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Freedom of Expression:

Historical Overview

Freedom of expression, historical

development

Relatively recent concept?

ncent e e n sacre

monarch

Egypt

Maxims of Ptahhotep (2300 BCE,

Egypt)

Sumerian tablet, c. 2400 BCE

Image:http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/wisdom.htm

Freedom of Expression, historical

development

Greeks, c. 500 BCE Parrhesia

Blasphemy & libel

Romans, c. 1st century CE Only persons in authority enjoyed free speech

Burning of Confucius books, 213 BCE

Native Americans Iroquois Council

Arab society Heresy

Parrhesia: freedom to speak publicly.

Blasphemy: sacreligious (disrispectful)comments.Libel: defamation of character.Roman politicians, could talk freely andquestion things.

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Historical development of Freedom of

Expression in the U.K.

Licensing system lasted until 1694 CE

Freed fromprior restraint

Sir William Blackstone

But, other restrictions remained:

Four major types oflibelin English courts:

Seditious libel

Obscene libel

Private libel

Blasphemy

Taxation

Historical development of freedom of

speech in the U.S.

U.S. political and legal traditions evolved from U.K. systems

Colonies had many of same restrictions

1610, Gov. Dales Code

1630s, Body of Liberties published

1649 Act of Liberation,

1682, Great Law enacted

License systems, censors, sedition laws


speech in the U.S.

Such censorship began to be challenged in the press

Publick Occurences Both Foreign and Domestic

Franklins New England Courant 1734, landmark Zenger case

Seditious: yer causing friction between thegovernment and the people.Obscene:

Private libel: when ye attack the reputationof a person.Blasphemy:

The regulation of freedom of speech in thecolonies was harsher.Dale's code: talking agains cristians wasdeath penalty.Body of liberty:Act of liberation: when ye were cristian, ye

couldn't be burned at stake.

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Historical development of freedom of speech

in the U.S.

End of English rule

Immediate shift to free

speech?

Image: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/declara/images/dunlap.jpg


speech in the U.S

1787, Constitutional Convention draft did not include a Bill

of Rights

Became political issue

Federalists v. Anti-Federalists

1789, Bill of Rights drafted

Not universally applied

First Amendment

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of

religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or

abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right

of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the

government for a redress of grievances.

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Sedition Act of 1798 (excerpt) If any person shall wr ite, print, utter or publish . . . any false,

scandalous and malicious writing or writings against the governmentof the United States, or either house of the Congress of the UnitedStates, or the President of the United States, with intent to defame . .. or to bring them . . . into contempt or disrepute; or to exciteagainst them . . . the hatred of the good people of the United States,or to stir up sedition within the United States . . . then such person . .. shall be punished by a fine not exceeding two thousand dollars, and

by imprisonment not exceeding two years.

19th century freedom of speech

Limited freedom of speech

Civil War saw government restriction of free speech

Control of telegraph lines

uspens on o a eas corpus

Arrest of journalists and closure of papers

Late 19th-Early 20th century freedom of

speech

Post-Civil War, changing environment in the U.S.

Urbanization

Industrialization

Immigration

New media not protected Courts allowed Congressional infringement of freedom of speech

World War I

Sedition & Espionage Acts

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Discussion

The First Amendment was rewritten to limit Congress

power to restrict speech. Is this fair? How would you

improve the wording of the First Amendment?

Is the First Amendment necessary, in your opinion?

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News Immediacy

Independence Disclosure

Public Relations Honest

RTNDA [Radio andTelevision News

Directors Association] Code of Ethics and

Professional Conduct

SPJ [Society of Loyalty Advocacy

Advertising Truth Substantiation Comparison

Professional Journalists] Code of Ethics

PRSA [Public RelationsSociety of America] Member Code of Ethics

AAF [AmericanAdvertising Federation] Advertising Ethics and

Principles

Moral reasoning

Analysis of involved components Whos involved

Parties

Whats involved

Ethical principles

Stakes

Possible consequences

Golden Rule

Golden Mean

Kants Categorical Imperative

Potters Box

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Define the problem

State values/principles Possible outcomes

Professional Loyalties, values and principles

Organizational philosophies, values andprinciples

Moral values rinci les and obli ations

What happens when they conflict?

Duty to ourselves

Duty to our clients/audience

Duty to our organization

Duty to society

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Wikileaks

What leads to different outcomes?

Do you agree or disagree with organizationaldecisions?

Crises in PR

When the organization is you.

Blogging & the Fourth Estate Same ethics a l to blo ers as to ournalists for an

organization?

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U.S.LEGALSYSTEM

TheU.S.LegalSystem Areyougoingtobeanattorney?

No?

Thenwhyshouldyoucare? Natureofcommunicationindustries

TheU.S.LegalSystem Sourcesoflaw

Constitutions

U.S.Constitution Stateconstitutions

Statutes

U.S.C.

Administrativeregulations&decisions C.F.R.

constitution is the law of the land. it canonly be amended by the special request bythe people.State also have constitutions, and can bedifferent laws, but they cannot be

contradicting the federal constitution.Statues are the laws passed by thecongress.Administrative agencies can passregulations that can also be consideredlaws.

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Sourcesoflaw&CourtsystemsSourcesoflaw CourtSystems Caselaw

Precedent

Jurisdiction

Personal

Hierarchyofcourts

CourtSystem

Categorizationsoflaw Typesoflitigation

Criminal

Beyondareasonabledoubt v

Preponderanceoftheevidence Tort

Negligence

Contracts

Case law.Jurisdiction is the authority and

guvernmental law.Personal is when one state laws isapplicable only in that state.Subject matter, when the federalgovernment and the state governmentstrive to use their laws.

Criminal: the state against a person orcorporations. Public law. Jail can be anoption. you need to prove yer innocencebeyond a reasonable doubt.Civil: Private law. Usually people look formoney. Jail not an option.Tort: Anything else than a contract. Mostlydefamation and negligence. You have toshow that the other party acted withnegligence.Contracts: Enforcing contracts. Are legallybinding promises.

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SpecialTopics JurisdictionandtheInternet

Physicallypresent Minimumcontacts

urpose u y recte

Verynuanced,growingarea

SpecialTopics InternationalJurisdiction

Treaties Unions

NAFTA

Whataboutinternationallawsuits? Ownpropertyorresidethere Consistency

JudicialprocessCivil Criminal

Complaint

Answer

Arrest

Criminalcomplaint

Discovery

Pretrialmotions Settlement

Trial

Decision

Appeal?

appearance

Preliminaryhearing Grandjuryindictment

Pretrialmotions Trial

Sentencing

Appeal?

In terms of internet, the court cannot claimthey jurisdiction over you. The only way isthat if you have property within the state,purposefully directed contact with people ofthe state.

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U.S.SupremeCourt Discretionaryreview Writofcertiorari Majorityopinion

Concurringopinions Dissentingopinions

ChallengestoFreeSpeech Standardprocess

Messagesent,orannouncementofmessage Righttosendmessagechallenged

Trialorhearingheld Decisionmade Decisionappealed?

FreedomofExpression Judicialapproaches tofreespeech

Absolutionism

Hierarchicalprotection Evaluationofgovernmentregulationsof

speech

Tests

Doctrines

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Issues

Lawsuits Implications

Highlylitigiousnation ImplicationsforU.S.mediaus ness

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Introduction to theIntroduction to the

Congress shall make no law respecting anestablishment of religion, or prohibiting

the free exercise thereof; or abridging thefreedom of speech, or of the press; or theright of the people peaceably to assemble,

and to petition the government for a

First AmendmentFirst Amendment

.

What does freedomof speech mean? Freedom

Speech

Freedom of thepress?

Not necessarily the

Congress

Abridge

Freedom of Expression and theFreedom of Expression and theFirst AmendmentFirst Amendment

right to gather ANDpublish

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In favor: Vital in the

democratic process

Promotes truth

discovery

Promotes individualagency and

Against: Individual rights

versus communityrights

Speech rights dont

equal true, realspeech freedoms

Why is freedom of expressionWhy is freedom of expressionimportant? (or not)?important? (or not)?

autonomy

Curbs governmentpower

Marketplace of ideas metaphor To protect diversity of ideas

Remedy for bad ideas is more speech, notmore restrictions

Freedom of ExpressionFreedom of Expression

Freedom from government censorship?

Freedom from compulsory speech or coercion?

Freedom of access to channels ofcommunication?

Freedom from government domination of

communication?

Dimensions of freedom ofDimensions of freedom ofspeechspeech

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Prior restraint Licensing

Coercion

After the factpunishment

Financial burdens Taxes

Fees?

Time, Place, andManner Content neutral

Narrowly tailored

Significantgovernment interest

Alternative available

Major restrictionsMajor restrictions

ompu sory speec Access Public funds

Attribution

c anne s

Vagueness & overbreadth Chilling effect

Balancing tests Strict scrutiny

Intermediate scrutiny When speech has less FA protection

Tests and DoctrinesTests and Doctrines

Time, place and manner restrictions

Public forums Place designed or traditionally used forcommunication

Parks, streets, sidewalks.

All public property?

Military bases, airports, schools?

Student newspapers? University press?

First Amendment and publicFirst Amendment and publicforumsforums

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Issues relating to the First Amendmentare not always clear: Zyprexa case

Judge Tries to Unring Bell Hanging Around Neck

of Horse Already Out of Barn Being Carried onShip That Has Sailed.

DiscussionDiscussion

Cy er u ying

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Clear&PresentDanger,IncitementtoIllegalConduct,&NationalSecurity

Refinementofconceptbycourts

LargelyignoredbycourtspriortoWWI

Slaves

Women

Abolitionists

Abridgements ofspeechtolerated States

Privatecitizens

Governmentownedplaceormeansofcommunication

WorldWarI

U.S.

decided

to

enter

the

war AntiwarsentimentscouldcauserisktoU.S.

militarycapabilitiesorpolicy

Legislationpassedprovidedthebasisfor

developmentofnewdoctrine

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Prohibitedawidevarietyofantigovernmentspeech

Prohibitionsextendedto: Anyonemakingfalsereportsorfalsestatementswithintentto

interferewiththeoperationorsuccessofthemilitary,orintendingtoobstructsaleofU.S.bonds.

Anyonewho,whentheUnitedStatesisatwar,causesorattemptstoinciteinsubordination,disloyalty,mutiny,orrefusalofdutyinthemilitary,orwhoattemptstodisrupttherecruitingorenlistment

Anyonewhowillfullyprints,writers,uttersorpublisheslanguageintendedtoencourageresistanceagainsttheU.S.

Anyonedisplayingtheflagofaforeignnation

AnyonewhoadvocatesthecurtailmentofproductionofproductsnecessarytotheU.S.warcause.

AggressivelyenforcedduringWWI

Morethan2,000peopleprosecutedforantiwar

AppealstoSupremeCourthelpeddelineateFreedomofExpression

Schenckv.UnitedStates (1919)

Schenck

printed

15,000

of

pamphlets

intended

for

distribution.

Pamphletsdeclaredthedraftwasunconstitutional,andurgeddrafteesnottosubmittointimidationbyauthorities

ArrestedandconvictedundertheEspionageAct

AppealedtoSupremeCourt

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SupremeCourtupheldconviction Newtestcreated:ClearandPresentDangerTest

JusticeOliverWendellHolmes:

Themoststrin ent rotectionoffrees eechwouldnot rotectamaninfalselyshoutingfireinatheater,andcausingapanic.Thequestionineverycaseiswhetherthewordsusedareusedinsuch

circumstancesandareofsuchanaturetocreateaclearandpresentdangerthattheywillbringaboutthesubstantiveevilsthat

Congresshasarighttoprevent.

Characterofspeechdependsoncircumstances Isspeechacalltoaction?

Brandenburgv.Ohio (1969) ClarenceBrandenburgwastheleaderoftheKKKin

Ohio

government,ifthegovernmentdidntstopsuppressingthewhiterace

ConvictedforviolatingtheOHCriminalSyndicalismstatute

Courtoverturnedconviction,andrefinedtestforincitementtoillegalconduct

3partsofthetestmustbemet:

Thespeechmustbedirectedtoincitingillegal

action Thespeechmustbecallingforimminentaction,

notjustconductatsomelatertime

Thespeechmustbelikelytoproducesuchconduct

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WhathappenswhenyourexpressionisperceivedtodirectlythreatenthesecurityoftheUnitedStates

TheFirstAmendmentandNationalSecurity

Whatispriorrestraint?

Prohibitiononexpressionwhichisimposedbeforethemessageiscommunicated.

W atarereasons oruseo priorrestraint?

Whengovernmentofficialsfearthatreleaseofcertaininfowillharmnationalsecurity.

Ispriorrestraintthenorm?

NO,heavypresumptionagainstit.

Nearv.Minnesota (1931) NearwasanewspapereditorinMN,goingto

publish

scandalous

material. ThegovernorofMNtriedtostophimfrom

publishing

SupremeCourtsaidthatpriorrestraintisunconstitutional

Justicesnotedthatpriorrestraintscouldbeacceptableincasesofnationalsecurity

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USv.WashingtonPost(1971) AlsoknownasPentagonPapers DanielEllsburgfoundpapersthatwerepotential

. . . Nixonadministrationtriedtostopthepapers

publicationonthegroundsthatitwouldharmnationalsecurity.

Federaljudgegavetheminjunction SupremeCourtruledpriorrestraintis

unconstitutional

USvProgressive (1979) Ajournalwasgoingtopublishanarticledetailing

howtomakeahydrogenbomb ,

causeirreparableharmtonationalsecurity CasewenttoWIFederalDistrictCourt,andthe

judgeruledforgovernment

Informationonconstruction ofahydrogen bombfallswithinextremelynarrowexceptiontoruleagainstpriorrestraint

Sneppv.U.S. (1980) SneppformerCIAagentwhowrotebook

describing

CIA

activities

in

Vietnam. CIAsuedforviolationofSneppscontractual

agreementagainstdisclosure. SupremeCourtdecidedthepublicationof

thisbookandotherslikeitcausedirreparableharmtoeffictivenessofU.S.intelligence

operations.

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BurdenofProof

Values

SocietalConsiderations

Negligence

Legaldutytoshowreasonablecare

Failuretodoso

Resultedininjury

Withexpression,oftenmustshowadditionalpointsofincitementtest

Zamorav.ColumbiaBroadcastingSystem(1979)

Doyouagreethatafterthefactpunishmentsshouldbepreferredtopriorrestraints?

Shouldpriorrestraintsbesustainedagainstspeechthatthreatensspecificindividuals,suchasastoryheadlined,

WitnessesintheFederalWitnessRelocationPro ramWhereAreTheyNow?

Theinternethasmadealotofinformationavailabletothepublic.Woulditbeappropriateforthegovernmenttoseekapriorrestraintpreventingthefollowingfrombeingpostedtowebsites: Instructionsonhowtocounterfeitmoneyorcommitcreditcardfraud

Instructionsonhowtomakeillegaldrugs

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FreedomofExpression

Restrictions:Defamationofcharacter

DefamationofCharacter

Defamationisanothercategoryofrestrictedspeech

Usedtobepunishedascriminal

Now,civilmatter

Somecriminalstatutesremain

Defamation

FAdoesnotprotectdefamatoryspeech

Whatconstitutesdefamatoryspeech?

Afalsestatement(writtenororal)thatlowersthe

re utation of another erson or sub ects him orhertoridicule,shame,ostracismordisgrace.

Speechoflowvalue

Maysuefordefamation

Compensatorydamages

Maybeawardofpunitivedamages

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Defamation

Longhistoryofprohibitinglibelousexpression.

Twoclassesofdefamation,thatnowareusedasone:

LibelLanguageusedintortlawtorefertononspokenexpressionthatinjuresthereputationofanother

SlanderOraldefamation,speechthatinjuresthereputationofanotherperson.

s ta e amat oncase

Defamatorystatement?

True?

Published?

Identified?

Notanhonestmistake?

Causedharm?

DefamationTest

Sixelements:

whatwasexpressedisfalse

thestatementwasactuallydefamatory;i.e.itput

Thestatementwaspublished

Theplaintiffwasidentified

theplaintiffwasactuallydamagedorharmedby

thestatement

Not

an

honest

mistake.

Defamation

Whenissomethingactuallydefamatory?Context

Naturaleffect

Implication

Whoprovesfalsity?Andhowfalse?Faircommentprivilege

Whenissomethingpublished?

Howissomeoneidentified?

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Damages

Compensatory

Punitive

CaseStudy

NewYorkTimesv.Sullivan (1964) SullivansuedtheNYTforlibel

Someofchargesnottrue

Statementsweredefamatory

DistrictcourtawardedSullivandamages

SupremeCourtoverturnedthejudgement

Addedadditionaltestelement

Actualmalicestatementsmadewithknowledgethattheyarefalseorwithrecklessdisregardforthetruth

Tosaythatpeoplecanbepunishedformakingfalsestatements,eveniftheywerentawareofit,wouldhavetoogreatofachillingeffectonfreepoliticalexpression.

ActualMalice

Falsestatementsaboutpublicfigures

deservedFirstAmendmentprotectioninform

ofactualmalicerule

Example:acommunicatorknewastatementwas

false,oractedwithrecklessdisregardforthe

truth.

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PublicFigures

Whyarepublicfigurestreateddifferentlyintermsof

defamationthanordinarycitizens?

Theychosetoputthemselvesinpubliceye

Higherthresholdofcriticism

Moreopportunitiestorespondtocharges

Societyisbetterservedbyhavingmoreinfoabout

publicservants

Presshastobeabletocriticize.Needsroomfor

honestmistakes.

CaseStudy

AssociatedPressv.Walker(1967) WalkersuedtheAPaftertheyreportedthatWalkerhad

ledaviolentcrowdduringriotsattheUofMississippiafterafederalcourthadorderedtheenrollmentofanAfricanAmerican

Walkerreceivedcompensatoryandpunitivedamages.

SupremeCourtsaidthatalthoughhewasretired,Walkerwasstillapublicfigure.

Fault

Gertzv.RobertWelch,Inc.(1974) Establishedactualmaliceruleonlyappliesto

pu c guresorpu co c a s

Negligence

ReasonableCare

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PublicFigures

Whoisapublicfigure?

Allpurpose Limitedpurpose

s n c o n e weenpu can pr va e gures

MonicaLewinskypublicfigure?

Instancesofindividualswhoareinvolvedin

publicissueswhoarenotlegallyclassifiedas

publicfigures

Protectionsagainstlibelsuits

Publicrecordprivilege

Qualified

Wireservices

Retractions

Statuteoflimitations

Neutralreportage?

Mediastrikeback

AntiSLAPP

Malicious

prosecution

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Internetlibel

Libelsuitsagainst:

Authorsofcontent Distributors

Problemsofdefinitionofterms

Telecommunications Act1996

Libelsuits

Casesalwaysinthenews

MSUformerfootballcoach

JeffGreene

Libeltourism

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Privacy

Privacy

Verycomplicated,growingareaoflegalstudy

Lawschangeassocietychanges

Privacy

In18th and19th centuries,littleattentionpaidtoprivacyinlaw

By1900s,timeshadchanged Why?

CivillawrightofprivacyCriminallawstoprotectprivacy

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Privacy

Fourprivacytorts:CommercialappropriationPublicdisclosureFalselight Intrusion

Appropriation

Usingsomeonesnameorlikenessforcommercialpurposeswithouttheirpermission Forcommercialpurposes NewYorkercover?

Consent

Nestlcase Nameorlikeness

Alsoknownasmisappropriation orinfringementofanindividualsrightofprivacy

Disclosure Disclosure

Concernspublicityaboutembarrassingprivatemattersthatareofnolegitimateconcerntothepublic

and

would

be

highly

offensive

to

a

reasona eperson

Highlyoffensive Trueinformation Newsworthy

Privatefacts CoxBroadcastingCorp.v.Cohn(1975)

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Falselightinvasions Publicrepresentationofsomeoneinafalse

andhighlyoffensiveway Similarto,butnotsameas,defamation

Dama es

Individuals

Forpublicfigures,mustalsoshowactualmalice

Florida

Intrusion

Intentionalinvasionofapersonsphysicalspaceorprivateaffairsinawaythatwouldbepatentlyoffensivetoareasonableperson Pu cversuspr vatep aces Offensive

Newsworthiness

Dietemannv.Time,Inc.(1971)

CompanionTorts Fraud

Intentional

infliction

of

emotional

distress

Trespass

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Defensestoprivacytorts Appropriation:consent Disclosure:newsworthiness Falselight:truth/absenceofactualmalice Intrusion:noexpectationofprivacy

Privacyandcriminalstatutes Somestateshavemadeitcriminaltoengage

incertainmethodsofinformationgathering,

Criminalstatutes Identitybetrayal

Releasingconfidential information

mediafromdisclosingtruthfulinformation,ifonlypurposeistoprotectindividualprivacy

Wiretapping

Crimetointerceptorrecordprivateconversationselectronically

Florida

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Internetandprivacy Email

Spyware

KidsandtheInternet:LivingOnline

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Why is it important?

A popular government without popularinformation or the means of acquiring it, is but aPrologue to a Farce or a Tragedy; or, perhapsboth. Knowledge will forever govern ignorance:And a people who mean to be their ownGovernors, must arm themselves with the powerwhich knowledge gives.

--James Madison,Fourth President of the United States

Access to Information

Not generally a First Amendment issue

Media not uaranteed more access than thegeneral public

Public and media depend on legislation passedto provide access to government informationand places

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Federal Legislation

Freedom of Information Act(FOIA) Applies to federal agencies Any person may request

information

Exemptions: National security Agency personnel rules/practices Exemptions required by federal law Trade secrets

Reno: greater disclosure Ashcroft: new standard for

assessing requests Holder: rescinded Ashcroft

memo; presumption towarddisclosure

Privileged gov. comm. Confidential personnel & medical

files Confidential law enforcement

records Records concerning regulation of

financial institutions Oil well information

Federal Legislation

Federal Sunshine Act

To give access to governmentmeetings

Exemptions similar to those ofthe FOIA

If exempted from the Sunshine Definition of a meeting

Agencies must provideadvance notice of a meeting,and conduct the meetingopenly

Act, a meeting may be closed Transcripts

Obtaining copies of closedsession transcripts

Access to public records held by state

Open records statutes

privacy

Jailhouse phone calls

Issues with police records

Routine incidents/arrests record

Progress of ongoing investigation

Criminal histories

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State Legislation

State Sunshine Laws Apply to agencies funded by

tax dollars Vary state to state

FL Sunshine Act One of the best in terms of

promoting openness Constitutional right of access

Definitions

Exemptions

to meetings in legislativebranch

Open meetings laws

State s Fe de r al

When having a meeting, astate agency must:

Sunshine Act of 1976

Advance public notice

Provide advance publicnotice

Conduct meetings openly

Generally applies to agencies,councils, commissions andboards at local and state levels

Executive sessions

Florida

Con uct meet ngs open y Only applies to executive

branch and to certain agencies Examples of exceptions:

National defense

Internal personnel practices

Trade secrets

Personal

information/invasion ofprivacy

Trespass & Consent

Trespass Intentional, unauthorized

entry upon property

Consent Express

Impliedpossesse y o ers

Entry without consent

Concern for media whenentering private property(i.e. with police)

Criminal trespass

Confiscation

Custom and usage

Does not extend to allactivities

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Access to publicly-owned places

Accident, crime, or natural disaster scenes May limit access

Difference with private property

Jails and prisons

Houchins v. KQED, Inc. (1978)

Selective Access

If no statute governing disclosure for aparticular office of government or type ofinformation, then government has discretion to

But once they voluntarily grant access to certainmembers of the media, then trying to restrictaccess to others can be termed selective access

Selective access is frowned upon, without acompelling government interest

Issues with Selective Access

Allow access to some individuals or entities, butnot others

Fourteenth Amendment

Due Process Clause

Fifth Amendment

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Cases in the News

Carl Paladino

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MMC 4200 - Lectures