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AFGHANISTAN

ARGENTINA

AUSTRALIA

AUSTRIA

BAHRAIN

BERMUDA

BOLIVIA

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

BRAZIL

CANADA

CHILE

CHINA

COSTA RICA

CROATIA

CUBA

EGYPT

ENGLAND

ETHIOPIA

FRANCE

REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

GERMANY

GHANA

GREECE

GUATEMALA

ICELAND

INDIA

INDONESIA

IRAN

IRAQ

IRELAND

ISRAEL

ITALY

JAMAICA

JAPAN

KAZAKHSTAN

KENYA

KUWAIT

MEXICO

THE NETHERLANDS

NEW ZEALAND

NIGERIA

NORTH KOREA

NORWAY

PAKISTAN

PERU

THE PHILIPPINES

PUERTO RICO

RUSSIA

SAUDI ARABIA

SCOTLAND

SENEGAL

SOUTH AFRICA

SOUTH KOREA

SPAIN

SWEDEN

TAIWAN

TURKEY

UKRAINE

UZBEKISTAN

VENEZUELA

VIETNAM

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Greece

Zoran Pavlovic

Series Consulting Editor

Charles F. GritznerSouth Dakota State University

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Frontispiece: Flag of Greece

Cover: Greek houses and windmill, Santorini Island, Cyclades, Greece.

Greece

Copyright 2006 by Infobase Publishing

All ri ghts re s erved . No part of this book may be reprodu ced or uti l i zed in any formor by any means, el ectronic or mech a n i c a l , i n cluding ph o tocopyi n g, record i n g, or bya ny inform a ti on stora ge or retri eval sys tem s , wi t h o ut perm i s s i on in wri ting fromthe publ i s h er. For inform a ti on con t act :

Ch elsea Ho u s eAn imprint of In fobase Pu bl i s h i n g132 West 31st StreetNew York NY 10001

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Pavlovic, Zoran.Greece / Zoran Pavlovic.

p. cm. (Modern world nations)

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-7910-8797-2 (hard cover)

1. GreeceGeographyJuvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series.DF720.P38 2005914.95dc22 2005031779

Ch elsea House books are ava i l a ble at special discounts wh en purch a s ed in bu l kqu a n ti ties for bu s i n e s s e s , a s s oc i a ti on s , i n s ti tuti on s , or sales prom o ti on s . Please callour Special Sales Dep a rtm ent in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755.

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Text and cover de s i gn by Ta keshi Ta k a h a s h i

Printed in the United States of America

Bang 21C 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

All links, web ad d re s s e s , and In tern et search terms were ch ecked and veri f i ed to be

correct at the time of p u bl i c a ti on . Because of the dynamic natu re of the web, s om ead d resses and links may have ch a n ged since publ i c a ti on and may no lon ger be va l i d .

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Table of Contents

Introducing Greece 8

Physical Landscapes 14

Greece Through Time 28

People and Culture 41Government and Politics 56

Greeces Economy 66

Regions of Greece 76

Greece Looks Ahead 89

Facts at a Glance 94History at a Glance 96

Bibliography and Further Reading 98

Index 99

1

2

3

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6

7

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Greece

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Atop the hill overlooking Athens, Greeces capital city, lies the

Acropolis. This famous cultural relic is more than simply one

of the countrys best known archaeological monuments. It

also serves as a majestic reminder of an era when Greek civilization

dom i n a ted the known worl d . The influ en ce of the ancient Gree k

culture reached from the Straight of Gibraltar to as far east as the

Himalaya Mountains. Zeus and other gods from Greek mythology

were well known throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia. Both warriors

and merch a n t s , with sword and go l d , were spre ading Greek knowl ed ge ,

inventions, and philosophy. For their accomplishments in learning

and the spread of their knowledge, the ancient Greeks were known

by other cultures as the people of the book.

Roots of m a ny modern scien tific disciplines, i n cluding geogra phy,

are found in ancient Greek civilization. Before what we recognizetod ay as geogra phy ex i s ted , Greeks were actively practicing the scien ce .

Introducing

Greece

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(It was not until 200 B.C. that the Greek scholar Eratosthenes

first used the word geography, meaning writing about the

earth.) These early people, tucked away in a distant corner of

Europe, had long studied changes taking place on the earths

surface. They analyzed differences and similarities betweenpl aces and won dered why certain things were happening in

9Introducing Greece

Athens, pictured here from atop Lycabettus Hill, east of the city, is the

capital of Greece and regarded by many as the birthplace of We s t e r n

Civilization. The Acropolis, the center of ancient Athenss chief religious

and municipal buildings, can be seen in the center of the photo.

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certain locations. In essence, they were interested in the impor-

tance of location and spatial patternsthe foundations of

modern geographic thought. Fortunately for us, much of their

early thoughts were pre s erved in manu s c ri pts for thousandsof ye a rs . In recent cen tu ri e s , this inform a ti on served as the

fou n d a ti on from wh i ch modern geogra phy and most other

sciences grew.

Tod ay, we re s pect the works of Greek sch o l a rs su ch as

Herodotus and Eratosthenes for their observations about the

land and people. The same can be said for Greek observations

on ph i l o s ophy, phys i c s , m a t h em a ti c s , and many other disciplines.

One must not for get con tri buti ons from Plato and Ari s to t l e ,

Arch i m ede s , Pyt h a gora s , and many others . These names are

recognized in classrooms around the world. Most scholars give

generous credit to the Greeks for their role in building the

springboard that launched Western Civilization.

Greece then and now is not the same, h owever. Con tem-

pora ry Greece is far from the worl d s leading civi l i z a ti on . It

holds a place as a small nati on - s t a te in sout h e a s tern Eu rope ,created through many years of cultural struggle. The gods of

Mount Olympus are long gon e . To most modern Gree k s , s occer

stars are much more important than the stars studied by the

ancient cosmographers (who studied the cosmos, or universe).

Winning Eu ropean ch a m p i onships in soccer and basketb a ll

t a ke preceden ce now ad ays . The Greek world and cultu re are

va s t ly ch a n ged from what they on ce were .

THEN AND NOW

Times and the Greek culture (way of life) have changed.

What has not changed is the beauty of the Aegean Peninsula

and surrounding islands; the area of the world that we now call

the country of Greece. Mountains rising abruptly out of the

sea, crystal clear waters of the Mediterranean, and hundreds of

islands are postcard images of Greece. Quite often, however,pos tc a rd ph o togra phs are not acc u ra te dep i cti on s . Th eir pri m a ry

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purpose is to portray idyllic pictures of foreign places. They

show what the place should be like in our dreams, rather than

what the place is like in reality.

In the case of Greece, postcards do not need Photoshopenhancement. Towering Mo u n t Olympus, seawater the color of

the most precious sapphires, the greenness of delicious olives,

and the redness of wine are a Greek re a l i ty. Add to the natu ra l

sp l en dor the hu n d reds of a rch i tectu ral and arch aeo l ogi c a l

treasures the country offers and Greece is a place that everyone

should visit at least once in their lifetime!

Most Gree k s , of co u rs e , a re ex trem ely proud of t h eir co u n try;

to them, it is much more than a tourist destination. They are

proud that after many centuries of foreign domination, Greece

is now an independent country. In this part of the world, peace

is a relative term. Historically, war has broken out on many

occasions in the region. Boundaries have changed many times,

and there have been wide-scale human migrations resulting

from political conflict. Greeks have suffered their share of hard-

ships. Because of these historical circumstances, many Greekshave left their homeland. Today, people of Greek descent live in

places throughout the world and number in the millions.

S h a rp cultu ral con trasts are another factor that make s

Greece su ch a won derful co u n try to stu dy geogra ph i c a lly.

There is the ongoing transformation from a sleepy traditional

rural and village agricultural way of life into a rapidly growing

urban culture and modern lifestyle. The culture change occur-

ring in countries such as Greece is, perhaps, what leads to the

cre a ti on of a modern world nati on . Trad i ti on - bound fo l k

c u l tu re is being rep l aced by a new type of popular cultu ra l

lifestyle marked by change. The rapid transformation of society

f rom ru ral into urban of ten marks uneven progre s s . L a ter in

this boo k , we wi ll ex p l ore some of the major difficulties for

Greece: the large gaps in economic growth among its different

regi on s . These differen ces con tri bute sign i f i c a n t ly to otheraspects of Greek lifestyle.

11Introducing Greece

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Greeks share their love of l i fe and of fer open hospitality.

No matter what part of the country a person visits, he or she

can always count on a warm greeting from local people. This is

one of those traditional traits that hopefully will not disappearwith expanding urban popular cultu re . Cel ebra ti on of l i fe

the need for good food, friendship, and strong family tiesare

traits deeply entrenched in Greek culture.

This book is not inten ded to be a det a i l ed , s t a ti s ti c a l ,

encyclopedic survey of Greece. Rather, it focuses on the main

aspects of Greek culturethose things that make the country

and its people unique. In order to fully understand Greek (or

any other) culture, one must first understand its background.

The following chapter is devoted to the physical geography

of the Aegean Peninsula and surrounding islands. The natural

environment sets the stage on which cultural activities take

place. Nature provides opportunities but can create obstacles. It

is up to people, based on their culture, to adapt to, use, and

modify the lands in which they live.

We wi ll then move on to a bri ef su rvey of the co u n try shistorical geogra phy. A prom i n ent geogra ph er, E rh a rd Ro s t lu n d ,

once noted that the present is the fruit of the past and contains

the seeds of the futu re . In essen ce , wi t h o ut looking to the past,

it is difficult if not impo s s i ble to understand the pre s ent or

ga ze into the futu re . Cu rrent cultu ral geogra phy is the re sult of

h i s torical devel opm en t . Ch a pter 4 portrays Greek cultu re as it

is tod ay.

E con omics and po l i tics are two el em ents of c u l tu re that

w arrant our atten ti on . S tu dy of these disciplines is essen ti a l

to the well - being of both humans and the co u n tries in

wh i ch they re s i de . Th ey also prov i de a pictu re of d ay - to - d ay

l i fe of a co u n try s peop l e . Because of t h eir import a n ce , a

ch apter is devo ted both to econ omic and to po l i tical geogra phy.

F i n a lly, before con cluding and proj ecting the futu re geogra-

phy of Greece , you wi ll be taken on a tour of the co u n try sd iverse regi on s .

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You are now beginning a process of filling in your mental

map of Greece, by learning about the countrys geog raphic

conditions and patterns. Individuals who possess a detailed

mental map of a region can much easier imagine what placesare like. Albert Einstein once noted that Imagination is more

important than knowledge. Imagination, after all, does not

adh ere to any bo u n d a ri e s . Are you re ady to begin your imagi n a ry

journey of discovery to the fabled land of Greece?

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Geography can be defined as the science involved in the study

of What is where, why there, and why care? Whatever one

studieswhether it is the physical or human features of the

e a rt hs su rf aceit becomes geogra phical the mom ent a spati a l

m et h odo l ogy (loc a ti on) is used to explain certain ph en om en a .

G eographers try to understand how places and the various features

that make them unique are similar to or different from one another.

They want to know why differen ces exist from place to place . The loc a-

tion of a place often provides clues to its unique physical and cultural

development. These are the foundations of geographic study.

Cu l tu re is the way that humans ad a pt . That is, by using knowl ed ge ,

tools, and skills, they are able to develop a way of life best suited to a

pa rticular loc a ti on and envi ron m en t . Kn owing wh ere people live

can often tell us a great deal about their culture. For example, fertiles oils acc u mu l a te in the immed i a te vi c i n i ty of certain vo l c a n oe s .

Physical

Landscapes

2

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If a gri c u l tu re is important to a cultu re , it wi ll take adva n t a ge

of this natu ral con d i ti on , and farming wi ll be a major eco-

n omic activi ty. With produ ctive farming on the ri ch soi l s ,

the area also wi ll ex peri en ce a high er pop u l a ti on den s i tythan other, less ferti l e , a re a s . Almost all early civi l i z a ti on s

devel oped in areas that were well su i ted to agri c u l tu re , su ch

as river va ll eys .

Greece is located on the southern tip of the Balkan Penin-

sula. In practical terms, the region is not really a peninsula.

Rather, Balkan more correctly refers to the cultural region

located in southeastern Europe southward from the Sava and

Danube rivers. It includes countries of the former Yugoslavia

( Sl oven i a , Croa ti a , Bosnia and Her zegovi n a , Serbia and

Montenegro, and Macedonia), Bulgaria, Albania, and Greece.

Some scholars include Romania and European Turkey in this

group, as well.

Greek tri bes moved into sout h e a s tern Eu rope as early as

2,000 B.C. Th ere , t h ey devel oped a thriving civi l i z a ti on in on e

of the most attractive corn ers of the Med i terra n e a n . It was ana rea with a very pleasant cl i m a te , va ri ed terrain con s i s ting of

mountains and fertile va ll eys , and seas with hu n d reds of

islands scattered around the mainland. From this loc a ti on at

the sout h ern tip of the Balkans and sandwi ch ed bet ween the

Ionian and Aegean seas, the Greeks ex p a n ded to settle mu ch of

the rest of the Med i terranean re a l m . Greece , i t s el f , rem a i n ed

the Med i terranean cultu ral cen ter for many cen tu ri e s . Bec a u s e

almost three - fo u rths of Greece is mountainous, the co u n try

has alw ays loo ked out w a rd . O f ten , this led to em i gra ti on

( m i gra ti on out of a co u n try ) . It also hel ped tu rn the Gree k s

tow a rd the sea.

Eventually, the center of cultural dominance and political

power shifted from the eastern Mediterranean to northwestern

Europe. Today, culturally, Greece remains somewhat outside

mainstream European centers. The importance of location haschanged, as has the spatial distribution of power.

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16 G r e e c e

Greece is located on the southern end of the Balkan Peninsula, in south-

eastern Europe. In addition to Greece, the nations of S lovenia, Croatia,

Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, Bulgaria,

A l b a n i a , and sometimes Romania and European Turkey are recogn izedas part of this peninsula.

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It was not until the twentieth century that Greece finally

assumed its current geographic area and shape. In addition to

the countrys territory on the European mainland, there are

numerous islands in the surrounding seas, including most ofthe islands in the Aegean Sea. Greece occupies an area of 51,146

square miles (131,468 square kilometers), making it about the

size of Alabama or Louisiana. By European standards, it is a

midsized country, but in global terms, it occupies a small area.

Most of Greece lies roughly between 35 and 42 degrees north

latitude. Athens is located at approximately the same latitude as

San Francisco, St. Louis, or Washington, D.C.

THE LAND

As noted earl i er, the topogra phy of Greece is pri m a ri ly made

up of h i lls and mountainsboth on the mainland and islands

the highest of wh i ch are loc a ted in the nort h ern and we s tern

p a rt of the co u n try. Lowlands of a ny size are found on ly in the

n ort h e a s t , bordering Tu rkey and Bu l ga ri a . Ru gged terrain is the

d i rect re sult of geo l ogical events spanning mill i ons of ye a rs .A look at a map of Eu rope reveals the gen eral east-we s t

and northwest-southeast direction of mountain ranges. The

form a ti on of s o ut h e a s tern Eu ropes mountains began abo ut

60 m i ll i on ye a rs ago, and the process con ti nues tod ay. Mo u n t a i n

building begins when the movement of tectonic plates causes

them to collide. During this process, one tectonic plate slides

beneath another, forcing it upward and creating mountains.

This violent process often generates earthquakes and can also

cre a te vo l c a n oe s . These processes can be seen cl o s er to hom e,

in California.

Land conditions in Greece are the result of a collision

between Europe and Africathat is, the process in which the

African tectonic plate is slowly pushing into the European

plate. Although the clash of plates is less violent than in some

other parts of the world, active volcanoes scattered throughoutthe Mediterranean serve as a reminder that it is still very much

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18 G r e e c e

With the exception of the northeastern portion of Greece, which is p r e d o m i n a n t l y

l owlands, the topography of the country consists primarily of mountains and

hills. Greece is surrounded on three sides by water and includes approximately2,000 islands in the Aegean, Ionian, and M e d i t e r ranean seas.

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a l ive . On the Greek mainland, the on ly volcanic activi ty is

found on the Pel opon n e sus Pen i n su l a . The Greek islands,

however, are home to some of the worlds best known volca-

noe s . Loc a ti on again proves to be import a n t . The vo l c a n oe sare loc a ted in an area known as the Aegean Volcanic Arc of

the eastern Mediterranean. It follows the subduction zone, or

deep sea tren ch , form ed wh ere the Af rican and Eu rope a n

p l a te s collide. This zone, just off the Greek coast, is also the

deepest point in the Mediterranean Sea, with a depth of almost

15,000 feet (4,572 meters).

One of the volcanic islands, Sa n torini (also histori c a lly

k n own as Th era ) , bel on gs to a famous group of vo l c a n oe s . It

is still active and represents a potential danger to people living

nearby. Its fame, though, dates to around 1,650 B.C., when a

violent eruption and resulting tsunami (tidal wave) devastated

early cultures in the eastern Mediterranean. The eruption was

so strong that many hundreds of miles away, in Asia and Africa,

people felt its effects and recorded the event in their historical

annals. Many scholars even believe the story of the mythicalisland of At l a n ti s , to wh i ch the ph i l o s oph er Plato famously

referred in his wri ti n gs , was in fact a de s c ri pti on of the Sa n tori n i

eru pti on . P l a to noted that a well - devel oped civi l i z a ti on ex i s ted

on the island of At l a n ti s , but disappe a red wh en the island

va n i s h edbeneath the sea because of violent natural forces. Even

if not true , the legend of At l a n tis is a fascinating story that has

p u z z l ed gen era ti ons of s ch o l a rs and laypeople alike .

About 2,000 islands scattered about the Aegean, Ionian,

and Mediterranean seas belong to Greece. They vary in size

from little more than small rocks protruding from the water to

Greeces largest island, Crete. Islands generally are rugged and

qu i te dry, wi t h o ut major stre a m s . Most of t h eir set t l em en t s

are oriented toward the sea. The Greek coastline measures

almost 8,500 miles (13,676 kilometers) in length, which for

such a small country is impressive. One might imagine that atone point, Greece, like Norway, had many alpine-type gl ac i ers

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sliding into the sea and sculpting spectacular valleys. That was

not the case, however. During the Ice Age, Greece was too far

south to have major glaciers. Rather, its rugged coast was the

result of tectonics (earth-building forces). The PeloponnesusPeninsula, which accounts for a large portion of the mainland,

s erves as a good example of h ow these forces shaped the

country. The peninsula is connected to the mainland by a thin

sliver of land that today is severed by the Corinth Canal (which

technically makes Peloponnesus an island).

Greek topogra phy is dom i n a ted by mountains sep a ra ted

by short valleys. In some places, mountains rise spectacularly

s tra i ght out of the sea. E l s ewh ere , n a tu ral forces cre a ted

s m a ll plains or va ll eys , e s pec i a lly in areas near the coa s t .

Coastal plains were utilized from the beginning of the human

occupation of Greece. Through time, a number of large settle-

ments, including the capital and the largest city, Athens, were

established on flat, low-lying, coastal lands. Inland, the Pindus

Mountains are the countrys most significant mountain range.

As a southern extension of the Dinaric Alps, the Pindus spreadfrom Macedonia through the center of Greece, all the way to its

s o ut h ern margi n . Famous Mount Olym p u s , with all its mys ti c a l

spirits, is the countrys highest point, reaching an elevation of

9,570 feet (2,917 meters).

CLIMATE

Cl i m a te is a lon g - term avera ge of we a t h er con d i ti on s ,

whereas weather is the current atmospheric condition we talk

about on a daily basis. Except for higher elevations, the climate

in Greece is pr edominantly Mediterranean. This mild and

pleasant cl i m a te takes its name from the con d i ti ons that

surround much of the European Mediterranean Basin. Major

characteristics of this climate type are long, warm summers

and mild winters. This climate, regarded by many people to be

the worl d s most pleasant, also occ u rs in sout h ern coa s t a lCalifornia. Most precipitation falls during the winter months,

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December to February, and is generally in the form of light and

continuous rain, rather than snow. Snowfall does occur at

higher elevations in the interior, however. Temperatures during

these mild wi n ters ra rely fall bel ow free z i n g, and avera ges are

in the upper 40s and lower 50s (degrees Fahrenheit, or 10C).

Summer temperatures are considerably warmer. Daily highs

often average in the 80s (mid-to-upper 20sC) and occasionally

will reach into the upper 90s (mid-30sC).

On very ra re occ a s i on s , tem pera tu res climb to and above

a s corching 100F (38C). Du ring recent ye a rs , Eu rope hasex peri en ced unu su a lly severe heat wave s . In some Med i terra n e a n

21P h y s i cal Landsca p e s

The nations principal mountain range is the Pindus (Pndhos in Greek),

which run south from Macedonia and Albania to central Greece. A south-

ern extension of the Dinaric Alps, the Pindus divide the Greek provinces

of Thessaly and Epirus.

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countries, including Greece, the weather took a serious toll,

k i lling many peop l e . One re a s on for the hardship and su f fering is

the Eu ropean atti tu de abo ut air- con d i ti on i n g.For some unkn own

re a s on , Eu ropeans have never accepted air- con d i ti on i n g. Thisd i s l i ke , of co u rs e , is qu i te the oppo s i te of Am eri c a n s , wh o

have enjoyed the comfort of artificially cooled air for decades.

Perhaps it is because of the European myth that being exposed

to air con d i ti on ers prom o tes sickness and gen era tes poor

health. This provides a wonderful example of the way in which

culture, not the physical environment, influences our beh avi or

and dec i s i on s . Tod ay, the atti tu de is ch a n gi n g, p a rti a lly in

response to growing tourism. Visitors to Greece and other

Med i terranean co u n tries now of ten have the lu x u ry of a n

air-conditioned room when they rent an apartment, or house,

for their summer vacation.

With increasing el eva ti on , cl i m a te gradu a lly ch a n ge s ,

becoming more continental. Winter temperatures are lower,

prec i p i t a ti on is som ewhat high er, and seasonal ch a n ges are

m ore noti ce a ble than along the coa s t . Because of its smalls i ze , no place in the co u n try is more than abo ut 50 miles

(80 kilometers) from the sea. This means that the con ti n en t a l

conditions m en ti on ed earl i er occur on ly in the nort h ern moun-

tainous regi on s . One ch a racteri s tic of mountainous co u n tri e s

su ch as Greece is that they have con s i dera ble va ri a ti ons in

cl i m a te , wh i ch re sults in va ri a ti ons in plant life . Tem pera tu re s ,

of co u rs e , d rop with incre a s ed el eva ti on and moi s tu re of ten

increases. One can experience these changes by driving even

short distances from coastal tourist resorts into the countryside

and higher elevation. In the mountains, it can often become

unpleasantly chilly even during summer evenings.

ECOSYSTEMS

Eco s ys temsa regi ons plant and animal life and water

featu re s a re influ en ced by cl i m a te more than any other natu ra lfactor. All life - forms have a natu ral habi t a t ; an envi ron m en t

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in which they can survive. Therefore, each plant and animal

species is found in certain climatic conditions and absent i n

o t h ers . In terms of veget a ti on , the Med i terranean climate is

characterized by a lack of continuous forests; rather, flora isdominated by shrubs, brush, and grasslands.

In Greece, as elsewhere throughout most of Europe, native

veget a ti on was heavi ly distu rbed by human activi ti e s . Cl e a r-

ing land for agriculture, cutting woodlands for timber, and

extensive overgrazing by livestock al l took their toll. In fact,

because of these and other ch a n ges introdu ced by hu m a n

activity, little if any of the original natural vegetation exists

anywhere on the continent today. Today, the Greeks are begin-

ning to pre s erve their remaining veget a ti on ; t h ey are more

concerned with income gained from tourism, and few tourists

want to see barren hillsides!

Greeces flora is well ad a pted to the ex i s ting cl i m a tic con-

d i ti on s , wh i ch inclu des high tem pera tu res and long peri od s

of s evere dro u ght du ring su m m er mon t h s . Because of t h e s e

con d i ti on s , plant life in the Med i terranean cl i m a te is su bj ectto scorching f i res on a fairly regular basis. In order to su rvive ,

plants must become invu l n era ble to damages from direct

ex po su re to reoccurring wildfires. This adaptation process

among some plants is very intere s ti n g. For ex a m p l e , s om e

s pec i e s , su ch as va rious pines, must be ex po s ed to fire in order to

reprodu ce . Th ey are known as pyroph i tic (fire resistant) plant

s pec i e s . Ot h er species su cce s s f u lly pre s erve water du ring su m m er

m on t h s in order to avoid fatal ex po su re to dro u gh t . These plants,

found in Greece as well , a re known as xerophyte s .

The co u n trys i de landscape also inclu des a va ri ety of c u l ti-

va ted plants. Greece is known for its citrus fru i t s , wine produ c-

ing vi n eya rd s , and olive trees that produ ce olives from wh i ch

o l ive oil is ex tracted . At high er el eva ti on s , the landscape ch a n ge s

to uncultiva ted species of p i n e s , beech , c ypre s s , and other tree s

and shru b s . Ma ny plant species found in this co u n try areen dem i c , meaning they are found on ly in Greece .

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For the most part , animal species inhabi ting the co u n trys i de

a re rel a ted to other fauna com m on ly found in Eu rope ,

a l t h o u gh some Asian species are pre s en t , as well . As is true in

m a ny other parts of the worl d , econ omic devel opm ent andexp a n s i on of s et t l em ent dra s ti c a lly redu ced the habitat of

many large mammals. Bears, for example, exist but are limited

in distribution to more mountainous and isolated northern

a re a s . Few species pose a hazard to hu m a n s , a l t h o u gh there

a re poi s onous snake s . Vi pers , the de adliest snake in the

Med i terranean regi on , t h rive here and can of ten be seen

w a rming up or re s ting on limestone rocks on a su n ny day. In

order to prevent furt h er redu cti on of en d a n gered animal

s pec i e s , the govern m ent has cre a ted con s erva ti on progra m s

and establ i s h ed nati onal park s . Ten nati onal parks curren t ly

occupy more than 100,000 acres (4,050 hectares) of land. The

surrounding seas contain a bounty of marine life, including

many edible species of fish and shellfish.

ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION AND HAZARDSHumans must be stewards of the natural environment. A

close correlation exists between the quality of the environment

and the quality of human life. Geographers have long recog-

nized that most severely degraded environments also are home

to people experiencing a very poor quality of life. A clean and

protected environment, some scholars believe, is a luxury that

only an affluent society can afford. Careful management of an

environment and its resources requires a considerable amount

of formal edu c a ti on (envi ron m ental aw a ren e s s ) , envi ron m en-

t a l ethic (a desire to preserve, rather than exploit), time, and

financial re s o u rce s . E con omic devel opm ent som etimes act s

as a do u bl e - ed ged sword : An expanding econ omy hel p s

peop l e live bet ter initi a lly, yet at the same time fast econ om i c

and population growth may damage the environment. Athens,

one of the largest Eu ropean citi e s , has been the de s ti n a ti on ofm a ny Greeks searching for a bet ter life . Because one in every

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t h ree citi zens of Greece curren t ly lives in the qu i ck ly growi n g

At h ens are a , the city battles choking air po lluti on . Haziness over-

running the city and famous classical arch i tectu ral landscape s

can be seen from miles aw ay. This is a probl em com m on to manylarge urban areas worldwide and is difficult to overcome.

Na tu ral hazards are the va rious dangers natu re pre s ents to

hu m a n s . At least that is how they are def i n ed . Yet geogra ph ers

recogn i ze that in re a l i ty it is cultu re , ra t h er than natu re , t h a t

ex poses people to natu ra l h a z a rd s . It may be difficult to gra s p

t his ph i l o s ophical con cept at firs t , but begin by imagi n i n g

for a mom ent two different cultu res living in a tre ach ero u s

envi ron m en t . Ba s ed on bel i efs , c u s tom s , trad i ti on s , and so

fort h , e ach of t h em wi ll devel op different envi ron m en t a l

percepti on s . One may see floods as a perm a n ent danger and

dec i de to rel oc a te in order to avoid their rec u rring damage .

Ano t h er may simply accept flooding as som ething over

wh i ch they have no influ en ce . Th eir bel i ef s ys tem ex p l a i n s

su ch events as an act of god ( s ) ; s om ething that wi ll occ u r

rega rdless of wh ere they live . We ch oose wh ere to live , of tenk n owi n gly put ting ours elves in po ten tial danger (for ex a m p l e ,

l iving along active fault zones in Ca l i forn i a ) . Tod ay, m a ny

h a z a rdous events can be forecast and damage preven ted by

taking appropri a te acti on . O f ten su ch warn i n gs are simply

i gn ored , t h o u gh . Na tu re can be de s tru ctive , but it is hu m a n s ,

acting as cultu ral agents within their re s pective bel i ef s ys tem s ,

that el ect to place them s elves in harms way or rem ove them-

s elves from po ten tial hazard s .

Greece faces the om n i pre s ent threat of t wo po ten ti a lly

deva s t a ting hazard s : volcanic eru pti ons and eart h qu a ke s .

Currently, six of the countrys volcanoes are active (can erupt at

any time), and these are located on islands in the Aegean Sea.

They pose a potential threat to everyone living within at least a

100-mile (160-kilometer) radius. Volcanic eruptions can eject

huge amounts of scorching lava, ash, and gases. Earthquakesare earth movements that occur deep below the surface. They

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can be devastating to land and structures built by humans, and

they often take a heavy toll on life and property. Greeces most

destructive earthquake struck near the outskirts of Athens in

September 1999. About 150 people died, more than 35,000

homes were damaged or destroyed, and property losses soared

to billions of dollars.

Wildfires present a clear and present danger for every

Mediterranean country, including Greece. They happen during

bone - d ry su m m er months and can deva s t a te natu ral veget a ti on ,

cultivated fields, and even settlements. Most of the fires are

caused by humans, and many are set deliberately. Lightningoccurs very rarely in the Mediterranean climate. One of the

26 G r e e c e

Earthquakes are one of the most prevalent natural disasters that occurin Greece. Pictured here is the destruction left by the countrys most

d evastating earthquake in recent years; one that hit Athens in September

1999 and registered 5.9 on the Richter sca l e .

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problems that affects the spread of fires is a limited amount of

available water during the months of summer drought. Except

for the Axios (Vardar) and Strimon (Struma) rivers, whose

h e adw a ters are deep in Macedonia and Bu l ga ri a , few larges treams flow thro u gh Greeces hilly co u n trys i de . It is not

unusual to see dry riverbeds or small streams disappear into

the rocky limestone-based ground and then reappear with

autumn rains.

In summary, the natural environment sets the stage for

human activi ti e s . G en era lly spe a k i n g,Greece has ru gged terra i n

with little flat land, poor soils, little surface water, and a variety

of potentially devastating hazards. In the following chapters,

you will see how Greek culture overcame these obstacles to

become a leading civilization of antiquity and how it earned a

place among todays modern world nations.

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Human bei n gs have occ u p i ed sout h e a s tern Eu rope since

preh i s toric ti m e s . Va rious human groups roa m ed the

a rea for thousands of ye a rs , s e a rching for good hu n t-

ing grounds and places to ga t h er food and establish set t l em en t s .

In i ti a lly, these set t l em ents were tem pora ry stati ons for migra tory

gro u p s . Wh en people began raising plants and keeping animals,

h owever, con d i ti ons ch a n ged dra s ti c a lly. The abi l i ty to produ ce

and store food s tu f fs in one place con tri buted to the cre a ti on of

perm a n ent set t l em en t s . This devel opm en t , b a s ed on plant and

animal dom e s ti c a ti on (the Agri c u l tu ral Revo luti on ) , gre a t ly

i m proved peop l es qu a l i ty of l i fe . It also provi ded the fo u n d a ti on

on wh i ch early civi l i z a ti ons were bu i l t . By 6,000 to 4,000 B.C., t h e

mainland and islands of pre s en t - d ay Greece su pported a sign i f i-

cant pop u l a ti on . Hi s tori c a lly, this peri od correl a tes with the rise ofe a rly set t l em ents in Me s opotamia and Egypt , and essen ti a lly the

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begi n n i n gs of what were to become the gre a test of a n c i en t

We s tern civi l i z a ti on s .

At firs t , s et t l em ents were small and isolated and faced

m a ny geogra phic ch a ll en ge s . On the mainland, ru gged terra i npre s en ted a serious ob s t acle to mobi l i ty. Mountain ri d ge s

made it difficult to establish tra n s port a ti on ro ute s . E a rly

re s i dents of the Aegean coast natu ra lly chose the sea as thei r

pri m a ry means of con n ecting with people in other are a s . Th ey

devel oped trade ro utes along seaboa rds and bet ween islands.

From early ti m e s , Greeks began tu rning to the sea, ra t h er than

the land, as their pri m a ry source of wealth and mobi l i ty.

G eogra ph ers and other scien tists intere s ted in the diffusion

( s pre ad) of m a terial cultu re have traced early trade ro utes in

the eastern Med i terra n e a n . Th ey have been able to do so by

a n a lyzing the spatial distri buti on of po t tery, j ewel ry, and other

a rch aeo l ogical arti f act s . Su ch re s e a rch stron gly su ggests that to

the Greeks and many other early peop l e s , the sea was a link

ra t h er than a barri er. The events just de s c ri bed took cen tu ri e s

to devel op. Fu rt h erm ore , people bel on ging to early cultu re sresiding around the Aegean Sea were not of Hellenic (Greek)

stock. Although they inhabited the region long before Greek

tribes migrated southward, scholars are still working on trying

to fit them into the right context.

FIRST CIVILIZATIONS

The earliest highly developed culture in what is now Greece

was that of the Minoans, whose civilization flourished on the

island of Crete during much of the second millennium B.C.

Crete was well positioned to be the early crossroad of maritime

trade routes in the eastern Mediterranean. It was the exchange

place for goods from Egypt, the Aegean area, and Asia Minor.

By 1,800 B.C., the Minoan civilization was the strongest naval

power in the Med i terranean Se a . Abundant arch aeo l ogi c a l

evi den ce su ggests a high level of a f f lu en ce in places likeKnossos, a leading settlement. Lavish palaces, various types of

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pottery, jewelry with sophisticated ornaments, and a domesti-

cally cre a ted alph a bet all provi de evi den ce of a high ly devel oped

civilization. The Minoans even had the wo rlds first indoor

plumbing and roads that are still in use today!

History teaches us that no civ ilization, no matter how

developed, survives forever. Even though the Minoan civiliza-

tion was powerf u l , it was not powerful en o u gh to recover

completely from natural disasters such as earthquakes and the

effects of nearby volcanic eruptions. Devastating earthquakes

s tru ck the island repe a tedly, l e aving en ti re cities in ru i n .

However, the ulti m a te decline of Mi n oan civi l i z a ti on came

not from natural events but from cultural causes. The Minoanswere victims of their own success. Because of their strategic

30 G r e e c e

One of the first major civilizations that developed in Greece was that ofthe Minoans. Pictured here are ruins from a palace in Knossos, which is

located on the island of Crete and once was the center of Minoan society.

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l oc a ti on and trem en dous we a l t h , t h ey became a target for

i nva s i ons by out s i de force s .

One invading group responsible for the Minoan decline

was the Mycen ae a n s . This early Greek tri be built forti f i edc i ties and establ i s h ed a powerful civi l i z a ti onon the mainland

about the same time the Minoan civilization was at its height.

Eventually, their interests clashed and a conflict for dominance

began. The Mycenaeans had a stronger and better organized

m i l i t a ry. By the mid-fifteenth cen tu ry B.C., t h ey had largely

destroyed the Minoan civilization and its tangible landmarks.

Ci ties lay in ru i n , and the Mi n oan fleet was essen ti a lly

de s troyed , but many important Mi n oan cultu re tra i t s , su ch

as their art and alph a bet , were adopted by those on the

m a i n l a n d . Mycenae (the Mycenaean fortified city) became the

leader of the early Greek cultural realm and also held military

control over much of the regions other cities and trade routes.

L a ter on , wh en other Gree k - s peaking peoples moved sout h-

ward, they found well - e s t a bl i s h ed urban set t l em en t s . Th e s e

e a rly c ivi l i z a ti on s , with their well - devel oped urban cen ters ,provi ded the seeds from which Greek culture and civilization

grew. Greeks would soon become the dominant force on the

pen i n sula and thro u gh o ut the Aegean regi on .

As is true of a ny civi l i z a ti on , the evo luti on of a n c i en t

Greek civi l i z a ti on was a len g t hy proce s s . In re a l i ty, it lasted

m ore than 1,000 ye a rs , f rom the gl ory days of the Mi n oa n

civilization to the meteoric rise of the powerful city-states of

Athens and Sparta. Migrations from the north happened in

several stages. The best known movement of people was from

1,100 to 900 B.C. , wh en the last wave of Greek tri bes set t l ed

in their present-day homeland. It occurred as part of a larger

m i gra ti on , a chain re acti on that even tu a lly affected even

rem o te areas of the Mi d dle East and Egypt . This event was

even recorded in the Bible as the invasion of sea people who

permeated and settled coastal areas of Palestine. New arrivalsmeant changes in population and military capability. Despite

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technological supremacy and grandiose defensive walls around

its citi e s , the Mycen aean civi l i z a ti on was even tu a lly over-

powered and gradually replaced.

For the next few cen tu ri e s , Greece underwent a peri od ofdecline of ten referred to as the regi ons D a rk Age . Ot h er than

what is su gge s ted by material arti f act s , little is known abo ut

t h is peri od of Greek history. The situ a ti on is qu i te similar to

the co llapse of i n s ti tuti ons in We s tern Eu rope beginning in

the fifth and sixth cen tu ries A.D. The rec u pera ti on peri od ,

recogn i zed histori c a lly as the Mi d dle Age s , l a s ted severa l

cen tu ri e s . From what is known , Greece underwent a peri od of

s t a gn a ti on lasting from 900 to 700 B.C. In some re s pect s , t h o u gh ,

this should be vi ewed as a peri od of recovery ra t h er than decl i n e .

For ex a m p l e , du ring this ti m e , the Hell enic ex p a n s i on bega n .

The re sults of c u l tu ral interacti on are tangi bl e , p a rti c u l a rly in

pre s erved bu i l d i n gs and temples from that era built in Dori a n

a rch i tectu ral style (named after Dorian tri be s , wh i ch led wh a t

became the Greek migra ti on and occ u p a ti on ) . An o t h er even

m ore important Dorian con tri buti on was that they indirect lyi n i ti a ted the beginning of the gradual spre ad of Greek cultu re

o ut s i de the Aegean regi on . Pop u l a ti on growth in the hom el a n d

en co u ra ged furt h er migra ti on into new lands.

GREEK CULTURAL EXPANSION

Around 700 B.C. , Greeks began co l onizing all sectors of t h e

Med i terranean Sea and beyon d . Pop u l a ti on growt h , com bi n ed

with unsu s t a i n a ble agri c u l tu ral practi ce s , were driving force s

behind the form a ti on of hu n d reds of s et t l em en t s , s tretch i n g

from pre s en t - d ay Spain to what is tod ay the co u n try of

G eor gi a . Greek city - s t a tes would send co l onists to establ i s h

s et t l em ents overs e a s . O n ce they had ga i n ed a foothold in a

n ew land, the Greeks initi a ted agri c u l tu re and trade wi t h

l oc a l s . Th ey also en ga ged in many other aspects of c u l tu ra l

i n teracti on and exch a n ge . Du ring the next two cen tu ri e s , t h e s eco lonies gre a t ly ex p a n ded the Greek cultu ral regi on and

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Hell enic way of l i fe , reshaping the lives of m a ny native pop u-

l a ti on s . For the first time in Eu ropean history, m a ny differen t

geogra phic areas en j oyed a form of co s m opolitan life s tyl e

u n der the umbrella of Hell enic cultu re .Rel i gi on was one of the most su ccessful tools used by

the Greeks to pe acef u lly spre ad their cultu ral influ en ce .

Geographer Dan Stanislawski noted that in order to establish

better economic connections throughout the Mediterranean,

Greeks would introdu ce a cult of the wine god Di onysu s

whenever they made contacts with local merchants. Gradually,

worship of Dionysus became widespread among not just those

involved in trade, but many others. Eventually, worship of the

god of wine brought Greeks and non-Greeks closer together.

Of all colonies, those in Asia Minor (peninsular Turkey)

were the most developed. Coastal areas of present-day Turkey

were in close proximity to Greece, and the environments were

very similar. One new settlement was built in 667 B.C. on the

European side of the Bosporus Strait by colonists from the

Greek mainland. They named it Byzantium, but it would even-tually become known as Constantinople (present-day Istanbul,

Turkey)the worlds greatest city for 1,000 years.

Tow a rd the end of the sixth cen tu ry B.C., the po l i ti c a l

fortunes of Asia Minor began to change. Increasingly powerful

Persian kings were determined to conquer the known world.

After gaining control of the Middle East, they turned their

attention toward Asia Minor and Greece. For the next several

decades, a Persian threat hung over the Greeks. Huge Persian

military forces, often numbering several hundred thousand

troops, defeated weaker Greek forces and pushed ever deeper

into Greek territory. At this time, however, Greece was not one

continuous empire. Rather, it was a large number of widely

scattered, autonomous city-states (polis). The Greeks managed

to regroup their forces for a final defensive stand against the

Persians. In 490 B.C., at the Battle of Marathon (on the Greekpeninsula), and later in the Battle of Salamina, the Greeks were

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victorious. The tide began to turn, and soon the Persians were

expelled from European soil for good. A century and a half

later, when their forces collided again, the roles were reversed.

The Greeks, led by Alexander the Great, marched toward the

Persian capital and eventually conquered their empire.

Before Greece became a part of the Macedonian Empire of

Philip II and his son Alexander III (also known as Alexander

the Great), a century and a half of the most interesting period

in ancient Greeces history would pass. It was the period during

which art and science flourished. Cosmographers (early geog-

raphers) such as Herodotus recorded their observations about

the ecumene (inhabited world). Artisans built palaces, temples,and exqu i s i te statues of god s . P l ay wri ghts wro te won derf u l

34 G r e e c e

This map depicts Greece and the colonies it held circa 500 B.C. D u r i n gthis era, Greece held sway over parts of present-day Turkey and Italy,

and repeatedly turned back threats from the mighty Persian Empire.

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dramas. Philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle produced

classical works that are still considered masterpieces. Much of

what we ch erish tod ay as the legacy of a n c i ent Greece was

created in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. Athens, whicheventually overpowered all political competitors, including its

main rival Sparta, became a center of the Hellenic world.

THE AGE OF EMPIRES

Success and wealth attracts those who want it for them s elve s .

In the case of the Greeks, it was a man whose appetite for con-

quering the rest of the world was greater than any in previous

history. Many consider Alexander the Great of Macedonia to be

the greatest conqueror in the history of the world. Macedonians

led by Alexanders father, Philip II, conquered and unified

Greece. Alexander (356323 B.C.) continued on this path, and

by the time of his death he was ruling over the vast lands

between southeastern Europe, Egypt, and India. With every

military expedition, Greek culture followed. Alexander was in

many ways not just a conqueror but a unifying force, as well.His policies were to incorporate lands into his empire and have

people benefit from Greek culture. Like no one before or after,

Alexander had a habit of establishing cities named after him.

Many of those cities still bear his name, the best known being

the Egyptian city of Alexandria.

Greeks were known as people of the book. They respected

and appreciated learning, which is why they were welcomed

almost every wh ere as merchants and sch o l a rs . The Gree k

lang u a ge was one of the earliest forms of i n tern a ti onal com mu-

nica ti on . It was an ancient lingua fra n c a, a language spo ken

by peoples of d i f ferent language back grounds who need a

common language for diplomatic and economic purposes. The

Greek pre s en ce was felt in places as distant as the mountains

of Afghanistan and India, where the memory of Greek culture

and even some Greek cultu ral traits lingered for cen tu ri e s .Bri tish military com m a n ders re aching Afghan vi ll a ges from

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India in the nineteenth cen tu ry were su rpri s ed to learn that

in some of t h em , re s i dents traced their lineage to the Gree k

residents of ancient Bactria (an old kingdom in Afghanistan).

Not long after the decline of Macedonian rule, Greecebecame a part of another empire, which would rule for many

centuries. By the mid-first centuryB.C., well-organized military

units of the Roman Empire were alre ady con tro lling most

of the Greek hom el a n d . This marked the beginning of a n

interesting relationship; one in which political power and orga-

nization came from Rome, but most other aspects of culture

were being accepted from Greeks. In fact, Romans eagerly and

effectively integrated many elements of Greek culture into their

own. This exchange is evident in Roman art, literature, and

arch i tectu re , wh i ch were all heavi ly influ en ced by Greek cultu re .

The Greeks, meanwhile, were content to be members of the

cosmopolitan Roman Empire, the boundaries of which encom-

passed the Mediterranean world. For the next four and a half

centuries, Greece was a part of the Roman Empire. Beyond the

feeling of belonging to a vast empire, however, the Greeks didnot really benefit from their role in the alliance. All roads led to

Rome, not to Athens. Greece grad ually became a remote

province that was fast losing its charm and glory.

By the fourth centuryA.D., the Roman Empire experienced

i n ternal stru ggles and a gen eral decline in its power. A few

s trong ru l ers su ch as Con s t a n tine managed tem pora ri ly to

keep a ti ght gri p. As an em peror, Con s t a n tine made two major

con tri buti on s . He made Ch ri s ti a n i ty the official rel i gi on of

the Roman Empire . Al s o, in 330 A.D., he rel oc a ted the em p i res

capital, moving it to the city of Constantinople, thereby shift-

ing the source of power and wealth into a Greek-speaking

region. With these two decisions, Constantine single-handedly

changed the course of Greeces people and culture for the next

16 centuries.

The relocation of the capital from Rome to Constantinoplere su l ted in a great increase in the or ga n i z a ti on , power, a n d

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i n f lu en ce of the eastern half of the em p i re . Wh en the Rom a n

E m p i re finally bro ke into eastern and we s tern secti ons 65

ye a rs later, Greece became part of the stron ger Eastern Rom a n

E m p i re , wh i ch in va rious forms su rvived until the fifteen t h

cen tu ry. For most of that ti m e , it was a strong player on the

geopo l i tical scene of s o ut h e a s tern Eu rope and Asia Mi n or,

while pre s erving Greek cultu re there . The We s tern Rom a n

E m p i re was we a k . In fact , a cen tu ry after the split, it was

des troyed by advancing German tri be s . Because of its abi l i ty

to prevent perm a n ent intru s i on and set t l em ent of Sl avic and

G ermanic tri bes into Greece , the Eastern Roman Empire(k n own incorrect ly as the By z a n tine Empire) pre s erved

37Greece Through Time

I n the fourth century A.D., Roman emperor Constantine established

Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) as the Eastern Roman Empires

capital. Over the next millennium, the city was not only the center of theGreek-speaking world but also was the richest and most powerful city in

Europe during the Middle Ages. Pictured here is Hagia Sophia, which was

built in the sixth century A.D. and is the citys most famous structure.

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Greek cultu ral dom i n a n ce and their nati onal iden ti ty on the

Aegean Pen i n su l a .

The rise of Constantinople also generated a power struggle

bet ween the pope of Rome and the patri a rch (arch bi s h op) ofCon s t a n ti n op l e . This stru ggle con ti nu ed for cen tu ries unti l

Ch ri s ti a n i ty finally bro ke into two sep a ra te gro u p s , in 1054:

Roman Catholic and Eastern Ort h odox . All lands under

the influ en ce of the Eastern Roman Empire , wh i ch inclu ded

Greece , became a part of E a s tern Ort h odox Ch ri s ti a n i ty. If

a nyone knows anything abo ut the history of s o ut h e a s tern

Eu rope , he or she cert a i n ly knows how important rel i gi on is

to people living there . In the po l i tical con tex t , for ex a m p l e ,

Ea s tern Ort h odox rel i gi on was of ten used as a tool for Ru s s i a

to generate support from Greeks, Serbs, and others against its

en em i e s . In recent ye a rs , Greeks publ i cly su pported Eastern

Orthodox Serbs during the Yugoslav ethnic wars.

MIDDLE AGES AND TURKISH OCCUPATION

During the turbulent Middle Ages, when much of Europewas in disarray for sev eral centuries, Greece was the place

where successful preservation of knowledge took place. During

its zenith, Constantinople was the richest and one of the largest

cities in the worl d . At a time wh en Rome and Pa ris were

surrounded with swamps and peasantry, Greek cities managed

to pre s erve ideas and te ach i n gs of great classical sch o l a rs .

Cen tu ries later, this knowl ed ge even tu a lly found its way to It a ly

and Western Europe, where it helped inspire the dawn of the

Renaissance period. During much of the Middle Ages, prior to

falling under Turkish control, Greece and the Eastern Roman

Empire were the bellwether of European civilization.

By the eleventh century, another danger appeared. It came

from the directi on from wh i ch Persian armies had march ed

15 centuries earlier. Turks, a group of nomadic tribes originally

from Cen tral As i a , h ad begun migra ting we s t w a rd , a ll the wayto Asia Mi n or. F i rs t , Sel juk Tu rks and later Osman Tu rk s

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gradu a lly we a ken ed the Eastern Roman Empire until 1453, wh en

even Constantinople fell into Turkish hands and was renamed

Is t a n bu l . Tu rks con ti nu ed marching we s t w a rd , u l ti m a tely

occupying all lands in southeastern Europe. All Greek lands,mainland and islands, became a part of the Turkish cultural

sphere. Although Turks accepted many Greek cultural traits,

the basic difference was religious. The Turks were Muslim and

the Greeks were Ch ri s ti a n . Muslims were hardly wel come in a

Ch ri s tian land, and being Ch ri s tian in the Ot toman Empire

(as the Tu rkish state was known) was not wi t h o ut its difficulti e s ,

either. As Christians, Greeks had to pay higher taxes and their

children had to serve in the Turkish army. There were many

other regulations that generated ill-feelings; after four centuries

of Turkish occupation, these grew to be substantial.

Under Turkish rule, Greek development remained rather

stagnant. As elsewhere in southeastern Europe, the economy

was dwi n dling ra t h er than devel op i n g. Du ring this ti m e ,

Western Europe was on the brink of the Industrial Revolution,

an event that would once again move the center of civilizationwestward. Fortunately for Greeks in the eighteenth and the

beginning of the nineteenth centuries, the Ottoman Empire

was not the force it once was. Its power was rapidly declining,

wh i ch made room for nati ons to push for indepen den ce .

Foll owing the example of o t h er nati ons in their search for

indepen den ce , Greeks started an uprising against Tu rk i s h

rule in the 1820s. In 1832, after substantial bloodshed, they

broke free of Turkish rule. At that time, not all present-day

Greek lands were included in the new ly independent state.

Although decades later, the Greeks had to fight new wars to

regain portions of their former territory, it was the beginning

of a modern Greek state.

INDEPENDENT GREECE

The goal of uniting all Greek territories into one state wasnot an easy task. In this instance, geographical location was in

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m a ny ways a curs e . World powers had alw ays wanted to ga i n

a foothold in this extremely volatile and strategic corner of

Europe. Great Britain and France did not want Russia to gain

access to the Mediterranean region. Russia, meanwhile, wasco u n ting on its Greek fri ends to help them oust the Tu rk s

from Con s t a n ti n op l e . Tow a rd the end of the nineteenth cen tu ry,

Bulgaria and Serbia were both independent and eyeing their

own territorial expansion southward toward Greece. Conflict

once again loomed just over the horizon.

The early twentieth century brought exactly thatconflict.

First Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria went to war against the Turks

and defeated them in 1912. A year later, Greeks and Serbs

joined forces against the Bulgarians, resulting in the acquisition

of additional territories. In 1914, World War I broke out with

Greece and the Ot toman Empire on different side s . Va s t

numbers of ethnic Greeks still lived outside the Greek home-

land, a majority of them residing in Asia Minor. For joining

anti-German forces, Greece was promised western Anatolia,

but instead it ended up in an unsuccessful war with Turkishrevo luti on a ry forces (under the command of Kemal At a tu rk )

that lasted from 1918 until 1922. As a re sult of this con f l i ct , t h e

Greeks lost an opportunity to incorporate their compatriots

f rom Asia into one co u n try. Most ethnic Greeks in Tu rkey

(as well as Tu rks from Greece) ex peri en ced vo lu n t a ry and

recom m en ded rel oc a ti on that was little more than et h n i c

cl e a n s i n g. Af ter the war with Tu rkey, Greeces current geo-

gra phic bo u n d a ri e s were establ i s h ed .

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All geog raphy is essentially cultural geography. Geographers,

af ter all , s tu dy the spatial distri buti ons and patterns of wh o

is is doing what, where, and why. They also are interested in

knowing and interpreting the results of the human imprint on

Earths surface, the cultural landscape. Why people do certain things

in certain ways (wh i ch are of ten unique to the particular group) is

a pri m a ry interest of c u l tu ral geogra ph ers . The most import a n t

aspects shaping the lifestyle of each cultural group are its peoples

sense of bel on ging (et h n i c i ty, rel i gi on , s oc i ety, and so fort h ) , l a n g u a ge ,

edu c a ti on , d i et , and dem ogra phic factors (also, po l i tical sys tem s

and economic activity, both of which are important enough to treat

in separate chapters). Once you are familiar with major cultural

characteristics of Greeces residents, you can decide for yourself what

it is that makes Greeks similar to other people in some ways and

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much different in others. It is these aspects of their way of life

that make them a distinct culture.

ETHNIC GROUPSAs em ph a s i zed in the previous ch a pter, for a va ri ety of

his torical re a s ons Greece is a rel a tively hom ogenous co u n try

in ethnic terms (most of the people are from the same ethnic

back gro u n d ) . Con s i dering that the Aegean Pen i n sula has served

as a bridge linking Europe and Asia since ancient times, one

might expect greater ethnic diversity. The tremendous ethnic

diversity of its northern neighbors in the former Yugoslavia is

well known. There, many groups share living space in close

proximity. In Greece, ethnic diversity occurs on a region-to-

regi on basis. The Greeks have a very strong sense of n a ti on a l i s m

(of being Greek). Because of this feeling, ethnic issues are

often a matter of heated political debate. Ninety-eight percent

of the co u n try s people are ethnic Greeks (that is, of Gree k

c u l tu ral heri t a ge ) . In order to pre s erve ethnic hom ogen ei ty in

t h eir co u n try, Greek public op i n i on of ten is very cri tical of o t h erpeople who ex press a de s i re to be som ething other than et h n i c

Gree k . Th ey are afraid that if people are all owed to assume a

n on - Greek (that is, t h eir own trad i ti onal) iden ti ty, it may cause

probl em s . Th ey may even seek to become po l i ti c a lly indepen-

den t , as was the case with the many et h n i c i ties in the form er

Yu go s l avi a . Con s equ en t ly, trying to su ppress the recogn i ti on of

ethnic Macedon i a n s , in the eyes of s ome peop l e , for ex a m p l e ,

means not having to deal with potential ethnic separatism.

This view, of course, certainly is not uniquely Greek. In

fact, it is found elsewhere in Europe. Just across the border in

Bulgaria, a similar solution was introduced to prevent the

countrys Turkish minority from officially becoming ethnic

non-Bulgarians. These forms of extreme nationalism are cruel

and discri m i n a tory. Yet it is important to understand why

they occur and how they affect a co u n try s citi zen s . This isp a rti c u l a rly true for Greece . A strong sense of n a ti on a l i s m

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43People and Culture

For a nation in which 98 percent of its citizens are ethnic Greek, the preservation

of Greek culture is extremely important. For example, members of the Greek

infantry who guard the Monument of the Unknown Soldier in Athenss SyntagmaSquare wear traditional Greek clothing.

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(self-identity as a nation of peoples) should be expected in a

country that has a history of turbulence, civil wars, dictatorial

governments, and territorial disputes with neighbors.

THE PEOPLE

So who are the people living in Greece today? What is their

b ack ground? How do the co u n try s citi zens differ from on e

another in terms of culture and self-identity?

Ethnic Greeks

Tod ay, Greeks are re a lly a mixtu re of m a ny peoples wh o,

t h ro u gh o ut thousands of ye a rs , came to and left their mark on

the Aegean Pen i n su l a . O ri gi n a lly, h owever, Greeks were an

In do - Eu ropean tri be , a stock having ance s try com m on to

m a ny peoples dispers ed thro u gh o ut mu ch of Eu ra s i a . Peop l e

i den ti f i ed as In do - Eu ropeans are gen era lly bel i eved to have

come from Asia Mi n or (pen i n sular Tu rkey) du ring the

Neolithic peri od (perhaps 7,000 B.C.) . From there , t h ey

m i gra ted in many directi on s , even tu a lly re aching the Ru s s i a nsteppes in the north and India in the east. S ch o l a rs were abl e

to track these migra ti ons by fo ll owing the evo luti on and

s pre ad of the In do - Eu ropean language . Even though no on e

s peaks ori ginal In do - Eu rope a n , of co u rs e , the linguistic roo t s

were pre s erved . This is how Greeks were iden ti f i ed as peop l e

of In do - Eu ropean stock . In tere s ti n gly, the Greeks are not

et h n i c a lly rel a ted to any of t h eir nei gh bors , most of wh om

m i gra ted to sout h e a s tern Eu rope long after the Greeks were

a l re ady establ i s h ed there .

In i ti a lly, the languages spo ken by Greek tri bes settling the

Aegean Peninsula were used to identify common ancestry; t h e

same met h od was used to iden tify non - Greek peoples livi n g

in the regi on . Because they did not migra te as one singl e

gro u p, but thro u gh the series of m i gra ti ons over ti m e ,

a n c i ent Greeks had to figure out who they re a lly were .An o t h er cultu ral indicator that hel ped iden tify Greeks was

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t h eir rel i gi on . O n ly Greeks wors h i ped the pantheon of god s

l ed by Zeu s , the su preme god in ancient Greek myt h o l ogy.

Contemporary Greeks do not question their direct lineage

f rom their ance s tors . Most Greeks wi ll argue, and ri gh tf u llys o, that they are direct de s cendants of a n ce s tors who fo u gh t

Persian or Roman invaders 25 cen tu ries ago. Greeks take gre a t

pri de in their heri t a ge and et h n i c i ty, no matter wh ere they

l ive . Ma ny Greeks have lived out s i de their hom eland for

gen era ti on s , yet their sense of ethnic bel on ging remains as

s trong as that of Greeks living in Greece . This strong attach m en t

to their trad i ti onal cultu re can be seen in many large Nort h

American cities. One only needs to visit a Greek restaurant that

has been in the hands of a single family for several generations

to wi tness the strong attach m ent to the hom eland and its

c u l tu ral trad i ti on s .

Because of various circumstances, ranging from wars to

widespread poverty, Greeks have long experienced one of the

highest emigration rates in Europe. In descending order based

on percentages of national population, Greeks, Irish, Italians,and Croats have produced the greatest number of migrants.

Most of those sharing Greek ancestry today live in traditional

emigrants havens of the New World such as the United States,

Canada, and Australia. After the military conflict with Turkey

ended in 1923, large numbers of displaced Greeks found new

homes in the New World. Perhaps the best known of these

refugees was Aristotle Onassis. After leaving Turkey, his family

moved to Argentina, where he eventually became one of the

worlds richest men, with a fortune built primarily on shipping,

oil, and the airline industry.

In the decades following World War II, thousands of ethnic

Greeks left the country to search for better jobs in Western

Europe, primarily Germany. War-ravaged Germany demanded

m ore labor than its own pop u l a ti on was able to su pport .

For most immigra n t s , t h eir jobs were su ppo s ed to last on lytem pora ri ly. Tod ay, h owever, m a ny times two or even three

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gen era ti ons of G erm a n - born Greeks re s i de in this co u n try.

Th is is of ten the case among migrant gro u p s . Even though

n o s t a l gia and a strong de s i re to retu rn home are import a n t ,

the opportu n i ty for econ omic su ccess is an even stron germ o tiva ti on . In the regi on around Greece , most ethnic Gree k s

l iving out s i de of t h eir hom eland re s i de in two co u n tri e s ,

Albania and the island of Cypru s .

Ethnic Non-Greeks

In Greeces nort hwe s tern provi n ce s , Albanians are the

main ethnic minori ty. Some of t h em have been living in

mountainous areas for cen tu ri e s . Ot h ers arrived more recen t ly

as immigrants searching for bet ter paying jobs than those

ava i l a ble in their hom el a n d . ( Albania is the poorest Eu rope a n

co u n try.) Even though Albanians and Greeks are immed i a te

nei gh bors , et h n i c a lly they are unrel a ted . Th eir on ly link is

that at some time in the distant past, both groups had In do -

European ance s tors . Al b a n i a n s , h owever, a re one of s o ut h e a s tern

Eu ropes oldest inhabi t a n t s . It is bel i eved that they de s cen dedf rom the Illyri a n s , who in a series of m i gra ti on waves set t l ed in

what is now Albania around 1,200 B.C. In tern a lly, Al b a n i a n s

a re divi ded into two main gro u p s . The Ghegs re s i de mainly i n

the north, whereas the Tosks are southern Albanians and make

up the majori ty of Albanians who live in Greece . Greeces et h n i c

Albanian pop u l a ti on , e s pec i a lly those who have been living in

t he co u n try for gen era ti on s , is mostly Ort h odox Ch ri s ti a n . It is

e s ti m a ted that perhaps a half-mill i on Albanians curren t ly live i n

Greece . Precise nu m bers are difficult to determine because of

h i gh and con s t a n t lyrising ra tes of i ll egal immigra ti on .

Th ere are also ethnic Tu rks in Greece . The ance s tors of

m odern - d ay Tu rks came from near the Altai Mo u n t a i n s , a

region bordering Mongolia, Russia, China, and Kazakhstan.

Turks were not just one ethnic group, either, but rather many

groups of related tribes. Over a span of several centuries duringthe medieval period, several different tribes migrated westward

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and even tu a lly establ i s h ed military con trol over local ru l ers .

Th eir nu m bers were small at the begi n n i n g, but the Tu rk s

m a n a ged to incorpora te many other peoples into thei r

c u l tu re , t h ereby increasing their nu m erical strength thro u gha process known as acc u l tu ra ti on . People were wi lling to

become Tu rk s because of rel i gi on and other perceived

c u l tu ral adva n t a ge s . Th ey do not share com m on ance s try

with Indo - Eu ropean peop l e s , but in Eu rope they are rel a ted

to Hu n ga rians and Finns. In As i a , t h ey are rel a ted to most

et h n i c i ties in Cen tral As i a .

During the time of the Ottoman Empire,Turks were spread

t h ro u gh o ut the eastern Med i terranean and sout h e a s tern

Europe. Once the empire declined in power, however, many

ethnic Turks migrated back to Turkey. Between the time o f

Greek independence in 1829 and the beginning of World War I

in 1914, a large Turkish minority lived in northeastern Greece.

Pre s ent nu m bers are dra s ti c a lly lower, h owever, bec a u s e

of both vo lu n t a ry and pre s su red pop u l a ti on migra ti on since

1 9 2 3 . Al t h o u gh official nu m bers are va g u e , it is bel i eved thats ome 100,000 Tu rks sti ll live in the Th race regi on of Greece .

Ethnic Greeks and Tu rks share or, m ore re a l i s ti c a lly, do not

s h a re!the living space on the island of Cypru s . Al t h o u gh

this small island is now a sep a ra te co u n try, it long had been

trad i ti on a lly Greek in terms of et h n i c i ty and history. Af ter

Tu rkish military interven ti on in the early 1970s, Cyprus was

d ivi ded into two ethnic and po l i tical zon e s , one Greek and

one Tu rk .

For official govern m ent purpo s e s , Greece is the co u n try

of Greeks (cl a i m ed to repre s ent 98 percent of the pop u l a ti on ) .

Ethnic minori ties are gen era lly ign ored , or of f i c i a lly decl a red

to be Gree k s . This is the case with the many Macedonians wh o

l ive in the nort h ern part of the co u n try. Some Macedon i a n s

are of Slavic origin and related to those living in the countrys

nei gh bor to the nort h , the Form er Yu go s l av Rep u blic ofMacedonia. Because Greece does not recognize their minority

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sta tu s , h owever, these citi zens of f i c i a lly do not ex i s t . In

addition, major urban centers are home to increasingly grow-

ing numbers of immigrants (legal and illegal) from African and

Asian countries. As a member of the European Union, Greeceis the first stopover on the road toward Western Europe. The

country is an attractiv e first destination for many of those

looking for a better life.

RELIGION

Most people travel to Greece for three reasons. The first

group searches for a pleasant and scenic place to spend their

summer vacations. The second group comes because of their

interest in ancient Greek culture and its many artifacts. Finally,

Greece is also a destination for those interested in religious

landscapes and history, particularly those relating to Greek

Eastern Ort h odox Ch ri s ti a n i ty. The majori ty of Greeks con s i der

them s elves Eastern Ort h odox Ch ri s ti a n s . Th eir chu rch is

independent of any larger ruling body, although it is loosely

tied to other Orthodox faiths and the ecumenical patriarch ofCon s t a n ti n op l e . The patri a rch is the nominal leader of a ll

O rt h odox Ch ri s ti a n s . This is the pri m a ry differen ce bet ween

Orthodox Christians and Roman Catholics, who recognize the

pope of Rome as their spiritual leader.

The countrys cultural landscape displays a rich religious

heritage. Even the smallest village in the remote countryside

has a place of worship with dom e - l i ke roof tops and Gree k

c ro s s e s . Famous mon a s teries perch ed on top of s teep hills a n d

rocks in the provi n ce of Th e s s a ly are well known . Mon k s

h ave occupied them for 1,000 years. Today, these humble yet

spectacular mon a s teries are a main to u rist attracti on in that

p a rt of Greece . A mill en n ium ago, h owever, t h eir main ro l e

was to provi de solitu de - s e a rching monks with a ref u ge from

the world. Monasteries of Meteora are tremendous architec-

tural achievements. In early days, the only way to gain accesswas to wait for ladders to be brought down. Another option

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49People and Culture

Religion is an important part of Greek culture; more than 95 percent of the

nations citizens are members of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Pictured h e r e

are worshippers making their way into a traditional Orthodox c h u r c h ,which ty p i cally includes a dome-like rooftop and Greek crosses.

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was to attem pt to scale the steep cl i f fs , re su l ting in almost

certain death for all but the most experienced climbers.

In nort h ern Greece , a n o t h er famous Eastern Ort h odox

l an d s c a pe ex i s t s . The com p l ex of almost two dozen mon a s teri e sl oc a ted on the Mount Athos Pen i n sula is a rem a rk a ble scen e .

These mon a s teries do not bel ong exclu s ively to the Gree k

O rt h odox Chu rch . Some bel ong to other Eastern Ort h odox

faiths su ch as Ru s s i a n , Serbi a n , or Rom a n i a n . Mount At h o s ,

l oc a ted not far from Th e s s a l on i k i , is a major pilgri m a ge site .

Here , one can of ten see dign i t a ries from other Ort h odox co u n-

tri e s . In 2005, V l adimir Putin became the first Russian pre s i den t

to visit this loc a ti on and pay his re s pects to Mount At h o s .

A small number of Greeks belong to the Greek Catholic

Church. All religious ceremonies and traditions in this church

are of Eastern Orthodox origin. Because of historical conflicts,

h owever, this faith is of f i c i a lly affiliated with the Rom a n

Catholic Church and looks to the pope of Rome for leadership.

Most Turks living in Greece are Muslims and follow the

Islamic teachings of the Prophet Muhammad. In their case,practicing a different religion is a way of preserving their own

ethnic identity. Some Albanians living in Greece are Orthodox

Christians, whereas others are Muslims. The latter group was

relatively small throughout history, but in recent decades it has

begun to grow rapidly because of increased immigration from

Muslim Al b a n i a . Ma ny Al b a n i a n s , e s pec i a lly those wh o

a rrived from tribal areas of cen tral and nort h ern parts of t h ei r

homeland, are only nominally religious. Many of them follow

ancient tribal codes of honor.

As is true el s ewh ere in Eu rope , Greece has become incre a s-

i n gly secular du ring recent dec ade s . Most con tem pora ry

Greeks ra rely visit a chu rch out s i de important rel i gi o u s

h o l i d ays . Yo u n ger gen era ti ons appear to be less rel i gious than

t h eir parents or gra n d p a ren t s . Urb a n i z a ti on , popular cultu re ,

and growing indivi dualism are some of the re a s ons for theadva n ce of a gn o s ticism and athei s m . More and more peop l e

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s eem to con s i der rel i gi on more as a form of c u l tu ral heri t a ge

and cel ebra te it that way.

The Greek cultu ral heri t a ge is sign i f i c a n t ly sym bo l i zed

by the many temples built by ancient Gree k s . Tod ay theseremnants are mainly of i n terest to arch aeo l ogists and to u ri s t s.

Yet these temples remind us of pre - Ch ri s tian ti m e s , wh en

Greeks practiced different religious beliefs. Their religion was

polyt h ei s ti c , meaning they bel i eved in many gods inste ad of

a single unifying god . Di f ferent gods had different roles that

people would respect and celebrate. Apollo was a sun god, Ares

the god of war, Aphrodite the goddess of love, and so forth.

POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS

Demographic (demography is the statistical study of the

human pop u l a ti on) trends in Greece are the ref l ecti on of

gen eral trends shared by most Eu ropean co u n tri e s . Al t h o u gh

many countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America experience

pop u l a ti on growt h , a majori ty of Eu ropean po s ti n du s tri a l

societies face the prospect of population decline. In terms ofdem ogra phic ch a n ge s , co u n tries pass thro u gh several stage s .

At the begi n n i n g, both bi rth- and death ra tes are high , wh i ch

keeps populations from expanding rapidly. This is a character-

istic of rural agricultural (preindustrial) societies. Then, when

society enters the indu s trial ph a s e , death ra tes become mu ch

l ower, but birthrates remain high. This is the stage most of the

devel oping world is ex peri encing tod ay. F i n a lly, s oc i eties in

the postindustrial stage (developed countries) experience low

death ra tes and very low bi rt h ra te s . Wh en the final stage is

re ach ed , pop u l a ti on growth is slow and can even decline if

m ore people die than are born .

Rapid urbanization, increased formal education of women,

and change from an industrial to postindustrial (service- and

information-based economy) are some of the factors influenc-

ing Greeces current demographic trends. Younger people tendto marry late, or not marry at all, and have fewer children than

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previous gen era ti on s . L i fe s tyle ch a n ges from agri c u l tu ra l

(where children were considered the form of family capital) to

postindustrial (cash economy) are directly affecting Greeces

dem ogra phic pictu re . As el s ewh ere in the We s tern worl d ,pursuing edu c a ti on , c a reers , and econ omic opportu n i ti e s , ra t h er

than having larger families, are becoming a priority for females.

Young Greeks understand that in todays world, having

more children also means a greater economic burden. Another

important factor is migration from the countryside. Birthrates

in rural areas are traditionally much higher than those of urban

cen ters . In urban cen ters su ch as At h ens and Th e s s a l on i k i ,

population growth resulting from births has become stagnant.

Ci ties grow because of m i gra ti on into them . Almost half

of Greeces pop u l a ti on , for ex a m p l e , l ives in the At h en s

m etropolitan are a , but nearly all of the growth has re su l ted

f rom in-migra ti on .

The Greek pop u l a ti on , l i ke that in most of Eu rope , i s

becoming older. Tod ay, the con ti n en ts life ex pectancy at bi rt h

is 80 ye a rs . If these trends con ti nue du ring the next couple ofdec ade s , Greece wi ll join those Eu ropean co u n tries that are

battling pop u l a ti on decl i n e . Cu rrent ferti l i ty ra tes (the

nu m ber of ch i l d ren to wh i ch the avera ge woman wi ll give

birth) are bel ow 2.1, wh i ch is the minimum to prevent natu ra l

pop u l a ti on decl i n e . It is obvi o u s , t h en , that in order to manage

pop u l a ti on issu e s , Greece must find a soluti on that wi ll all ow

it to avoid serious econ omic and po l i tical probl em s . Havi n g

too few young people cre a tes a lack of l a borers to su pport

econ omic growt h . One po s s i bi l i ty is to en co u ra ge immigra-

ti on to the co u n try and to all ow large nu m bers of n on et h n i c

Greeks to find homes and work there . This wi ll not be an easy

t a s k , h owever, because of the Gree k s s trong de s i re to ret a i n

t h eir co u n try s ethnic puri ty.

Life expectancy at the time of birth continues to increase,

wh i ch is why nearly 20 percent of the current pop u l a ti onis over 65 ye a rs of a ge . Cu rren t ly, the avera ge age of l i fe

52 G r e e c e

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ex pectancy is 79 ye a rs ; a l t h o u gh with furt h er improvem en t s

in medicine and in gen eral qu a l i ty of l i fe , we can ex pect that

number only to keep climbing upward. As elsewhere, females

live a few years longer than males.

DIET

It has been said that peoples diet represents one of their

most important cultural indicators. What people eat and the

way they eat can provide a tremendous amount of information

about local lifestyles. People eat what they are. Many customs

and manners are reflected in diet, especially in rural areaswhere changes occur slowly. Diet is a great example of cultural

53People and Culture

Like many European countries, Greece has an aging population, but perhaps

more troubling is the nations low birthrate, which stood at 9.7 per every1,000 persons in 2005. If the birthrate continues to trend dow n w a r d ,

Greece wont have enough laborers to support economic growth in a

country that has had a difficult time developing its rural economy.

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dif f u s i on ; that is, a spre ad of food preferen ces from on e

c u l tu re group to another. In parts of Eu rope , Ch ri s tians wi ll

e a t diff