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MotivationMotivationMotivationMotivation
Initiation /Initiation /ArousalArousal
Initiation /Initiation /ArousalArousal
Effort / Effort / PersistencePersistence
Effort / Effort / PersistencePersistence
DirectionDirectionDirectionDirection
CATEGORIES OF CATEGORIES OF MOTIVATION THEORIESMOTIVATION THEORIESCATEGORIES OF CATEGORIES OF MOTIVATION THEORIESMOTIVATION THEORIES Content (Need) Theories Content (Need) Theories Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory Process TheoriesProcess Theories
Alderfer’sERG Theory
Maslow’sNeed Hierarchy
Content Theories of Content Theories of MotivationMotivationContent Theories of Content Theories of MotivationMotivation
Self-Actualization
EsteemEsteem
BelongingnessBelongingness
SafetySafety
PhysiologicalPhysiological
Growth
RelatednessRelatedness
ExistenceExistence
Herzberg’sTheory
Motivators
HygieneHygieneFactorsFactors
Need forAchievement
Need forNeed forPowerPower
Need forNeed forAffiliationAffiliation
McClelland’sLearned Needs
Extrinsic and Intrinsic RewardsExtrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards Extrinsic and Intrinsic RewardsExtrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards Extrinsic RewardsExtrinsic Rewards
Tangible and visible to othersTangible and visible to others Have limitationsHave limitations
Intrinsic RewardsIntrinsic Rewards Natural rewards from performing Natural rewards from performing
the taskthe task
Self Self ActualizatioActualizatio
nnNeedsNeeds
Esteem Esteem NeedsNeeds
Belongingness NeedsBelongingness Needs
Safety NeedsSafety Needs
Physiological Physiological NeedsNeeds
Maslow’s Needs Maslow’s Needs HierarchyHierarchy
Challenging projects, opportunitiesChallenging projects, opportunitiesfor innovation and creativity, trainingfor innovation and creativity, training
Important projects, recognition,Important projects, recognition,prestigious office locationprestigious office location
Good coworkers, peers, superiors,Good coworkers, peers, superiors,customerscustomers
Job security; benefits, like life insurance;Job security; benefits, like life insurance;safety regulationssafety regulations
Basic pay, work space, heat, water,Basic pay, work space, heat, water,company cafeteriacompany cafeteria
Potential Means of Potential Means of Fulfillment at workFulfillment at work
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY MASLOW’S HIERARCHY Country DifferencesCountry DifferencesMASLOW’S HIERARCHY MASLOW’S HIERARCHY Country DifferencesCountry Differences Self-ActualizationSelf-Actualization
Highest in U.S., Hong Kong, IndiaHighest in U.S., Hong Kong, India SecuritySecurity
Highest in Germany, Mexico, JapanHighest in Germany, Mexico, Japan SocialSocial
Highest in Sweden, SingaporeHighest in Sweden, Singapore Security and SocialSecurity and Social
Tied for highest in France, ChileTied for highest in France, Chile
GROWTHGROWTHNEEDSNEEDS
RELATEDNESSRELATEDNESSNEEDSNEEDS
EXISTENCEEXISTENCENEEDSNEEDS
Satisfaction-Satisfaction-ProgressionProgressionPrinciplePrinciple
ALDERFER’S ERG THEORYALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
Frustration-Frustration-RegressionRegressionPrinciplePrinciple
HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORYHERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY
Resolve DissatisfactionResolve Dissatisfaction Promote SatisfactionPromote Satisfaction
Hygiene FactorsHygiene Factors MotivatorsMotivators
PayPayWorking ConditionsWorking Conditions
SupervisorsSupervisorsCompany PoliciesCompany Policies
BenefitsBenefits
AchievementAchievementResponsibilityResponsibility
Work itselfWork itselfRecognitionRecognition
Growth & AchievementGrowth & Achievement
NeutralNeutral(neither dissatisfied nor satisfied)(neither dissatisfied nor satisfied)
Herzberg’s FindingsHerzberg’s FindingsHerzberg’s FindingsHerzberg’s Findings010 1020 20 30304050 40 50
AchievementAchievement
RecognitionRecognitionWork itselfWork itself
ResponsibilityResponsibilityAdvancementAdvancementGrowthGrowth
Motivators
Hygiene Factors
Company Policy & AdministrationCompany Policy & Administration
SupervisionSupervisionRelationship with supervisorRelationship with supervisor
Work conditionsWork conditionsPayPay
Why Workers QuitWhy Workers QuitWhy Workers QuitWhy Workers Quit
Limited Advancement Potential - 41%Limited Advancement Potential - 41% Lack of Recognition - 25%Lack of Recognition - 25% Low Salary / Benefits - 15%Low Salary / Benefits - 15%
(USA Today - 12-16-98)(USA Today - 12-16-98)
McCLELLAND’S McCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDS - ACQUIRED NEEDS - Successful Top Executives:Successful Top Executives:
McCLELLAND’S McCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDS - ACQUIRED NEEDS - Successful Top Executives:Successful Top Executives:
NEED LEVEL NEED LEVEL
Achievement ModerateAchievement Moderate
Affiliation LowAffiliation Low
Power HighPower High
McCLELLAND’S McCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDSACQUIRED NEEDSMcCLELLAND’S McCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDSACQUIRED NEEDS HighHigh AchieversAchievers Prefer: Prefer:
Personal ResponsibilityPersonal Responsibility High FeedbackHigh Feedback Moderate RisksModerate Risks
Those Those HighHigh in in PowerPower Motive: Motive: Take High RisksTake High Risks
MAJOR ELEMENTS OF MAJOR ELEMENTS OF REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT THEORYTHEORY
MAJOR ELEMENTS OF MAJOR ELEMENTS OF REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT THEORYTHEORY StimulusStimulus
Supervisor requests faster workSupervisor requests faster work ResponseResponse
Employee increases or decreases speed or Employee increases or decreases speed or does nothingdoes nothing
ConsequenceConsequence Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinf. Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinf.
(Avoidance), Extinction, Punishment(Avoidance), Extinction, Punishment
BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCESBEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES
To Motivate To Motivate Employees to Employees to
ContinueContinue Desired Desired BehaviorsBehaviors
To Motivate To Motivate Employees to Employees to CeaseCease
Undesirable Undesirable BehaviorsBehaviors
Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement (Good outcome if you (Good outcome if you
continue)continue)
Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement (Bad outcome if you don’t (Bad outcome if you don’t
continue)continue)
ExtinctionExtinction (No outcome whether you (No outcome whether you
continue or not)continue or not)
Punishment Punishment (Bad outcome if you don’t (Bad outcome if you don’t
stop) stop)
PositivePositiveReinforcementReinforcement
NegativeNegativeReinforcementReinforcement
PunishmentPunishmentEncouragesEncouragesImmaturityImmaturity
Effect onEffect onMaturity/Maturity/DevelopmentDevelopment
IncreasesIncreasesBehaviorBehavior
Effect on BehaviorEffect on Behavior
CONSEQUENCES OF BEHAVIORCONSEQUENCES OF BEHAVIOR
ExtinctionExtinctionEncourages Encourages
MaturityMaturity
Decreases Decreases BehaviorBehavior
APPLICATIONS OF APPLICATIONS OF REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT THEORYTHEORY
APPLICATIONS OF APPLICATIONS OF REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT THEORYTHEORY
Pay for Performance (Merit Pay)Pay for Performance (Merit Pay) Gain SharingGain Sharing Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs) Pay for Knowledge Pay for Knowledge Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Organizational Behavior Modification (OB
MOD)MOD)
STEPS IN OB MODSTEPS IN OB MODSTEPS IN OB MODSTEPS IN OB MOD Before Intervention:Before Intervention:
Measure Base RateMeasure Base Rate Identify Stimuli and ConsequencesIdentify Stimuli and Consequences
Intervention:Intervention: Set New GoalSet New Goal Modify Stimuli and/or ConsequencesModify Stimuli and/or Consequences Reward Progress toward GoalReward Progress toward Goal Extinguish or Punish Competing BehaviorsExtinguish or Punish Competing Behaviors
Some Rewards Lower-Level Some Rewards Lower-Level Managers May ControlManagers May ControlSome Rewards Lower-Level Some Rewards Lower-Level Managers May ControlManagers May Control Recognition, such as letters of Recognition, such as letters of
appreciationappreciation Invitations to coffee or lunchInvitations to coffee or lunch Recommendations for pay increases Recommendations for pay increases
or promotionsor promotions Time offTime off Desirable work assignmentsDesirable work assignments
How to Effectively Shape How to Effectively Shape Behavior with ReinforcementBehavior with ReinforcementHow to Effectively Shape How to Effectively Shape Behavior with ReinforcementBehavior with Reinforcement
Define desired behavior patterns Define desired behavior patterns specifically.specifically.
Measure performance accurately.Measure performance accurately. Reinforce behavior as quickly as possible.Reinforce behavior as quickly as possible. Use valued reinforcement.Use valued reinforcement. Give individual rewards for inGive individual rewards for independent jobs.dependent jobs. Give tGive team rewards for eam rewards for interinterdependent jobs.dependent jobs. Beware of unintended consequences (rewarding Beware of unintended consequences (rewarding
the wrong thing).the wrong thing).
PROCESS THEORIESPROCESS THEORIESPROCESS THEORIESPROCESS THEORIES
Goal-Setting TheoryGoal-Setting Theory Equity TheoryEquity Theory Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
GOAL-SETTING THEORYGOAL-SETTING THEORYGOAL-SETTING THEORYGOAL-SETTING THEORY Assumes goals are motivatingAssumes goals are motivating
Criteria for Effective GoalsCriteria for Effective Goals SSpecificpecific MMeasurableeasurable AAttainable, but challengingttainable, but challenging RRelevantelevant TTime-basedime-based RRewards (for achievement)ewards (for achievement)
Motivating with Goal-Setting Motivating with Goal-Setting TheoryTheoryMotivating with Goal-Setting Motivating with Goal-Setting TheoryTheory
Make sure workers truly accept Make sure workers truly accept organizational goalsorganizational goals
Provide frequent, specific performance-Provide frequent, specific performance-related feedbackrelated feedback
Applying Goal-Setting TheoryApplying Goal-Setting TheoryApplying Goal-Setting TheoryApplying Goal-Setting Theory
Management by Objectives (MBO)Management by Objectives (MBO)
Setting goalsSetting goals
Developing action plansDeveloping action plans
Reviewing progressReviewing progress
Appraising overall performanceAppraising overall performance
Benefits of MBOBenefits of MBO
ClarityClarity (people know what to do) (people know what to do) Commitment Commitment (are motivated to do it)(are motivated to do it) CoordinationCoordination (people work toward (people work toward
same things)same things) Fairness Fairness (objective evaluations) (objective evaluations)
Limitations of MBOLimitations of MBO Difficulty choosing relevant, Difficulty choosing relevant,
measurable goalsmeasurable goals Rigidity (sometimes need to change Rigidity (sometimes need to change
goals)goals) People skills required People skills required Time requiredTime required PaperworkPaperwork Frequently “sold” as a cure-allFrequently “sold” as a cure-all
EXPECTANCY THEORYEXPECTANCY THEORYEXPECTANCY THEORYEXPECTANCY THEORY
AnalyzesAnalyzes the parts of the the parts of the Motivation Motivation ProcessProcess that the Leader must attend that the Leader must attend to (cf., Path-Goal Theory of to (cf., Path-Goal Theory of Leadership)Leadership)
Has the greatest Has the greatest BreadthBreadth of popular of popular motivation theoriesmotivation theories
EXPECTANCY THEORY
E P (Expectancy)
What is the probability that I can perform at the
required level if I try?
P O (Intrumentality)
What is the probability that my good performance
will lead to desiredoutcomes?
Valence
What value do I placeon the potential
outcome?
Effort Performance Outcomes
MULTIPLICATIVE MULTIPLICATIVE RELATIONSHIPRELATIONSHIPMULTIPLICATIVE MULTIPLICATIVE RELATIONSHIPRELATIONSHIPIf anyIf any of the three (Expectancy, of the three (Expectancy,
Instrumentality, or Valence) equal Instrumentality, or Valence) equal ZeroZero, then there is , then there is No MotivationNo Motivation..
Applying Expectancy TheoryApplying Expectancy Theory Applying Expectancy TheoryApplying Expectancy Theory
Increase Increase ExpectancyExpectancy:: Enhance employees’ skillsEnhance employees’ skills Build up employees’ confidenceBuild up employees’ confidence
Increase Increase InstrumentalityInstrumentality Clearly link rewards to performanceClearly link rewards to performance
Increase Increase ValencesValences Find out what employees want from their Find out what employees want from their
jobsjobs
EQUITY THEORYEQUITY THEORYEQUITY THEORYEQUITY THEORY
Unique in viewing motivation as Unique in viewing motivation as affected by affected by ComparisonsComparisons to other to other people.people.
We expect the We expect the RatioRatio of our of our Outcome Outcome to Inputto Input to be equivalent to that of to be equivalent to that of others.others.
We are We are MotivatedMotivated to correct inequity. to correct inequity.
Equity Theory ConceptsEquity Theory ConceptsEquity Theory ConceptsEquity Theory Concepts InputsInputs
employee contributions to the organizationemployee contributions to the organization
OutcomesOutcomes
rewards employees receive from the organizationrewards employees receive from the organization
ReferentsReferents
comparison otherscomparison others
Outcome/input (O/I) ratioOutcome/input (O/I) ratio
Outcomesself
Inputsself
Outcomesother
Inputsother
=
Consequences Of InequityConsequences Of Inequity
PerceivedPerceivedInequityInequity DissatisfactionDissatisfaction
Under-rewardUnder-reward
Motivation Motivation to Changeto Change
TensionTensionAngerAnger
Over-rewardOver-reward
TensionTensionGuiltGuiltMotivation Motivation to Changeto Change
How People React to Perceived How People React to Perceived InequityInequityHow People React to Perceived How People React to Perceived InequityInequity
Reduce inputsReduce inputs Increase outcomesIncrease outcomes Rationalize inputs or outcomesRationalize inputs or outcomes Change the referent personChange the referent person LeaveLeave
Applying Equity TheoryApplying Equity TheoryApplying Equity TheoryApplying Equity Theory Look for and correct major inequitiesLook for and correct major inequities
Change outcomes given Change outcomes given Have employees change inputHave employees change input
Make sure processes are fair:Make sure processes are fair: Distributive JusticeDistributive Justice
The perceived fairness of how resources and The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributedrewards are distributed. (Do people get what they . (Do people get what they deserve?)deserve?)
Procedural JusticeProcedural Justice The perceived fairness of the process and The perceived fairness of the process and
procedures used to make allocation decisionsprocedures used to make allocation decisions. (Are . (Are the rules fair? Are they followed? Are decisions the rules fair? Are they followed? Are decisions unbiased? Are they made without errors?)unbiased? Are they made without errors?)
Possible Sources of Dissatisfaction with Assembly Line Jobs in an
Auto Plant
Repetitiveness
Involvement with only a
Portion of the Total Production
Cycle
Limited Social Interaction with
Others in the Workplace
Lack of Control over the Job
Physical Discomfort
Approaches to Job DesignApproaches to Job DesignApproaches to Job DesignApproaches to Job Design BiologicalBiological
Make work safe, comfortableMake work safe, comfortable Perceptual/MotorPerceptual/Motor
Design equipment, layout, etc. to fit humansDesign equipment, layout, etc. to fit humans MechanisticMechanistic
Job SimplificationJob Simplification MotivationalMotivational
Make work more satisfying (Intrinsic motiv.)Make work more satisfying (Intrinsic motiv.) Rotation, Enlargement Rotation, Enlargement Enrichment - incorporates high-level motivators Enrichment - incorporates high-level motivators
into work.into work.
WorkWorkmotivationmotivation
GrowthGrowthsatisfactionsatisfaction
GeneralGeneralsatisfactionsatisfaction
WorkWorkeffectivenesseffectiveness
Job Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics Model
FeedbackFeedbackfrom jobfrom job
KnowledgeKnowledgeof resultsof results
Skill varietySkill variety
Task identityTask identity
Task significanceTask significanceMeaningfulnessMeaningfulness
AutonomyAutonomy ResponsibilityResponsibility
IndividualIndividualdifferencesdifferences
CriticalCriticalPsychologicalPsychological
StatesStatesCore JobCore Job
CharacteristicsCharacteristics OutcomesOutcomes
Job Enrichment TechniquesJob Enrichment TechniquesJob Enrichment TechniquesJob Enrichment Techniques Increase Job DemandsIncrease Job Demands Provide New Learning ExperiencesProvide New Learning Experiences Assign Responsibility for Clients or Assign Responsibility for Clients or
Customers rather than specialized tasksCustomers rather than specialized tasks Provide Work Scheduling FreedomProvide Work Scheduling Freedom Provide Feedback, including opportunity Provide Feedback, including opportunity
to check one’s own workto check one’s own work
Implementing Job EnrichmentImplementing Job EnrichmentImplementing Job EnrichmentImplementing Job Enrichment Training is typically neededTraining is typically needed Short-term performance declines are Short-term performance declines are
normalnormal
Dangers in Job EnrichmentDangers in Job Enrichment Some people have low “Growth Need Some people have low “Growth Need
Strength”Strength” Employees may expect higher payEmployees may expect higher pay
Comparing Techniques is DifficultComparing Techniques is DifficultComparing Techniques is DifficultComparing Techniques is Difficult
MBO, Job Design, OB Mod all can MBO, Job Design, OB Mod all can increase:increase: Clarity of GoalsClarity of Goals FeedbackFeedback RewardsRewards
MAJOR IMPLICATIONS OF MAJOR IMPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION THEORIESMOTIVATION THEORIESMAJOR IMPLICATIONS OF MAJOR IMPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION THEORIESMOTIVATION THEORIES Set Challenging, but Attainable Goals Set Challenging, but Attainable Goals Train and Encourage PeopleTrain and Encourage People Provide Valued Provide Valued ExtrinsicExtrinsic and and Intrinsic Intrinsic
RewardsRewards Recognize Individual DifferencesRecognize Individual Differences Watch for Changes in an Individual’s Watch for Changes in an Individual’s
MotivesMotives Use Mainly Positive ReinforcementUse Mainly Positive Reinforcement Distribute Rewards Equitably.Distribute Rewards Equitably.