1

NoiseintheOcean:

AReviewoftheIssues,ScienceandPolicy

RelatingtotheeffectsofNoiseonMarineLife

by

MichelleCovi,DevonEulie,DeannaSwain,

SarahWatkins‐Kenney

CoastalResourceManagementCRM6100

EastCarolinaUniversity

December2008

2

NoiseintheOcean:

AReviewoftheIssues,ScienceandPolicy

RelatingtotheeffectsofNoiseonMarineLife

CONTENTSi Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….4

ii Prologue………………………………………………………………………….51.0 Summary…………………………………………………………………………62.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………73.0 SoundsintheOcean……………………………………………………….103.1 PhysicsofSoundintheOcean3.2 SourcesofSound4.0 MarineLifeandSoundintheOcean…………………………..…..214.1 AdaptationstoUnderwaterEnvironment4.2 ScopeofIssue4.3 ResearchObstacles4.4 PhysicalHarm4.5 BehavioralEffects4.6 Masking4.7 Stress4.8 WhalesandSonar4.9 Conclusion5.0 OceanNoise–AReviewofExistingPolicy……………………..295.1 TheStakeholders5.2 DevelopingPolicy5.2.1 GlobalPolicy5.2.2 InternationalPolicy5.2.3 UnitedStatesPolicy5.2.4 StatePolicy6.0 NOAAandAcousticPrograms……………………………………….40

7.0 RecommendationsforNOAA………………………………………..41

8.0 References……………………………………………………………………44

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FIGURES

Fig1 Diagramofasoundpressurewaveandits’associated……………………11

particlemotion

Fig.2ADiagramofasoundpressurewave‐definingwavelength………………12

Fig.2BDiagramofasoundpressurewavedefiningthewavecycle

Fig.3AExampleofalowfrequencysoundwave……………………………………..12

Fig.3BExampleofahighfrequencysoundwave

Fig.4 Diagramofasoundpressurewavedefiningamplitude…………………14

TABLES

Table1.Comparisonofsoundpressurelevelsbetweenairandwater……..15

Table2.Soundtypes……………………….……………………………………………………...17

Table3.Functionalmarinemammalhearinggroups,auditorybandwidth..18

Table4.Sourcelevelsforanthropogenicsoundintheocean…………………...18

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NoiseintheOcean:

Areviewoftheissues,scienceandpolicyrelatingtotheeffectsofnoiseonmarinelife

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Theauthorswouldliketothank:

ThomasBigford NOAAAcousticsProgram

MarkSprague EastCarolinaUniversity,PhysicsDept

JoeLuczkowich EastCarolinaUniversity,BiologyDept

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NoiseintheOcean:

Areviewoftheissues,scienceandpolicyrelatingtotheeffectsofnoiseonmarinelife

PROLOGUE

ThisreportispresentedaspartofanassignmentfortheCoastalResourcesManagement

PhDprogramcourseCRM6100.Thescenarioforthisreviewisthattheauthorsareateam

ofNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)employees,requestedtobrief

thenew,politicallyappointed,headofNOAA,ontheissueofnoiseintheocean;toreview

possibleactionsforNOAAandtorecommendpoliticallyfeasibleactions.

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NoiseintheOcean:

Areviewoftheissues,scienceandpolicyrelatingtotheeffectsofnoiseonmarinelife

1.0 SUMMARY

Overthelastsixtyyearsourperceptionofsoundintheoceanshasgonefromsilent,to

song,tonoise,tonoisepollution.Thereisincreasinganecdotalandscientificevidencethat

toomuchhumangeneratedsoundisharmingmarinelife.Thispaperdescribesthe

productionofsoundintheoceanandthenreviewsscientificinvestigationsthatare

attemptingtodeterminewhether,andhow,humangeneratednoiseisharmful,andhowits

effectsmightbemitigated.Theactionsoflegislators,policymakers,andgovernment

agencies,inparticulartheNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)to

balancetheneedsandviewsofvariousstakeholdersarereviewedandrecommendations

forfutureactionsmade.

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2.0INTRODUCTION

In1953,JacquesCousteaureferredtotheoceansasaSilentWorld(Cousteau1953).

Almostsixtyyearslaterhisson,Jean‐MichelCousteauisoneoftheleadingcampaigners

againstdeafeningnoisepollutionintheocean,harmingentirepopulationsofmarinelife

(Cousteau2008).Whathappened?Notonlydidwestartlisteningbutalsotomakesound

intheocean,totheextentthathumangeneratedsoundisnowfrequentlyreferredtoas

noisepollution.

The1970releaseofthealbumSongsoftheHumpbackWhale,whichhassoldover30

millioncopies,waskeyinraisingpeople’sawarenessthatanimalsintheoceansmake

sound,andthattheoceansarefarfromsilent.Fromthe1950stheUSnavy,whilelistening

forRussiansubmarines,incidentallyrecordedwhalesounds.Recordingsofwhaleswere

releasedin1967tobiologistRogerPayne.Hecollaboratedonproducinganalbum,in

supportofthecampaigntostopwhaling.Thecampaignagainstwhalingwaspartofa

growingmovementofconcernabouttheprotectionanddevelopmentofcoastalareas

generally.TheMarineMammalProtectionActpassedbyCongressin1972,includeda

generalmoratoriumontheimportationofmarinemammalsandtheirproductsintothe

UnitedStates,effectivelyendingwhalingintheUS.TheActalsoestablishedtheMarine

MammalCommission(MMC)chargedwithprotectionandconservationofmarine

mammals(MMC2008).

Sincethe1950s,humanshaveincreasinglygeneratedsoundintheoceans.Someofit

deliberatelyasintheNavy’suseofSONARto`seeunderwater’anddetecteverquieter

enemysubmarines(Oceanus2008),ortheuseofsoundwavesinseismicsurveysforoil

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andgasexploration.Soundisalsogeneratedincidentallyasaresultofotheractivities,for

exampleenginenoiseofcommercialshipping.Onestudyreportsthatnoiselevelsinthe

Pacific,160mileswestofSanDiego,arenow10‐12decibelshigherthan40yearsago

(Hildebrandetal2008).

Anincreaseofmassstrandingsofwhales,particularlyofthedeepdivingotherwiserarely

seenCuvier’sbeakedwhales,sincethe1960sinvariouspartsoftheworld,hasdrawn

attentiontothepossibilitythathumanmadesoundintheoceans,particularlytheNavy’s

useofsonar,couldbeseriouslyinterferingwithitsnaturalinhabitants(Frantzis1998;

Fortescueetal2005).Whalestrandings,arenotanewphenomenon;Podestaetal(2006)

foundreportsofover230BeakedwhalestrandingsintheMediterraneanSeaoverthelast

200years.Althoughanincreaseinthelast20yearswasfoundonly1in12couldbe

`unequivocallyassociatedwithnavalactivity’(Podestaetal2006).In2007RearAdmiral

Rice(Noel2007)statedthatsonarwasimplicatedinanaverage5strandingsperyearto

over3,000fromnaturalcauses.

DespiteattemptsbytheNavyandmanyscientiststokeepthingsinperspective,imagesof

dyingwhalesonbeachesinevitablyprovokeconcern,protestanddemandsforsomething

tobedonefromthepublic,media,andNon‐GovernmentOrganizations(NGOs),in

particulartheNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil(NRDC).Allconcernedforthe

environmentandallcertainofacauseandeffectlinkbetweensonarandstrandings.In

responsetopublicpressurethroughthemediaandthecourts,Naviesaroundtheworld

(includingintheUS)haveconcededandimplementedriskmitigationproceduresduring

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exercises(Fortescue2005).However,thesearemostlybasedonaprecautionaryapproach

–ratherthanonscientificdata.

Althoughwhalestrandingsdrawpublicattentiontotheissueoftoomuchhuman

generatedsoundintheoceanthereisincreasingevidencethatfisharealsoaffectedby

sound(Luczovich2008).Anumberofresearchgroupsareendeavoringtoprovidedataso

thatinformed,realistic,decisionsonpolicyandregulationcanbemadetomitigatethe

effectsofnoiseonmarinelife.ForexampletheNationalOceanicandAtmospheric

Administration(NOAA)isactivelyinvolvedinthisresearchthroughitsOceanAcoustics

Program(SouthallandGentry2005)andhasjustcompletedcollectingdatainHawaii,on

deepdivingwhalesandtheirresponsetosonarduringmilitaryexercises(Oceanus2008).

ThisisaprojectinpartnershipwithinternationalscientistsandtheUSNavy.Such

collaborativeeffortsareneededtoarriveatawin‐winsituationforallstakeholders.

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3.0SOUNDINTHEOCEAN

3.1ThePhysicsofSoundintheOcean

Soundwavesareatypeofwavecalleda“longitudinalwave”(Madsen,2004;Sprague,

2008;Southallet.al.,2007).Thesewavesarecharacterizedbyalternatingpressure

sequencesastheypropagatethroughdifferentmedia(Madsen,2004;Southallet.al.,2007;

www.grc.nasa.gov;UNRIOMP,2008).Therearetwomaincomponentstothesoundwave;

“…(1)apressurecomponentand(2)aparticlemotioncomponent.”(Southallet.al.,2007).

Pressureisdefinedasaforceperaunitofarea(http://hyperphysics.phy‐

astr.gsu.edu/hbase/press.html).Particlemotionisdefinedas“…theoscillatory

displacement,velocity,oraccelerationoftheactual‘particles’ofthemediumataparticular

location…”(Southallet.al.,2007).Dependingonthetypeofmarineorganism,eitherthe

pressureorparticlemotioncomponent(oracombinationofthetwo)isperceivedand

processed(Sprague,2008;Southallet.al.,2007).Mostfishesareabletoprocessparticle

motionwhilemarineandterrestrialmammalsprimarilyperceivethepressurecomponent

(Southallet.al.,2007).

Soundisactuallyproducedasthesepressurewavescausevibrationswithinthedifferent

typesofmatter,suchasairorwater(Madsen,2004;Southallet.al.,2007).Whengraphed,a

soundwavelooksverysimilartoanoceanwave(Fig.1).Howeverinsteadofhighsand

lowsonthegraphrepresentingverticalheightsofwaterlevel,theyrepresenthighsand

lowsofpressure(Fig.1)(UNRIOMP,2008).Asthesehighsandlowsinpressurepass

throughamaterialtheycompressandexpandthemoleculesofthematerial(Fig.1),

creatingthevibrations(Madsen,2004;Southallet.al.,2007).Wecandescribetheresulting

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soundintermsofitsfrequencyandintensity(Madsen,2004;www.grc.nasa.gov;UNRI

OMP,2008).

Thefrequencyisafunctionofspeedofthesoundwaveandits’wavelength.Wavelength

(Fig.2)isthedistancebetweentwomaximumsorminimumsinwavepressure(Madsen,

2004;www.grc.nasa.gov;UNRIOMP,2008).Frequencyisthenthenumberofwavelengths

thatpassapointinonesecond(Madsen,2004;www.grc.nasa.gov).Whenasingle

wavelengthpassesover1seconditiscalled1“cycle”andisreportedasa1Hertz(Hz)

frequency(UNRIOMP,2008).Soundwaveswithlongerwavelengthsarelowfrequency

(fewercyclespersecond,Fig.3A)whileshorterwavelengthsarehigherfrequencywaves

(morecyclespersecond,Fig.3B)(Madsen,2004;UNRIOMP,2008).Thisshowsushow

wavelengthandfrequencyarerelated.

Figure1.Diagramofasoundpressurewaveandits’associatedparticlemotion(UNRIOMP,2008)

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Figure2.A)Diagramofasoundpressurewavedefiningwavelength.B)Diagramofasoundpressurewave

definingthewavecycle(UNRIOMP,2008).

Figure3.A)Exampleofalowfrequencysoundwave.B)Exampleofahighfrequencysoundwave(UNRI

OMP,2008).

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Theintensityofasoundwaveisameasureofitspower.Thisisseenastheamplitude(Fig.

4)orheightofthesoundwave(UNRIOMP,2008).Greateramplitudesrepresenthigher

intensitysoundwavesthatareperceivedassoundinglouder(UNRIOMP,2008).The

powerismeasuredindecibels(dB)asaratioofthemeasuredsoundpowertoareference

levelofsoundpower(UNRIOMP,2008;www.phys.unsw.edu/au/jw/dB.html).Theratiois

describedonalogarithmicscaleandthereferencelevelusedisbasedonanagreedupon

intensityadjustedbythedensityofthematerialthesoundistravelingthrough(UNRIOMP,

2008;www.phys.unsw.edu/au/jw/dB.html).Asadecibelisbasedonalogarithmicscale

weneedtorememberthatthatincreasesindecibellevelsarenotlinear.A10dBincrease

insoundpowerisactuallyatentimesincreaseinpoweranda20dBincreaseisaone

hundredtimesincreaseinpower(UNRIOMP,2008).However,a10dBincreaseinpower

isperceivedasatwotimesincreaseinloudness,notatentimesincrease(UNRIOMP,2008;

www.phys.unsw.edu/au/jw/dB.html).Sowhileameasureofdecibellevelwillrepresent

thepowerofagivensoundwave,itonlyindirectlygivesustheperceivedloudnessofthat

sound.

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Figure4.Diagramofasoundpressurewavedefiningamplitude(UNRIOMP,2008).

Asmentionedabove,thereferencelevelusedtocalculatethedecibellevelforagivesound

waveisdependentonthetypeofmaterialthewaveismovingthrough.Thestandard

referencelevelforsoundsinairisdBre20µPawhilewaterisdBre1µPa(Madsen,2004;

Southallet.al.,2007).Thiscomplicatescomparisonsofsoundlevelsbetweenairandwater

(Madsen,2004).Table1containssomecommonsoundtypes,theirfrequency(Hz)and

intensity(dB)inbothairandwater.Thesamesoundinaircanappeartohaveamuch

lowerintensitythenthesamesoundunderwaterduetothenecessaryconversionby

referencepressure.Therefore,unlessyouconvertthereporteddecibellevelforan

underwatersoundtoitsairequivalent,itishardtodeterminehowloud(inahumanframe

ofreference)thesoundactuallyis.

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Typicalsoundinair

Waterstandard

(dBre1μPa)

Airstandard

(dBre20μPaSPL)

Thresholdofhumanhearing(1,000Hz) [26] 0

Veryquietlivingroom [66] 40

Sealthresholdunderwater(1,000Hz) 80 [54]

Normalspeech(1meter) [86] 60

Belugathreshold(1,000Hz) 100 [74]

Lion'sroar(10meters) [116] 90

Jetairliner(10meters) [130] 104

Finwhalecall(100meters) 140 [114]

Humanthresholdofpain(ateardrum) [166] 140

Somemilitaryartillery [186] 160

Belugaecholocationcall(1meter) 220 [194]

Source:AdaptedfromKryter(1985)andRichardsonetal.(1991).

NOTE:Bracketedlevelsarenominallevelsafterconversiontoalternatemedium.

Table1.Comparisonofsoundpressurelevelsbetweenairandwater.

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Anothercharacteristicweareconcernedaboutisthespeedandvelocityofasoundwave.

Thespeedofthewavereflectstheamountofenergyithasandthetypeofmediumitis

movingthrough,whilevelocityisacombinationofspeedanddirectionalityofmovement

(Madsen,2004).Assoundwavesmovethroughdifferenttypesofmatter,thedensityof

thatmaterialwillaffectthewave’sspeed.Higherdensitymaterialssuchasliquidswill

causesoundwavestomovefasterandrequirelessenergytopropagate.Lowerdensity

mediumssuchasaircausesoundwavestomovemoreslowlyandrequiremoreenergyto

travellongdistances(Madsen,2004).Also,assoundwavespropagatethroughdifferent

materialstheirintensitycanchangewithdistance.Sotheintensityofasoundmeasuredat

itssource(usuallymeasured1mfromsource)andthereceivedlevel(intensityofthe

soundwaveatitsreceptionbyanorganismorrecordinginstrument)canbedifferent

(Southallet.al.,2007).Thisisimportantbecausedependingonthepropertiesofthe

mediumandthedistancethesoundtravelsthroughit,theintensityofthesoundwhenitis

heardbysayawhale,isdifferentthanwhenitwasfirstproduced(Southallet.al.,2007).So

measurementsofsourcelevelmaynothelpindeterminingtheendresultofthesound

wavewhenitreachesapointofinterest.

Anotherfactorweneedtolookatisifthesoundisa“(1)pulseor(2)nonpulse”(Table2)

(Southallet.al.,2007).Pulsesofsoundcanhaveverydifferentaffectsonmarineorganisms

thennonpulseormoreconstantsounds(Southallet.al.,2007).Pulsedsoundsinclude

explosions,singleairguns,pilingstrikes,somesonarsanddepthsounders.Multiplepulsed

soundsareprimarilyairgunarrays,someactivesonars,pilingstrikesandexplosions.

Finally,nonpulsesoundsincludevehiclevibrations,drillingandconstruction,andthetwo

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maintypesofNavysonar,lowfrequencyactiveandmid‐frequency,aswellasdepth

sounders(Southall,et.al.,2007).

Table2.Soundtypes(Southall,et.al.,2007)

3.2SourcesofSoundintheOcean

Marinemammalsutilizesoundforsocialinteraction,echolocation,orientation,and

predator‐preyinteractions(Southallet.al.,2007).Soniferousfishesalsocreatesoundfor

matingpurposes(Luzckovich,2008).Table3illustratessomeoftherangesofhearingfor

groupsofmarinemammals.WhenthisiscomparedtoTable4,wecanbegintoseewhere

differentsourcesofanthropogenicallyproducedsoundintheoceancouldaffectmarine

mammals.

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Table3.Functionalmarinemammalhearinggroups,auditorybandwidth(estimatedlowertoupperfrequencyhearingcut‐off),generarepresentedineachgroup,andgroupspecific(M)frequency‐weightings(Southallet.al.,2007).

Table4.Sourcelevelsforanthropogenicsoundintheocean.

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TwolargecontributorstoanthropogenicsoundintheoceanaretheuseofSONARandair

gunarrays.SONARstandsfor“soundnavigationandranging”andisusedforacoustic

locatingintheoceanbybothshipsandmarinemammals.Therearetwomaintypesof

SONAR,activeandpassive(UNRIOMP,2008).WithactiveSONAR,asoundisgenerated

andthenthetimebetweenthatsoundcreationandwhenanecho(orreturn)ofthesound

isreceivedismeasured(UNRIOMP,2008).Thetimetellsusthedistancethesoundtravel

beforeitwasreflectedback,allowustodeterminehowfarobjectsareundertheocean

(UNRIOMP,2008).PassiveSONARconsistsofhydrophonereceiversusedtosimplylisten

tothesoundthatisproducedunderwater,nosoundisactuallygeneratedbythelistener

(UNRIOMP,2008).

TheUSNavycurrentlyworkswithtwomaintypesofactiveSONAR,theSURTASSLFA

(surveillancetowedarraysensorsystemlow‐frequencyactiveSONAR)andtacticalmid‐

frequencySONAR(Southallet.al.,2007).TheSURTASSLFAoperatesatafrequencyof

about300Hz,whilethemid‐frequencySONARoperatesprimarilybetween1‐5kHz

(Southallet.al.,2007).Thesesoundsaremultipulsedandbecausetheyareemittedwitha

specificallyhorizontaldirectionality,cantravelgreatdistances(Southallet.al.,2007).

PulsesfromthesetypesofSONARhavebeenrecordedtotraveltensofkilometersthrough

theocean(Southallet.al.,2007).

Theairgunarraysareprimarilyusedforoilandgasexplorationintheocean.Theselarge,

towed,arraysconsistoflonglinesofhydrophonesandnoisemakers(Southallet.al.,2007).

Theairgunlinesdeployedgeneratepulsedblastsofintensesoundinthe300Hzrange

everyfewsecondsthatpropagatesdowntheoceanfloor,isreflected,andthenmeasured

20

onthereturnecho(Southallet.al.,2007).Byanalyzingtheechoesthatarereceivedbythe

hydrophones,prospectorscandeterminethetypesandthicknessesofrocklayersatthe

oceanbottomandthelocationofoilorgasdeposits.Soundwavesfromthesearrayshave

beenrecordedasfaras12kmfromtheirsourcearea(Southallet.al.,2007).

Theserepresentjustafewofthelargecontributorstosoundintheocean.Scientificstudy

ofallthepotentialgeneratorsofsoundisnecessarytodeterminerelativecontributionsand

impactsonmarinelife.Generatorsofsound,asstakeholdersindevelopingpolicyin

relationtocontrollinghumangeneratedsoundintheoceanarediscussedfurtherinSection

5.1

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4.0MARINELIFEANDSOUND

4.1AdaptationstoUnderwaterEnvironment

Intheunderwaterworldwherereducedlightpenetrationlimitsvisibilitytoafewhundred

metersatbest,marineanimalshaveadaptedtousesoundtopaintan‘acousticimage’of

theirworld(OceanStudiesBoard,2003).Asdiscussedabove,soundtravelsmuchfarther

underwaterthanitdoesintheair.Furthermore,thesounddoesnotdegradeasquickly.

Thisallowssomemarinespeciestoproduceandreceivevocalizationsovergreatdistances

ortodetectlocalizedsoundsatlevelsbeyondtherangeofhumanhearing.Marineanimals

likelyusesoundasaprimarymeansofinterpretingandinteractingwiththeir

environment.Soundbecomestheirmeansofcommunicatingwitheachother,detecting

andwarningofapproachingpredators,detectingpreyspecies,navigating,andmaintaining

familialandpodbonds(UniversityofRhodeIsland,Marineanimaluseofsound,2008).

Marineanimalshaveadaptedtotheirsound‐basedenvironmentbydevelopingspecialized

hearingandecholocationorgans.Cetaceans(whalesanddolphins)haveaninnerear

structurethatisremarkablysimilartothatofterrestrialmammals,butlackanexternalear

structure.Instead,soundisperceivedthroughvibrationsofathin‘window’ofboneinthe

jaw,whichtransmitssoundvibrationsthroughfattytissuethroughthemiddleear(the

structureofwhichispoorlyunderstood)totheinnerear.Soundproductioniscarriedout

bythepassageofairthroughsacsandnasalpassagesindolphinsandsomecetaceans.In

somewhales,thissoundisperhapsamplifiedbyresonatingairsacsbeforebeingemitted

directlythroughafattyorgancalledthemeloninthefrontofthehead.Thesesounds,

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eithershortpulsesofsoundorclicks,areusedasanecholocationdevice,withthecetacean

usingtheelapsedtimebeforethesoundechoesbacktodeterminedistanceanddirectionof

otherobjects(UniversityofRhodeIsland,Soundproductionandreception,2008).

Fishpopulationshavedevelopedatwo‐partstructureofaninnerearandalaterallinethat

allowsthemtohear.Thedensityofafishbodyissimilartothatofwater,sosoundpasses

directlythroughthefish’sbodytotheearbones(otoliths),whicharedenserandvibrate

moreslowlythanthesurroundingtissue.Thisvibrationdifferencestimulatesthefinecilia,

orhair,withintheinnereartocreatesoundperception.Thelaterallineisasensoryorgan

alongthesideofthefishthatallowittoperceivemovement,includingthekinetic

componentofsound.Somefishhaveswimbladdersthatcompresswithsoundwavesand

transmitvibrationstotheearaswell.(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).Fishvocalizations

areproducedinseveralway,themostwell‐knownbeingthedrummingofsonicmuscles

againstairbladders(UniversityofRhodeIsland,Howdofishhearsounds?,2008)Fish

vocalizationscanbeavarietyofgrunts,clicks,drumming,andsnappingthatareusedto

attractmatesandwarnoffpredators(UniversityofRhodeIsland,Theimportanceofsound,

2008).

Thesespecializedhearingandvocalizationorgansareadaptedtoaccountforambient

noisefromwindandwaves,rain,seismicevents,andothermarinelife.Thisnaturalsystem

hasbeencompromisedbytheintroductionofmanmadesoundfromtheindustrialized

world.Thismanmade,oranthropogenic,soundcaninterferewithnormalcommunication,

increaseambientnoiselevels,andcausephysicalandbehavioralharmtosomemarine

species.Asdiscussedpreviously,thissoundcomesfromshipping,marineconstruction,

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airgunsforseismicsurveys,andmilitarytacticalsonar,amongothersources(Nowacek,

Thorne,Johnston,&Tyack,2007).

Manmadesoundcancausebehavioralandphysiologicalresponsesinmarinelife,including

bothmammalsandfish.Thereisconsiderablescientificandstakeholderconsensusthat

effortsmustbemadetominimizeharmfuleffectstomarinelife(OceanStudiesBoard,

2003).Thedifficultyliesindeterminingwhatisharmfultowhichspeciesunderwhat

conditions.Thisiscomplicatedbydifferencesinsoundtransmissiondependingonsalinity,

temperature,thermallayers,distance,andorientationofboththesoundproducerand

receiver(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).

4.2ScopeofIssue

Inlookingatthisproblem,researchshouldfocusnotonlyonmarinemammalssuchas

whalesanddolphins,butalsoonfishpopulations.Someattentionshouldalsobegivento

turtles,crabs,squid,andinvertebrates.Researchtodatehasmainlyfocusedonindividual

animals,butpopulation‐leveleffectsarealsoofgreatconcern,especiallyintermsofthe

potentialharmtofisheries(NOAA,2004).Thispopulation‐levelresearchhasseenlittle

workbecauseofinherentdifficultiesinresearchingmarinepopulationsonthatscale

(OceanStudiesBoard,2005).

4.3ResearchObstacles

Researchsuggeststhatloudsoundscancausephysiologicalinjurytobothfish(Edds‐

Walton&Finneran,2006)andmarinemammals(Nowaceketal,2007).Unfortunately,it

appearsthatnearlyeveryspecieshasitsownuniquethresholdatwhichitcanperceive

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sound,auniqueoptimumhearingrangeinwhichitcommunicatesanddetectspreyand

predators,anduniquelevelsatwhichinjurycanoccur.Theresearchtodeterminethese

levelsistimeconsumingandpainstakingwork(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).Itis

generallyconsideredthatifamarineanimalcannotperceiveasound,itisconsiderednon‐

harmfultothem.Withthisthresholdof‘harmfulsound’differingwitheachindividual

species,therearesignificantobstaclestodeterminingaregulatorystandard.Arecent

efforttodevelopcriteriaformarinemammalsresultedineightyuniqueexposurecriteria,

whichtheresearchersacknowledgethattheircategorieswereincomplete(NOAA,2004).

4.4PhysicalHarm

Asstatedearlier,manmadesoundcanhavephysiologicalandbehavioraleffectsonmarine

animals.Asidefromtheregulatoryobstacles,thephysiologicalharmistwofold.Like

terrestrialanimals,soundsofsufficientdecibelsanddurationcanproducebothtemporary

andpermanenthearingdamage.Thisischaracterizedasathresholdshift,meaningthat

theouterlimitsofsoundperceptionareshifted,reducingtherangeofhearing.Most

researchinvolvesstudyingtemporarythresholdshifts,whichappeartobefarmore

commonatthecurrentlyusedsoundlevels(Nowaceketal,2007).Again,eachspecies

appearstohaveitsownlevelsthatcauseathresholdshift.Atbest,researcherstryto

determinethelevelsforindividualspeciesinlaboratorywork.

Second,ifloudenough,soundmayproduceactualtissuedamage.Underwaterexplosions

canclearlycausefataltissuedamage(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).Thereis

circumstantialevidencethatsomesonarmaycauseauditorytraumainsomespecies,but

themechanismisunknown.Somestrandedwhaleshaveshownsignsofhemorrhaging

25

aroundtheauditoryorgansandgasbubbleformation,butthecauseisunknown,aswillbe

exploredlater.

4.5BehavioralEffects

Manmadesoundmaycausebehavioralshifts,whichmay,inthelongterm,bemoreharmful

thantissuedamagetoindividualanimals.Thesuddenorpersistentpresenceofaloudor

irritatingsoundmaycausemarinespeciestoswimawayfromthesound,either

temporarilyorpermanently.Thisrisksexposingtheanimaltonewpredatorgroupsor

forcingthemintoareaswithlessfavorablefoodsupplies,temperatures,orenvironment.

Thereisresearchshowingthatschoolsoffishmoveawayfromthesoundoffishingboats,

swimawayfromicebreakersinthearctic,andmayleavetheareaofpersistentairgunuse

(OceanStudiesBoard,2003).

Infish,theresponsestounusualsoundsincludestartleresponses,alarmbehavior,and

avoidancebyswimmingaway(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).Inmammals,research

showschangesindepthanddurationofdives,blowpatterns,andvocalization(changein

durationandfrequencyofcalls)whencertainnoiseispresent(OceanStudiesBoard,2003).

Thesebehavioralchangeareusuallytemporary,butlong‐termchangeshavebeenfoundin

somecases.

Thesebehavioraleffectsarehighlyspecies‐dependentandvariationisshownwithineach

species.Someofthefactorsinthisvariabilityinclude:environmentalfactorsinsound

transmission,locationandsource;individualsensitivityandtolerances;activityatthetime

ofsoundperception(ieprotectingyoung,feeding,migration);andtheageandgenderof

individual(OceanStudiesBoard,2003).Asignificantfactorinthevariableresponseis

26

observedhabituationandsensitizationwithrepeatedexposurestosound.Somespecies,if

exposedtoasoundwithalackofnegativeeffects,willbecomehabituatedtothesoundand

willceasereactingtothesound.Others,ifexposedtoasoundassociatedwithnegative

effects,willbecomesensitizedtothesoundandreactatlowerlevels.(Southalletal.,

2007).

4.6.Masking

Anotherissueisthemaskingofbiologicalsoundbymanmadesound.Asmentionedearlier,

eachspecieshasanoptimumsoundlevelinwhichitcommunicates,navigates,andlocates

predatorandpreyspecies.Usually,thissoundisatadifferentfrequencythanmost

ambientsound.Ifmanmadesoundisintroducedatafrequencysimilarenoughtothatused

bythemarineanimal,itcan‘drownout’ormaskthebiologicalsounds(NOAA,2004).This

couldhavepopulationleveleffectsandmaycausechangesinvocalization.Thisis

particularlyaconcernwithshipping,whichcanincreasethedecibellevelsofambientnoise

aswellaslow‐frequencysonar,whichcanmasksoundsfromcertainwhalesoverlong

distances.Asmentionedearlier,oneresponsetothismaskinghasbeenachangeinthe

durationandfrequencyofvocalization.

4.7Stress

Someresearchersareconcernedaboutthestresseffectsoflong‐termexposureto

manmadesounds.Littleresearchhasbeendoneinthisareabecauseofdesigndifficulties,

butresearchersspeculatethattheincreasednervoussystemresponsefromstress

reactionscouldcauseindividual‐levelgrowth,reproductivity,andgeneralhealtheffects

(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).Theseindividualleveleffects,ifseenthroughouta

27

population,couldhavesignificanteffectsonthelong‐termhealthofournation’sfisheries.

Therearesuggestionsthatstressresponsescouldbeanissueforlocalpopulations(non‐

migratory)offish.Thisisanareawherefurtherresearchcouldbeinvaluableto

determiningifthereis,infact,aproblem.

4.8WhalesandSonar

Therehasbeenconsiderablepublicattentionfocusedontheissueofmid‐frequencyactive

sonar(MFA)andwhalestrandings.Thereisgeneralagreementnowthatmilitarymid‐

frequencysonarexercisesmay,incertaincircumstances,leadtothestrandingofdeep‐

divingbeakedwhales(NOAA,2001).Therehavebeenanumberofstrandingsofbeaked

whalescloselyrelatedintimeandspacetoMFAsonaruse.Whiletherecertainlyappears

tobeacorrelation,itisstillacircumstantialconnection(OceanStudiesBoard,2003).The

incidentsinvolvedthemassstrandingsofdeep‐divingbeakedwhales(whichrarelystrand,

normally)showingsomehemorrhagingandsignsconsistentwithauditorytrauma.

Despitethesephysicalsigns,nooneyethasdeterminedamechanismthroughwhichsonar

exposurecouldcausetheseeffects.Sometheoriesincludeacousticresonancecausinggas

bubbles,disorientationcausingpanicsurfacinganddecompression,andgasbubbles

formedbysonarinsupersaturatedtissues(NOAA,2002).Theseremaintheoriesatthis

time,butbeakedwhaletaggingexercisessuggestnonaturalcausesforsuchinjuries

(Tyack,Johnson,Soto,Sturleses,&Madsen,2006).Furthercomplicatingtheissue,MFAis

usedthousandsoftimeseachyeararoundtheworldbyover300shipswithoutcausing

knownstrandings.AjointNavyandNOAAreportonastrandingeventintheBahamas

suggestedthatstrandingmighthavebeencausedbyacombinationofsurfaceduct

28

conditions,unusualbathymetry(especiallysteepslopesintropicalarea),aconfinedarea,

andheavysonaruseoveranextendedperiod(NOAA,2001).

4.9Conclusion

Thishasonlytouchedonsomeoftheissuesaroundbiologicaleffectsofmanmadesoundon

marinelife.Iftherewereoneoverridingtheme,itwouldbeuncertainty.Thereclearly

appearstobethepotentialforsignificantharmtoavarietyofmarinespecies.Thetrouble

isthatthereissimplynotenoughdatatounderstandwhichsoundsaffectwhichspecies

underwhichcircumstanceswithanycertainty(Nowaceketal,2007).Wecanfindpatterns

andextrapolateanticipatedimpacts,buttheimpactsonanimalsthatremainoutofsight

andhardtodetect,count,orstudyarelargelyaguessinggame.Thatleadstothequestion

ofhowtoregulateaproblemwhenwecan’tidentifytheextentormechanismsofthe

problem.

29

5.0OCEANNOISE–AREVIEWOFEXISTINGPOLICY

Regulationofpollutionintheoceanhasbeenachallengeforpolicymakerseversincethe

recognitionthattheoceanwasnotalimitlessresourceandcouldbeimpactedbyhuman

actions.Therecognitionofnoiseintheoceanasatypeofpollutionisnewbecauseuntil

recentlythetechnologydidnotexisttoexperienceunderwatersounds,especiallyas

experiencedbymarinelife.Noiseisadifferentkindofpollutionthanthosetraditionally

regulatedintheoceanbecauseitisaformofenergy,ratherthanamaterial,suchasoilor

sewage.Anotherchallengetopolicyformationandultimatelymanagementofoceannoise

isthetransboundarynatureofthepollution,whichmakesnationalandinternational

co‐operationessential.

5.1.0TheStakeholders

Itisimportanttounderstandthestakeholdersinvolvedinpolicyformation.Non‐

governmentalorganizationshavebeenimportantinframingtheissueofoceannoiseas

wellasbringingtheimportanceoftheproblemtothemediaandthepublic.

5.1.1Non­GovernmentalOrganizations

Non‐GovernmentalOrganizations(NGOs)bydefinitionarenotorganizedbygovernments

orintergovernmentalagreements,butarecapableofbeinginvolvedinnationalor

internationalaffairsduetotheirleveloforganizationorexpertise.(McCarthy,2004)The

mostimportantNGOsintheUnitedStatesthathavebeeninvolvedinoceannoisepolicy

formationhavebeentheNationalsResourcesDefenseCouncil(NRDC),Seaflow,Inc.,and

severalanimalwelfareandmarinemammaladvocacygroups.Internationalcoordinationof

30

NGOshasbeenleadbytheInternationalOceanNoiseCoalition,whichhasorganizedover

150NGOs,whichhaveconcernsabouttheoceannoiseissue.TheNGOsrepresentthe

sectorofthepublicthatisconcernedabouttheanimals,primarilywhales,butalsofishand

othermarinespeciesthatmaybeaffectedbyoceannoise.NGOshaveadvocatedfortheir

pointofviewthroughtheuseofmedia,includingjournalism,video,websites,emailsand

directmailtothepublic.TheNDRCandothershavealsousedthelegalsystemtoattempt

tostopactivitiesbytheNavyandresearchvesselswhentheyfeltitendangeredmarine

mammals.Otherstakeholdersareprimarilythosewhoseactivitygeneratesanthropogenic

soundandthosewhoregulatethem.

5.1.2TheMilitary

Themilitary,primarilytheUSNavy,havethemostdocumenteduseofsoundintheocean

andarethemostcontroversialofallnoisegenerators.Navalvesselsfromallovertheworld

usesonar,bothpassiveandactivefornavigationandforfindingenemysubmarinesor

underwaterdevises.Themilitaryalsohasexplodedminesandtorpedoesunderwater

whichcreatesapressurepulsewhichareknowntocausedeathandinjurytomarine

mammals.Activesonarcanbehighfrequency,whichcanevenbelocatedonatorpedofor

shortrangetargeting,orlowfrequencyandhighpowerabletorangeoverlargedistances

andareofmostconcernintheissueofoceannoise.Generally,themilitarypositionisthat

theirusesofsonarandothernoiseproducingactivitiesarenecessarytothesecurityof

theircountryandresistregulationsthatwouldlimittheiruse.However,theNavyofthe

UnitedStatesandothercountries,suchasAustraliahavevoluntarilylimitedtheiruseof

sonarinsomeareasofspecificconcernandsharedresearchaboutunderwaterambient

31

soundsinsomecases.USNavyhasalsomitigatedtheirimpactsbyanumberofvoluntary

measureswhenusingsonarsuchasimplementingwhalespottersandhaltingexercises

whenawhaleisdetectedinthearea.

5.1.3OceanographicResearch

Oceanographicresearchalsousesactivesonartodeterminebathymetry,researchwater

massesandstudyoceanbottomcharacteristics.Someseafloorresearchtechniquesuse

explosivesandairgunssimilartothoseusedinseismicsurveys.Oneofthemost

controversialusesoflowfrequencysonarmonitorsglobalwarmingtrendsintheoceanin

theAcousticThermomteryofOceanClimateprojectlocatedoutofScrippsInstitutionof

OceanographyinSanDiego.Thisisanewtypeofresearchinwhichsoundscanbedetected

almosthalfwayaroundtheworld.TheNRDCandcoalitionpartnersstronglyopposedthis

typeofresearch,butresearchonthemarinemammalsthatwouldbeaffectedshowedno

significantdisturbance(Brown,1998).

5.1.4CommercialShipping

Manycommercialinterestsgeneratenoise.Shippingisprobablythebiggestcontributorto

backgroundnoisethroughengines,flownoise,propellers,pumps,compressorand

generators.Thistypeofnoiseislowfrequencyandlargeshipsthatarefullyloadedor

pushingortowingaloadgeneratethemostnoise.(McCarthy,2004)Thenumberofships

beingbuiltandusedaswellasshipsizehasincreasedandisexpectedtokeepincreasingas

longasinternationaltradedemands.Thenoisefromshippinghasnotnecessarilyincreased

duetoadvancesintechnology,butthishasnotbeenwidelystudied.However,noisefrom

32

shippingisprobablymostintenseintheshippinglanes,whichmaybesignificant

dependingonthelocationofmarineanimalhabitats.

5.1.5Offshoreoilexploration

Offshoreexplorationforoilandthentheextractionmayincreaseaslandbasedoilreserves

aredepleted.Airgunsarethemostcommonwayforseismicsurveystogeneratesounds.

Drillingactivitiesalsogeneratenoisethatcontributestotheambientsoundandadditional

noiseisgeneratedbythesupportfunctionsassociatedwiththedrillingplatform,such

supplyships,aircraftandsoforth.Drillingactivityinrecentyearshasbeenlocatedin

deeperwaters,whichindicatesmoreexplorationisoccurringindeeperwaters.Thisleads

toincreasesintheimpactsofthesoundsinceitcantravelfartherindeeperwaters.Onthe

otherhand,advancesintechnologyandreducedactivityofexplorationvesselsmay

indicateadecreaseinnoisegenerationbythisindustry.

5.1.6Dredging,TunnelingandDriving

Dredging,tunnelinganddrivingofpilingcanalsocontributetooceannoiseincoastal

regions.Theseactivitiesusemachineswithlow‐frequencysoundsignaturesthatmay

disturbmarinespeciesintheintenselyusedcoastalhabitats.Theseeffectswouldbe

expectedtobelocalized,aswouldtheactivitiesoffishing,whichmayusesoundforfinding

fish.AquacultureusesAcousticHarassmentDevices(AHD)todeterspeciesthatmight

interferewiththeirfishorgear.Unintendedeffectshavebeenclaimedsincespeciesother

thanthosetargetedmaybeimpacted.Forexample,whaleresearchersclaimthatkiller

whalehaveabandonareasthattheyusedtomigrateintobecauseofAHDsdesignedtokeep

sealsoutofsalmonpens(Bressen,n.d.).

33

5.2DevelopingPolicy

Indevelopingfuturepolicytoregulateoceannoise,wemustdeterminewhowouldmanage

thepolicyandunderwhatjurisdiction

5.2.1International(Global)Policy

Scientificevidencesuggeststhatnoiseintheoceancantraveloverlongdistancesand

thereforecrossesinternationalboundaries.Someanthropogenicsoundscanalsobe

consideredpollutantsandregulatedassuchbecauseoftheabilitytoinjureorkillmarine

lifeandpotentiallyhaveadamagingimpactonanimalbehavior.McCarthy(2004)argues

thatoceannoiseissimilartoairpollutionasatrans‐boundarypollutantandcitingthe

“TrailSmelterCaseof1941”aslegalprecedent;sheassertsthataninternationalpolicy

shouldregulateoceannoise.TheInternationalMaritimeOrganization,partoftheUN,

regulatessomepollutantsfromships,suchasradioactivematerialsandcouldalsoregulate

oceannoise.Atpresentthereisnopolicytoregulatenoiseintheoceanonagloballevel.

5.2.2InternationalPolicies

InternationalPolicyparticularlythatinEuropehasgenerallybeenmoreprogressivethan

thatintheUnitedStates.Theregionaltreaty,AgreementontheConservationofSmall

CetaceansoftheBalticandNorthSeas(ASCOBANS),firstrecognizedthedangerofnoise

pollutionin1994,thenpassedaresolutiontorequestnoisegeneratorstoreducethe

impactsofnoiseoncetaceans,andin2006,passedasecondresolutionrequestingmember

statestodevelopspecificguidelinestominimizerisksofnoisetosmallcetaceans.InJuneof

34

2004,theInternationalWhalingCommissioncalledformultinationalcooperationto

monitoroceannoiseandthedevelopmentregionalnoisebudgets.

SpecificactionbytheEuropeanParliamentin2004placedamoratoriumontheuseofhigh

intensityactivesonaruntilaglobalassessmentoftheenvironmentaleffectsoftheuseof

thistypeofsonarhasbeendetermined.ThisisconsistentwiththeEuropeanapproachto

environmentalmanagementcalledtheprecautionaryapproach.Thisapproachpreventsan

activitythatmightbeharmfulfromproceedinguntilithasbeenproventobesafe.The

burdenofprooffallsonthepartythatgeneratestheactivity‐inthiscase,noise.Alsoin

2004,theAgreementontheconservationofcetaceansoftheBlackSea,MediterraneanSea

andContiguousAtlanticArea(ACCOBAMS)recognizedoceannoiseasadangerous

pollutantandcalledonmemberstatestoavoidanyuseofanthropogenicnoiseinhabitats

ofvulnerablespecies.In2007,theregionalgroupurgedpartiestoreducenoiseand

developtoolstoassessimpactsandestablishmitigationmeasures.TheEuropeanUnion

includesunderwaternoiseinthedefinitionofpollutioninits2008MarineStrategy

Directive,inwhichactionisrequiredbymemberstatestoachievethe“goodenvironmental

status”ofEuropeanmarinewatersby2020.Inaddition,oceannoisepollutioniscovered

indirectlybytheHabitatsDirective,whichprohibitsallformsof“deliberatedisturbance”of

cetaceans.

TheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeahasaddressednoisespecificallyin

paragraph107ofitsresolution61/222on"Oceansandthelawofthesea",adoptedon20

December2006.It"encouragesfurtherstudiesandconsiderationoftheimpactsofocean

noiseonmarinelivingresources,andrequeststheDivisiontocompilethepeer‐reviewed

35

scientificstudiesitreceivesfromMemberStatesandtomakethemavailableonits

website."Asofyet,theUNhasnotmovedbeyondthedemandtocollectmoredataand

doesnothaveaclearpolicytoregulateoceannoise.

TheinternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO),aUnitedNationsAgency,hasaMarine

EnvironmentalProtectionCommitteededicatedtodevelopingpolicytoolstoprotectthe

internationalmarineenvironment.InApril2008theIMOrecognizedtheharmfuleffectsof

commercialshippingnoiseandinvitedmemberstatestoparticipateinadialogueto

determinemitigation.InJune,theUnitedStatesintroducedaworkprogramthatrequests

actiontoreducenoisefrombytheimplementationofnewtechnologiesthatdampenthe

sound.

InternationalPolicyhasmovedforward,primarilyinEurope,butalsoinCanada,wherein

2002therecoveryplansforfourendangeredspecieslistednavalsonarasathreat.In

Spain,in2002,amoratoriumwasplacedontheuseofsonarwithin50milesoftheCanary

Islands(Fortescueetal2005).

Themilitary,particularlytheUSNavyandNATOhaveworkedbothinternallyandin

cooperationwithscientificgroupstodevelopmitigationmeasuresfortheuseofsonarin

responsetothethreatstomarinemammals.BothNATOandtheUSNavyhaverecognized

thatnavalsonarhasbeenalikelycauseofwhaledeaths,andhaveimplementedsome

voluntarymitigationmeasuressuchaslimitingtheareasandintheseasoninwhichsonar

isused.ManynationsincludingtheUS,Canada,UK,Norway,NetherlandsandSpainhave

beendevelopingnavaltoolstomodelandassessrisktooceanmammalsfromsonar

activitiesindifferentregions(Fortescueetal2005).

36

5.2.2PolicyintheUnitedStates

TheprimaryinstrumentofUSoceanpolicythathasbeenusedtoprotectmarinelifefrom

excessivenoiseistheMarineMammalProtectionAct(MMPA),whichhasimposeda

moratoriumon“taking”ofmarinemammalsinUSwaters.“Takings”appliestohunting,

harassingorkillingtheanimal,butalsoincludesinjuryandbehavioraldisruption

(http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/mmpa_factsheet.pdf).TheMMPArequiresanyone

whomightharmmarinemammalstofirstobtainapermitfromawildlifeagency.Many

noisegenerators,however,donotenterintothepermittingprocess.Thislawwas

weakenedin2003withtheamendmenttoauthorizeexemptionsfornationaldefense.The

USNavyappliesforpermitsfortakingsfromtheNationalMarineFisheriesService.The

EndangeredSpeciesAct(ESA)hasalsobeenusedinsomespecificcases,suchasinbridge

constructioninSanFrancisco(Stocker,2004)tolimitoceannoiseandtheUSCoastGuard

doesenforceandprosecuteviolators.ThepurposeofboththeMMPAandtheESAwereto

protectspecificanimalspeciesandarenotcomprehensiveenoughtoadequatelyaddress

theeffectthatnoisepollutioncanhaveonhabitatincludingnon‐endangeredmarine

animals.

AnotherpotentialtoolbeingusedbytheNRDCandotheradvocacygroupsistheNational

EnvironmentalPolicyAct,whichrequiresanEnvironmentalImpactStatementtobe

preparedbyanyfederallyfundedorpermittedprojectorprogramwithpotential

environmentalimpacts.Manydifferentprojectsincludingoilandgasdrilling,USNavy’s

SURTASS‐LFAprojectandScrippsInstitution’sATOCprojectallpreparedEnvironmental

ImpactStatementswithreferencetonoisegeneration(McCarthy,2004).Thispolicy

37

instrumentisverypowerfulsincethemethodicalandcomprehensiveapproachto

examiningtheprosandconsofaproposedprojectareusefulanditsrequirementtohave

theprocessopentopubliccommentprovidesanopportunitytochallengegovernment

actions.Butitisalsotimeconsuming,costlyandoflimitedaccuracysinceitrequiresa

predictionoffutureimpacts.

WhileUSpolicyonoceannoiseisnotusuallyspecific,therehavebeenindividualcasesof

source‐specificregulationofunderwatersound.ItisfoundinthefinalrulingoftheUS

NationalMarineFisheriesService(NMFS)abouttheoperationofseismicairguns.The

NMFSsetcriterianottoexceed180dBre1μPaformammalssuchasporpoisesandgray

whalesand190dBre1μPaformammalssuchassealionsandharborseals(Souththall,

2007).TheNMFSalsohasimposedspecialprovisionsaroundparticularareasdesignated

ofimportancetomarinemammals.Forexampletherule,prohibitssonarlevelsnotto

exceed180dBre1μPawithin23nauticalmilesoftheOlympicCoastNationalMarine

SanctuaryduringthemonthsofDecember,January,MarchandMay(McCarthy,2004).

OnthehorizonisnewpolicyincludingtheNationalOceansProtectionActof2008,which

hasbeenintroducedintheUSSenate.Oneoftheprinciples,“Thelackofscientificcertainty

shouldnotbeusedasjustificationforpostponingactiontopreventnegativeenvironmental

impacts”,couldhaveanimpactonthedevelopmentoffutureUSpolicyintheareaofocean

noise(anabstractcanbefoundathttp://thomas.loc.gov/cgi‐bin/query/z?c110:S.3314).

Whileinternationalpolicyisthebestwaytoaddressoceannoisebecauseitisatrans‐

boundarypollutant,theUnitedStates,asaleaderinworldpolicyaswellasadominant

38

userofoceanresourcesandgeneratorofoceannoise,needstodevelopanationalpolicyon

oceannoise.

ANationaloceanpolicyhasbeenslowindevelopmentdespiteextensiveworkbythePew

OceanCommission(2003)andtheUSCommissiononOceanPolicy(2004.)ThePew

Commissioncalledforthedevelopmentofanationalpolicyaddressingoceannoise,while

theUSCommissionreportrecognizedtheimportanceofsoundintheoceanenvironment

andstressedmoreresearch.

5.2.3StatePolicyintheUnitedStates

Intheabsenceofeitheraninternationalornationalpolicy,somesmallerjurisdictional

areashaveaddressedthisissue.Forexample,TheCaliforniaOceanResourcesManagement

Planadoptedin2004istheonlystatewideplanthataddressesnoiseasanissue.Itmakes

nospecificrecommendationsbeyondadirectivetowardmoreresearchandthe

developmentofnoisecriteria

(http://resources.ca.gov/ocean/Cal_Ocean_Action_Strategy.pdf).

WithoutclearUSNationalpolicy,theconflictbetweenadvocacygroupsandnoise

generatorshasendedupincourt.InNovember2008,theSupremeCourtruledthatan

injunctionontheUSNavytostopsonartrainingexercisesoffthecoastofCaliforniabythe

USdistrictCourtinCaliforniawasnotproperandliftedit.Thisinjunctionwasbrought

aboutbyajudgmentinfavoroftheNationalResourcesDefenseCouncilthatcalledforthe

Navytodoafullenvironmentalimpactstatementbeforeproceedingwiththeexercise.In

theruling,theSupremeCourtjusticescitednationalsecurityconcernsassociatedwiththe

trainingexerciseasmoreimportantthanpossibleimpactstomarinelife.

39

CurrentlyintheUnitedStates,theagenciesregulatingoceannoiseincludetheNational

MarineFisheriesService,apartofNOAAandtheArmyCorpsofEngineers(fordredging

andconstruction).

40

6.0NATIONALOCEANANDATMOSPHERICADMINISTRATION(NOAA)

In1998,NOAAestablisheditsAcousticsPrograminresponsetoincreasingconcernabout

underwatersoundandtheeffectitmightbehavingonprotectedmarinespecies(Southall

andGentry2005;http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/acoustics/).TheAcousticsProgram

supportsacousticsresearchtodevelopoceannoisecriteriaincooperationwithUSNavy.

Theprogramalsosponsorssymposiatocommunicatefindingsandcoordinatenationaland

globalresearchandreachesouttothepublicwithunbiasedinformationaboutoceannoise.

Anotherprogramofinterestisthesmallbusinessinnovationsresearchprogramwhichhas

acompetitivegrantprocessinwhichsomeprojectstodeveloptechnologythatinvestigates

theoceannoiseproblemhavebeenfunded

(http://www.oar.noaa.gov/orta/docs/FY2008Abstracts.pdf).

NOAAhasabroader`mandateforstewardshipofmarinemammalsandothermarine

resourcesthananyotherfederalagency.Therefore,thereisagrowingneedforNOAAtotake

anactiveroleinresearchontheeffectsofanthropogenicsoundsonmarinemammalsand,

indeed,ontheentiremarineecosystem’(NOAA,2004).

NOAAhasanimportantroletoplayintheprotectionofmarinelifethroughresearchand

regulationofman‐madesoundintheocean.Thedifficultyfacingtheagencyisthe

determinationofhowandevenwhentoregulatemanmadesound.Theacoustic

complexitiesoftheunderwaterenvironment,whencoupledwiththebroadrangeof

biologicaldiversityfoundinmarinemammalsandfish,makedefiningaregulatory

standardaverydifficultobjective.

41

7.0RECOMMENDATIONSFORNOAA

7.1.1NOAAPolicy

NOAApolicyshouldbebasedonscience.Muchisstillunknownaboutunderwatersound

andhowmarinelifeisaffectedbyanthropogenicnoise.Alinkhasbeenestablished

betweensometypesofnoiseandsomeinjurytoanimalsandclearlyunderwatersoundis

animportantpartoftheoceanenvironments.

Policyshouldincludeecosystem‐basedmanagement.Thespeciesbyspeciesapproachnow

implementedthroughtheMMPAandtheESAisinsufficienttoprotectmarinelife,onlythe

mostsensitiveandprominentspecies.Fishandinvertebratesmayalsobeaffectedbyocean

noisepollution,butwithoutobviousimpacts.Ecosystem‐basedapproachesalsorecognize

thatthereisacumulativerisktospeciesofmanydifferentimpacts.Theestablishmentand

useofMarineProtectedAreas(MPA)wouldbeonepolicyinstrumentthatNOAAcoulduse

toimplementoceannoisepolicy.MPAprotecttheentirehabitat,whichisconsistentwith

ecosystem–basedmanagement.MPAshavealreadybeenestablishedintheUSand

internationallyfortheprotectionofmarinemammalssuchastheHawaiianIslands

NationalMarineSanctuary.ExistingregulationslimitactivitiesinsomeMPAsthatinclude

noiseandthistrendcouldexpandtootherMPAsandincludebufferzonesaroundthese

areas.TheUScouldconsiderproposalofnewMPAsandparticipateinthecreationof

internationalMPAs.Zoninghasbeeneffectivelyusedonlandtoprotectareasofinterest

fromnoisepollution.Oceanzoningcouldhavethesameimpact,buttherewouldbe

significantchallengesduetotheinternationalnatureofoceannoisepollutionandthe

migratorynatureofsomeofthemarinelifetargetedforprotection.

42

7.1.2 NationalandInternationalOceanPolicy

AstheleadagencyinoceanconcernsNOAAthroughitsAcousticsProgramshouldbe

activelyinvolvedwithnationalandinternationaleffortstoformulatenationaland

international(global)policyinrelationtonoiseintheocean.

7.2Research

7.2.1NoiseBudgets

NOAAshouldcontinuetoworkcooperativelywiththeUSNavyandresearchinstitutionsto

createanoisebudgetfortheoceantohelpputanthropogenicnoiseincontextandlookfor

cumulativeeffectsofdifferenttypesofnoise.

7.2.2Effectofoceannoiseondifferentspecies

Researchshouldcontinueintotheeffectsofoceannoiseonthemanyspeciesthatcouldbe

impacted.Whilethefocushasbeenoncetaceansandothermarinemammals,fishand

invertebratesalsodevelopintheacousticenvironmentintheoceanandmayhaveimpacts

thatarenotasobvious,orarepartofacumulativeenvironmentalimpact.Goodquality

controlisnecessaryinthescienceresearchaswellascommunicationsoffindingsinthis

globallyimportantscientificissue.FortunatelyNOAA’sOceanAcousticprogramisfocused

onmuchofthisessentialscientificstudyandshouldcontinue.

7.3Regulation

Thenatureoftheregulationofnoisegeneratorsshouldbescalableastothetypeand

natureofnoisegenerator,whichincludestakingintoaccounttheenvironmentalimpact

43

andfinancialabilityofeachstakeholdertoadoptpolicychanges.Thisputsregional

stakeholdersintoaglobalcontext.Newtechnologiestolimitnoisegenerationbyboth

commercialandrecreationwatercraftshouldbedevelopedandimplemented.The

legislationshouldalsobeprogressiveinthatitshouldallowgeneratorstophaseouttheir

noisyequipmentovertime.Thiswouldmakethelegislationmoreacceptableto

stakeholders(Stocker,2004).

7.4 PublicOutreach

Theproblemofoceannoisepollutionhasbeenframedinthemediaasahighlyemotional

conflictbetweenthemilitaryandwhales.NGOs,inbringingattentiontothistopic,have

usedmediasuchaswebsites,videofeaturingcelebrityhostsandgraphicphotographsof

whalesindistress.Themilitary,ontheotherhand,hasnotrespondedtopublicoutcryina

waythathasdemonstratedtheircooperation.NOAAisinapositiontobeanunbiased,

scientificallybasedsourceofinformationforthepublicaboutthisissueandshouldfund

outreacheffortstoprovideabalancedviewoftheproblemandpotentialsolutionstoocean

noisepollution.

44

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