about 800CE, and that Vallejo polychrome first appea-red in the later Sapoá, at approxima-tely 1000CE. The Papagayo Serpiente

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Figure 2: Examples of traits in feathered serpent representations.

Figure 3: Ceramic Papagayo Polychrome type, Serpiente variety.

Figure 4: Ceramics Vallejo Polychrome type.

variety represented a dramatic change in stylistic characteristics from the pre-vious period, which suggests the arrival or incorporation of a new cultural group. However, though the serpent forms in the early Sapoá period polychromes do feature some feathered-serpent ele-ments, there are also elements that are distinctly non-Mesoamerican. Motif ele-

ments that are commonly seen in the Pa-pagayo Serpiente samples include arms, shields, scales, slitted eyes and tail tufts, all of which decrease within the Vallejo sample. During the later Sapoá period the intro-duction of Vallejo polychromes includes much more central Mexican themes that

characterize the true feathered serpent. These characteristics include the volute eyebrow and nose ornament, which may be seen in central Mexican Borgia group codices dated to the late Postclassic, and from earlier Teotihuacan iconogra-phy. This change in iconographic repre-sentations indicates a possible familiarity with Mesoamerican ideology among the agents who produced the images. This, therefore, does suggest contact with central Mexico, or even the movement of migrants into the area.

Trends in the data are represented in Figure 5, and show the changing distri-bution of features present in the Papa-gayo Serpiente and later Vallejo vessels. Within the Papagayo Serpiente sample 15.4% had fangs, and 23.5% of the Va-llejo sample did; all of the Papagayo Ser-piente sample displayed curled snouts, while this was present in 82.4% of the Vallejo sample; feathers are present in all of the Papagayo Serpiente sample, and in 70.6% of the Vallejo; eye crests are present in 92.3% of the Papagayo Serpiente sample, and in all of the Va-llejo; and 7.7% of Papagayo Serpiente display barbed tongues, while 17.6% of Vallejo do. Some of the greatest difference in pre-sence and absence are seen in traits such as slitted eyes which are seen in 23.1% of Papagayo Serpiente, and are not present in the Vallejo sample; scales, which are present in 46.2% of the Papa-gayo Serpiente serpents, are also pre-sent in none of the Vallejo; tail tufts are present in 84.6% of the Papagayo Ser-piente sample, and in 11.8% of the Va-llejo; 69.2% of Papagayo Serpiente had arms, wherein arms were present in only 11.8% of the Vallejo sample; and 76.9% of the Papagayo Serpiente samples con-tained shield motifs, versus 5.9% of the Vallejo sample. Also present is the ap-pearance of volute eyebrows in 17.6% of Vallejo samples after none being present in Papagayo Serpiente samples, and nose ornaments in 11.8% of Vallejo sam-ples with none in Papagayo Serpiente samples.

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Figure 5: Distribution of features presents in the Papagayo Serpiente and later Vallejo vessels.

Here, it is pertinent to consider how so-cial memory – the recollections of the past, and what it means, as shared by a collective – is represented in this ma-terial collection. It is true that some cha-racteristics of the feathery serpents in the Greater Nicoya decline, or appear, during times of change. But some cha-racteristics are maintained. These repre-sentations may help to show how agents imbued social memory in material cultu-re, and indeed, what the identity of these individuals and collectives were as well.

Further research will expand the study sample size, and include other motifs associated with feathery serpents on Greater Nicoyan vessels. It will also seek to examine motifs from other associated regions to include a wider understanding of spatial associations. This will work to understand the political landscape of the region, and gain a better understanding of how the people creating these vessels maintained, changed, manipulated, or erased, meaning.

n this quarter from September 15 to December 15, 2013, Mi Museo received visits from 1241 foreigners, 605 nationals and 1161 students, for a total of 3007 visits. We are happy to welcome visitors from different countries and provide a tour of

the museum's facilities without cost to them.

The following is detailed information about the countries whose citizens visited Mi Museo:

E.E.U.U. 384France 135Costa Rica 84Spain 76Canada 73United King 67 Germany 56Switzerland 42Mexico 34Belgium 29Denmark 27Honduras 27Brazil 27Argentina 23Guatemala 22Australia 17Russia 12Italy 12Israel 11

New Zealand 10Colombia 8Portugal 7Venezuela 7Japan 6Sweden 6El Salvador 6Poland 5Panama 4Puerto Rico 4Ungria 3Ecuador 3Korea 3South Africa 3Slovakia 3India 2Slovenia 2Dominican Republic 1

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