Tower of Hanoi Test

CogQuiz Neuropsychological Assessment Tests

Figure 1

CONTENTS:

CogQuiz Neuropsychological Assessment Tests……………3

Introduction to the Tower of Hanoi Test……………………….4

1

Registering your CogQuiz software……………………………8

Data Management and Set-up…………………………………10

Executing a Tower of Hanoi test……………………………….17

Analysis of Results………………………………………………19

Creating and Editing a Tower of Hanoi test…………………. 22

Adding/Editing Trials…………………………………………… 29

Normative Data…………………………………………………. 32

References……………………………………………………….40

Index………………………………………………………………42

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CogQuiz Neuropsychological Assessment Tests’

Tower of Hanoi Test

The CogQuiz Tower of Hanoi test establishes a new standard of excellence in

computerized assessment tests. CogQuiz Neuropsychological Assessment Tests’ Tower of Hanoi comes with five pre-programmed tests, but then offers the user flexibility in

either modifying these pre-loaded tests or creating a test from scratch.

Design options include the choice of three to six rings and the use of either colored or

grey-scale rings. Trials can be specified as either timed (i.e., the trial is terminated after a

predetermined amount of time has elapsed without a participant solution to the puzzle

presented on the trial) or untimed; and trials can also be set to terminate after a specified

number of moves without a solution to the puzzle. Custom instructions and test captions

can be written (in any language utilizing the Roman alphabet) for each trial, and even the

few built-in directional messages can be altered to reflect the language needs of the

participant population or the requirements of the investigator. In addition, response

modalities include both touch screen and mouse – the latter offering either a point and

click option or a slide bar option. The test comes with several preprogramed tests

(including the tests used in collecting normative data) as well as a computerize test

version similar to the manual one described by Goel and Grafman (1995).

A complete running record of participant performance is recorded including: the moves

made; time to ring pickup; and time to ring placement. Analysis routines include move

counts, average pickup latencies and average move durations. A “playback” feature

allows for the examination of participant solution strategies and shifts in strategy (e.g. ,

from a “perceptual” strategy to an algorithmic one).

The test comes with extensive normative data for individuals beginning at age five (3165

observations for ages 5 – 89) using three and four ring puzzles.

The analysis screen provides the user with a running record of all relevant test events

including all stimulus events, participant responses, and the time (to the nearest

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millisecond) that the system detected the event, as well as a trial-by-trial analysis of

participant performance and a summation of performance across trials. And, as part of

the analysis, a playback feature allows the user to review the exact sequence of moves

made by the participant in solving the problem on any trial.

Tower of Hanoi Introduction

The Tower of Hanoi (ToH) puzzle was first described by the French mathematician

Edward Lucas in 1883. It has been suggested, however, that Lucas may have learned of

the puzzle from an old Indian legend. The legend describes a temple in which the

resident monks moved 64 size graded gold disks among three posts in compliance with

three rules: 1) only one disk can be moved at a time; 2) any disk not currently being

moved must remain at rest on its post; and, 3) a larger disk cannot be placed on a

smaller one. The legend continues, speculating that when the monks successfully move

the stack of 64 rings initially located on one of the posts to the target post, the universe

will end. Not to worry, for even if the legendary monks were capable of moving one

ring every second, violating none of the three rules and making no mistaken moves it

would take them 264 – 1 seconds or 585 billion years to complete the transfer. So even if

they began the project with the “big bang” we still have approximately 570 billion years to

go.

While the puzzle has historically provided fertile ground for mathematicians and, more

recently, computer scientists to explore algorithmic problem solving, the first use of the

“Three-circle Task” or Tower of Hanoi by psychologists was to study the impact of

instructions on problem solving (Ewert & Lambert, 1932; Gange & Smith, 1962). The ToH

puzzle gained popularity when it was explicitly used to study human problem solving

strategies (Newell & Simon, 1972, Simon, 1974). For example, Simon identified four

strategies: Goal-Recursion; Perceptual; Sophisticated Perceptual; and MovePattern.

Simon’s analysis of human problem solving was based on an “information processing”

metaphor and drew heavily on the work being done at the time on an approach to

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machine intelligence (artificial intelligence) known as “production systems.” A

production system is a formal programing language composed of an ordered set of

processes called productions. A production has two parts, a condition and an action. If

the condition is met then the specified action is taken, for example “Problem-solved”

Halt. While a condition can be rigorously defined for a computer (e.g. , “the value of

the variable A is greater than value of variable B), it is less clear how psychologically

relevant constructs might be mapped into such a system. Productions were assumed to

be one of two types, “general” or “perceptual.”

Simon’s formulation positions short-term memory (STM) at the heart of the system. The

condition of a general production is a test to determine whether some condition is met,

usually either the presence or absence of some “symbol” in STM. If the condition is met

then the prescribed action is taken. That action might be motoric (i.e., move ring 3 to peg

2), or retrieval of material from long-term memory, or the performance of some perceptual

test, the outcome of which is stored in STM. If the condition of a perceptual test is

met (i.e., some feature or conjunction of features in the problem space environment is

present), then the action part of the perceptual production is executed. The two

production systems are each assumed to function serially, with only one production

active at any given time. If at any time the conditions of more than one production are

met, then only the action of the first production on the list is performed. Ordering of the

production list then becomes an important consideration in programing a particular

production system, as changing production ordering can and does have a profound effect

on the systems behavior.

The task then for the psychologist trying to understand the strategy an individual might be

using to solve a particular problem was to specify the ordered list of productions that best

describes the problem solver’s behavior.

Critical of production systems such as the one proposed by Simon as not being robust

enough to “explain high-level cognitive disorders,” Shallice (1982) has with Donald

Norman (Norman & Shallice, 1980) developed a “schema” system. Schema systems as a

theoretical framework for organizing and describing psychological phenomena were first

proposed by Gestalt psychologist Frederic Bartlett in his 1931 book, Remembering.

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Expanding on earlier suggestions made by Head and Holmes (1911) in their attempt to

develop a schema theory in neurology to account for body posture and movements,

Bartlett suggested that a schema was “an active organization of past reactions or past

experiences, which must always be supposed to be operating in any well-adapted

organic response” (p. 201). These organizational processes were assumed to be

unconscious, organizing previous experience into generic complex knowledge structures,

which are utilized in cognitive activities as varied as perception, memory, and problem-

solving. Cognition in any real world situation is to be understood as an interaction of

these structures with new information specific to the current state of the individual.

Bartlett’s ideas were not well received at the time, as they were not consonant with the

then prevailing views of either Anglo-American philosophy of science (a reductive

materialism, that saw “”real” science as an enterprise reducing complex phenomena into

elementary ones) or with psychology (behaviorist insistence on directly observable

stimulus-response units as the only appropriated unit of psychological research). The use

of schemas (schemata) as an approach to describing cognitive phenomena did not gain

widespread acceptance until researchers in the area of artificial intelligence, casting

about for a data structure robust enough to provide representation of real world domains,

rediscovered his ideas on schema theory. Papers in the early 1970’s by Papert and

Minsky (1972), Newell and Simon (1972), Schank (1974), Abelson (1974), Norman

(1972) and importantly, Minsky (1974) led the way in the development of schema based

“information processing” models of cognition. While Bartlett’s theory had accommodated

a substantial body of observation, it was often criticized as fuzzy or as glossing over

significant deficiencies. Similar complaints could not be levied against these new models

as they had to be specified tightly enough to be implemented as algorithms suitable for

execution by a digital computer, a requirement conferring immediate scientific legitimacy.

Contemporary schema theory takes several forms, for example, it frames Minsky (1975)

and scripts (Schank and Abelson, 1975). Minsky’s article in The Psychology of

Computer Vision (1975) lays out a frame based theory of vision. The frame is a “data

structure for representing a stereotyped situation, like being in a certain kind of living

room or going to a child’s birthday party.” Frames contain several kinds of default

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information including how to use the frame, what can be expected to be found or to

happen in a particular situation, and how to update these expectations if they are not met.

For example, my frame for a “living room” might contain the default information:

dimensions: 15’ by 20’ feet; window: picture window on one of the long walls;

fireplace: one on one of the short walls; furniture sofa, two wing chairs, coffee table;

floor covering: carpet; activities: polite conversation over coffee; and so on. These

default characteristics then provide a general set of expectations about what I will

encounter when I enter a living room which will need modification to accommodate the

current living room. While this approach has had some saliency in the analysis of

cognition, its greatest impact has been on the architecture of modern computer

languages, information data structures, and programing techniques.

The Tower Tests (Hanoi, Toronto and London) have proven to be useful tools for

assessing a set of cognitive activities, mediated by the pre-frontal cortex, collectively

referred to as executive functions. The composition of that collection varies among

investigators. Lezak (1995) has characterizes it as having four components: (1) volition;

(2) planning; (3) purposive action; and (4) effective performance. Others add to that

constellation -- working memory (Goel & Grafman, 1995; Roberts & Pennington, 1996),

inhibition (Welsh, Satterlee-Cartmell, & Stine, 1999), procedural learning (Davis & Klebe,

2001), and fluid intelliegence (Devine, Welsh, Retzlaff, Yoh, & Adams, 2001)

The Tower of Hanoi has been used by neuroscientists to study normal subjects (Anzai, &

Simon, 1979; Ewert, & Lambert, 1932; Gagne, & Smith, 1962; Karat, 1982; Simon,

1975; Welsh, Cicerello, Cuneo, & Brennan, 1995), elderly subjects (Brennan, Welsh, &

Fisher, 1997; Vakil, & Agmon-Ashkenazi, 1997), children (Fireman, 1996; Kanevsky,

1990; Wansart, 1990; Welsh, 1991), multiple sclerosis patients (Arnett, Rao, Grafman,

Bernardin, et al., 1997), mentally retarded individuals (Vakil, Shelef-Reshef, & LevyShiff,

1997; Waeber, & Lambert, 1987), individuals with Turner’s syndrome (Romans,

Roeltgen, Kushner, Ross, 1997), frontal lobe patients (Goel, & Grafman, 1995; Morris,

Miotto, Feigenbaum, Bullock, et al., 1997), and amnesic patients (Beatty, Salmon,

Bernstein, Martone, Lyon, & Butters, 1987; Cohen, 1981, 1984; Cohen, Eichenbaum,

Deacedo, & Corkin, 1985; Schmidtke, Handschu, & Vollmer, 1996). Recently, the

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performance of children, young adults, and elderly subjects was studied using a new

computerized version of this task (Davis, in preparation). Part of the results from this

study will be reported in this manual. Performance on the Tower of Hanoi puzzle may

reflect implicit memory, strategy development, and/or higher order cognitive functioning.

Registering Your New CogQuiz Test:

When first loaded, whether from an online download or a physical disk, execution of the

installed program will prompt for the registration of the newly installed CogQuiz software.

This prompt will continue to appear each time the program is run until the registration

procedure is completed..

If the computer on which the software has been installed is connected to the Internet, the

software can be automatically registered by providing the information requested (i.e., the

name of the purchaser and the purchaser’s email address) and clicking the Register button.A Product Key Code will be sent to the email address provided within two working

days. After receipt of the Product Key Code, enter it in the provided fields and click the

Enter button to complete the registration procedure. (Note: Each time a program is

installed and executed for the first time it is issued a new Serial Number so each of the

two allowed installations will have its own unique combination of Serial Number and

Product Key Code.) Be sure to note both the Serial Number and Product

Registration Key as they may be required in subsequent interactions with CogQuiz

Neuropsychological Assessment Tests. Once registration is completed the Product

Registration screen will not appear again.

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Figure 2

Use of the automated registration procedure (described above) requires the computer on

which the software has been installed to be attached to the Internet. If the computer on

which the software is being used is not attached to the internet, then the software can be

registered by sending an email to haskerdavis@gmail.com with the words “Product

Registration” in the subject line and the following information in the body of the email:

Purchaser name

Purchaser email address

Purchased test name

Serial Number

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If the software being registered is a demonstration copy which has subsequently been

purchased then registering it will initiate the same product registration procedure outlined

above. Entry of the Product Key Code will terminate the display of the Product

Registration screen and remove the demonstration warnings from all test display

screens.

Data Management

All CogQuiz desktop Neuropsychological Assessment Tests share a single Participant

Database. Whether you are using only one of our tests or all of them, all participant

information and test results are stored in a single database file called the “Participant

Database.” This approach greatly facilitates the management of participant information as

well as security of the data. To assure the privacy of each participant, access to this

database is usercode/password protected.

In order to personalize access to and control over this database, a user must create and

set up a Participant Database “administrator.” Therefore, if a user starts to run a test and

generate data before setting up an administrator for the Database, the user will be

prompted to read this section of the manual before proceeding further.

Participant Database Set-up

Setting up one’s own administration of the COGQUIZ Participant Database requires only

a few simple steps but, since this process both determines access and insures the

security of the database, the process is important and, as such, is highlighted in red

below.

PLEASE NOTE: Since all COGQUIZ tests share the same Participant Database, if you

have previously installed any other COGQUIZ test(s) then setup of the Participant

Database was already done in that previous CogQuiz test installation and this step can

be skipped.

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If, however, this is the first installation of a COGQUIZ Neuropsychological Test then a unique participant database administrator will need to be set up. The test comesprogrammed with a single generic database administrator already assigned a preprogrammed USER NAME, USER CODE, and PASSWORD. The pre-programmedUser Name is “CogQuiz Administrator,” the User Code is the word “admin,” and the Password is “CogQuiz.” For database security, we recommend that the user create a new Database Administrator and then, when that has been successfully accomplished, that the generic, pre-programmed CogQuiz Administrator be deleted. The following steps will guide you through this process.

From the test’s WELCOME screen (Figure 1), login to the PARTICIPANT DATA MANAGEMENT window by clicking the Participant Database button to the right of the screen. This will result in the display of the LOGIN window shown below in Figure 3.

Figure 3

In the User Code box type in the word “admin” and in the Password box type the word “sanzen” (no quotation marks). Both user codes and passwords are case sensitive so be sure to use lower-case. Now press the OK button.

Pressing the OK button will result in the display of the PARTICIPANT DATA MANAGEMENT window shown in Figure 4, below.

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Figure 4

On the opening CogQuiz window click the System Administration button to open the ADMINISTER USERCODES/PASSWORD window shown in Figure 5.

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Figure 5

You are going to create a new administrator. First, click the Add New User button. Now enter a User Name that can identify this user from others. Then enter a unique login User Code and “Password” for this user. Under the “Access Privileges” box, be sure to give this user Administrator (All) privileges as only users with this level of privilege can get access to this screen to create new or delete existing users. (User privileges will be explained in more detail below). Click the Update button and then Exit the ADMINISTER USERCODES/PASSWORD window.

Return to the WELCOME screen and click on the Participant Database button. Now attempt to login to the database administration system using the User Code/Password you have just created. This should allow you access to the PARTICIPANT DATA MANAGEMENT window.

Once you have ascertained that your new login information will allow you access to the ADMINISTER USERCODES/PASSWORD window, it is then safe to delete the preprogrammed sanzen administrator. In the ADMINISTER

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USERCODES/PASSWORD window, select “Sanzen Administrator” from the Select User pull down list and click the Delete User button to delete the pre-assigned Sanzen Administrator. You may simply want to leave the Sanzen Administrator in place as you know this usercode and password.

A word of warning: only users with Administrator (All) privileges can create new users, so don’t lose this usercode/password. You can, of course, consistent with your own security policy, create as many Administrator (All) accounts as you wish. See the section on User Privileges below for a discussion of the access rights of the other two levels of security.

User PrivilegesFrom the ADMINISTER USERCODE/PASSWORDS window (accessed, as described

above, via the opening window) an administrative user can create new users and

determine their level of access to the system. A user can be assigned any one of three

levels of access.

At the lowest level, Data Entry Only, the user can only enter information for a new

participant. They cannot print, edit or even view other participant records. This is a level

likely to be assigned to an individual whose only responsibility is to test participants.

At the Data Administrator level, the user can enter new participant information, view and

edit all participant records, delete a participant, and print participant records.

Users with Administrator (All) privileges can do all that a Data Administrator can do but

can also add new users to the database security system.

Adding New or Editing Existing ParticipantsFrom the PARTICIPANT DATA MANAGEMENT window (Figure 3, above), add a new

participant by first clicking the Add New Participant button. The Participant Information

frame will be cleared, and the cursor will be positioned in the first field “First Name.” At a

minimum, a first and last name must be entered to register a Participant. After entering

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the relevant information, click the Update button and the new Participant will be added to

the Participant Database.

Alternatively, an existing Participant’s information can be displayed and/or edited by

selecting a Participant from the pull-down list located immediately above the Add New Participant button. The Participant’s current information and a list of the tests they have

taken will be displayed. Of course, all of this can be done only by a user who has “Data

Administrator” or “Administrator” privileges.

Text OutputParticipant data cannot be printed directly from the data management system, however,

clicking the Output to Text File button (on the PARTICIPANT DATA MANAGEMENT window, Figure 3) allows the user to write to a file’s selected information in formats

compatible either with popular word processors, spreadsheets or statistical packages.

Figure 5 (below) shows the window for selecting and formatting the text file.

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Figure 6

The “Select Participant” box on the left side of the screen automatically and alphabetically

lists all participants currently in the system. A scroll bar will appear to the right of this list if

there are more participants than can be accommodated in the visible area. Directly

beneath this list, the user can choose to send to the text file either the entire list of

Participants or only a selected subset by “checking” either All Participants or Only Selected Participants.

If the “Only Selected Participants” option is chosen, clicking on the name of each

selected participant in the left-hand Participant list will cause that name to appear in the

Selected Participants list on the right side of the screen.

Double-clicking on a participant’s name in the Selected Participant list will remove that

name from the list.

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Once the list of selected participants has been generated then the data items to be

included in the list (Participant ID, Name and Address, etc.) can be selected by

“checking” the appropriate boxes.

Finally, the user can specify whether the data is to be formatted in either a “standard”

multiline text format suitable for either a text editor or a spreadsheet, or as a single line

(one for each participant selected) comma delimited format suitable for being read by

popular “statistical” packages. Clicking the Export/Print button will show a standard

“save file” dialog box.

Backup Participant File

It is important that from time-to-time a backup copy of the Participants’ database be

made. Loss of data can, at the very least, be frustrating and though today’s computers

and disk drives are very reliable, they do still sometimes fail. Clicking the Backup

Participant File produces a “save file dialog” allowing a copy of the Participants

Database to be made. This copy should be made to some external storage device such

as an external (usb) disk drive or to a “thumb drive.”

Executing a Tower of Hanoi Test

On the WELCOME screen (see Figure 1), select a test from the pull down “Select a

Test” list and then click the Execute Tower of Hanoi button. This will produce the

SELECT A PARTICIPANT window (Figure 7). Select a participant from the “Select a

Participant” pull down list. This assumes that the participant has already been added to

the Participant Database; if the participant has not yet been added, then before

proceeding you will need to return to the WELCOME screen (by clicking the Cancel button) and add the participant to the database (see the section on adding new

participants). Once a participant has been selected there is an option to then enter the

tester’s name; if entered, the name of the person administering the test will be added to

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the participant’s test record. After selecting the participant and, optionally, adding the

tester’s name, click the Run Test button.

Figure 7

The CogQuiz Tower of Hanoi Test comes with five pre-programed tests as well as the

flexibility for a user to create tests from scratch.

Depending on how a test has been set up, participants can respond via touch screen or

mouse, the latter offering either a “point and click” or slide bar option. (1) If a touch screen is used, the participant can touch the ring, base, or peg area of the ring to be

moved. (2) Using the mouse, the participant can left click either on the ring to be moved,

the base area under the peg holding the ring to be moved, or on the area immediately

surrounding the peg holding the ring to be moved. (3) Finally, using the slide-bar option

the participant can simply move the slider to a position under the peg containing the ring

to be moved and then click the left mouse button.

We have included the slide-bar response input because there is anecdotal evidence that

the slide-bar is more easily used by senior participants.

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Depending on how a test has been setup, the participant may be given certain feedback

messages after each trial. (Note: Feedback messages will be explained in more detail

under the section below on how to “Create/Edit a Tower of Hanoi test”). At the end of the

test the participant will be thanked for their participation and control will be returned to the

WELCOME screen.

As with all CogQuiz tests, the Tower of Hanoi test can be terminated at any time by

pressing Ctrl x. On initiating this sequence the user will be asked to confirm the choice to

terminate the test; if the choice to terminate is affirmed, the test will be terminated and no

data from the test will be saved.

Analysis of Results

Clicking the Analyze Test button on the WELCOME screen (Figure 1) will produce the

ANALYSIS screen below (Figure 8).

Figure 8

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To see a Participant’s data, select the Participant’s name from the “Select a Participant ”

pull-down list. A list of all versions of the Tower of Hanoi tests the selected Participant

has taken will appear in the “Tower of Hanoi Test(s)s Taken” box at the bottom right of

the screen. Click on the specific test to be analyzed. A small box will open requesting the

user to select the block of trials to be included in the summary analysis of the

participant’s selected test performance. This allows the user to exclude “practice” or

“demonstration” trials from the test summary analysis (up to the first five trials can be

excluded from the analysis). The selection of a starting trial will cause the analysis to

automatically display. In the analysis displayed in Figure 8 the first trial included in the

analysis was trial two.

Clicking the Print button will send a copy of the results to the printer along with the

Participant’s unique identification number (assigned at the time the Participant was

entered into the Participant Database), the test version name, the date and time the test

was administered, the date and time the report was generated, and the name of the

person administering the test (if it was entered).

Checking the “Suppress Participant Identification Information” box for the

Participant(s) selected will suppress all personal identifying information and will include

only the non-personal identifying information outlined in the paragraph above -- that is,

the contents of the text box above the grid (on the left side of the screen) will not appear

on the printout. This is useful when printed copies of the data may need to be kept in less

secure environments or when individuals evaluating the data need to be “blind.” The

linkage between suppressed Participant information and test results can always be

recovered by those having at least “Data Administrator” level access to the Participant

Database, or by reprinting the analysis with the “Suppress Participant Identification

Information” box unchecked.

Clicking the Export to Clipboard button will place a spreadsheet compatible copy of the

summary table on the clipboard.

Clicking the Playback button produces the playback window shown below in Figure 9.

This window allows for the “playback” of all moves made by the participant for the

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selected trial. Select a trial from the “Select Trial” pull down list, and then click the Play button. The moves made by the participant for the selected trial will be displayed in the

Work Space area. The speed of playback can be controlled using the Speed Control

slider.

Figure 9

The grid located on the right side of the panel contains a “real time” record of the

Participant’s performance for the analyzed test; (to be technically correct, Windows does

not support “real time” interrupts directly, but rather simulates them by high speed polling

of device interrupts). This record is provided in case the test user wishes to perform an

analysis not given by summary statistics. The grid provides information about all of the

salient events that occurred during the test.

The first column is simply the event’s i.d. number and reflects its occurrence position in

the test. The second column displays the nature of the event. The third column contains

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an “argument” qualifying the nature of the event. And the fourth column contains a

“timestamp” indicating to the nearest millisecond when the system detected the event.

For example, event 1 is “Start Trial,” an event occurring coincidentally with the display of

the trial, and the argument “1” indicates that it is the start of trial 1. This event occurred

3263 milliseconds after the event recorder was started. Event 4 was a ring pickup

response indicated by the event designation “RingUp” and the argument “Peg0Brown”

indicates that the Brown ring on peg 0 was the one picked up. (The pegs are numbered from right to left, with the far right peg being “0,” the middle peg being “1,” and the far left peg being “2”). Event 5 was a “RingDown” event, and the argument

“Peg1Brown” indicates that the Brown ring was dropped on peg 1.

The contents of this grid can be printed by clicking the Export/Print button.

Creating and Editing a Tower of Hanoi Test

Create a new, or edit an existing, Tower of Hanoi test by first clicking the Create/Edit Test

button on the WELCOME screen. This will produce a screen similar to the one shown

below in Figure 10.

Create A New Test:

Create a new test by clicking the Create New Test button. The cursor will then be

positioned in the “Select a Test for editing or enter a new test name” box. If at this point

you know how to proceed, then either type a unique name for the new test (and a test

author, if desired) or select a test for editing.

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Figure 10

Before specific trials can be created and added to a new test’s definition, certain overall

parameters for a test must first be decided and defined. (Note: if values for these

parameters are not specified, then the default values shown in Figure 10 will be used in

the test definition. In order to change turn off any of these default options the user needs

to either replace the numeric value given and/or uncheck the box next to the option they

wish to turn off.)

These parameters include: inter-trial interval; maximum trial time; maximum moves; Demonstration Trial; Display Feedback; Text to Speech; Ring Color; and certain

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optional feedback messages. Each of these options will now be discussed in turn

below.

Inter-Trial Interval. This number will determine the amount of time (in seconds) that will

elapse in a given test between the end of one trial and the beginning of the next.

Maximum Trial Time: If a Maximum Trial Time other than 0 is specified then a trial

which has not been completed within the specified time will be terminated. Leaving the

Maximum Trial Time at 0 means a trial will not timeout. (Note: If a maximum trial time is

set, then the trial will end after the specified time has elapsed. If the “display feedback”

box is checked, when the trial abruptly ends the participant will first receive a message

explaining that the trial has timed out, and then the trial will end.)

Maximum Moves: Setting Maximum Moves to a value other than 0 causes a trial to

terminate if the number of moves made by the participant is equal to the specified

Maximum Moves value and has not resulted in a solution to the problem. Setting the

value to 0 means there is no maximum on the number of moves a participant may make

in attempting to solve a trial’s problem. (Note: If a maximum number of moves is set, then

the trial will end after the specified number of moves have been made by the participant.

If the “display feedback” box is checked, when the trial abruptly ends the participant will

first receive a message explaining that the number of permissible moves for that trial has

been exceeded, and then the trial will end.)

Demonstration Trial: Checking the Demonstration Trial option displays the first defined

trial coincident with the instructions display allowing the tester to demonstrate how the

test is to be taken. Satisfactory solution of the first-trial puzzle during testing hides the

instruction box and initiates the next trial. If the Demonstration Trial option is not

selected then the first trial is initiated during testing by clicking (or, if a touch screen is

used, by touching) the instruction display box.

Display Feedback: Checking the Display Feedback option causes the participant to be

given feedback on their performance for that trial. If they successfully complete the trial

they are informed about the number of moves they made and the minimum number of

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moves required to solve the problem (See the Moves Made Message). If they have

exceeded the maximum number of moves (Maximum Moves) or the maximum time

(Maximum Time) specified they are so informed (See the Maximum Responses Message and Timeout Message).

Use Text to Speech: Checking the Use Text to Speech option causes the computer to

read in the selected voice the instructions and all messages.

Use Colored Rings: Checking the Use Colored Rings option causes colored rings to

appear in the created test. See Figure 11, below.

25

Figure 11

If the colored ring option is unchecked, then grey-scale rings (as seen below in Figure 12) will be used instead. Also, Figure 11 shows the disks in their start position for a trial

and Figure 12 shows the beginning of a trial construction. When you click on the New Trial Button you will get the number of rings chosen on the left hand peg to set in their

start position.

26

Figure 12

Messages: All of a test’s messages can be changed to meet the language needs of the

participant population or deleted altogether.

Some test messages are basic to a participant’s understanding of the test, and as such,

unless the text within the message box for that message is deleted and the box left blank,

these messages will automatically be displayed to the participant.

Basic test messages include initial test instructions (which, of course, may be modified)

and a “Test End” message. The instruction window appears below the initial test

screen on the first trial of a test, and the Test End Message is displayed to the

participant at the conclusion of the test.

Feedback Messages: Unlike the basic test messages described above, Feedback

Messages are optional and are only made active by checking the Display Feedback box.

Checking this option when defining a test causes the test to provide participants feedback

after each trial. Feedback Message options include: a “performance” option which

reports the minimum number of moves required to solve the problem and the number of

moves the participant made in solving the problem; a “timeout” message which displays if

the participant exceeds a set maximum time; and an “exceeded maximum moves”

message if the participant exceeds a set number of maximum moves.

The performance feedback message contains two special tokens [MC] and [MM] which

must appear in the message irrespective of other changes that may be made to the

message’s composition. At the time that feedback is given to the participant, [MC] is

replaced by the actual Move Count of the participant on the trial and [MM] is replaced by

the Minimum number of Moves required for the problem’s solution.

Feedback messages for trial termination due to either exceeding the Maximum Moves

value or the timeout value can also be tailored to meet the tester’s need. Even if the

Display Feedback box has been checked, these messages will only be displayed if a

maximum number of moves and/or a maximum trial time have been designated (as

27

described above under paragraphs entitled “Maximum trial Time” and “Maximum

Moves”).

Response Modality: Toward the bottom left of the Create/Edit screen, three response

options are provided -- Point and Click, Touch Screen, and Slider. Select a response

modality to be part of a test’s definition by checking the box next to it. The preferred

response modality for any given test can be changed at any time; to do this, from the

CREATE/EDIT screen, select the test from the “existing tests” drop-down menu, then

check the preferred response option, then click “Save Current Test.”

Selecting the Point and Click option requires the participant to point (with the mouse

pointer) to either the ring they wish to move, the “peg” on which it resides, or the base

immediately under the peg -- and then to click the left mouse button. The peg on which

the ring is to be deposited is similarly selected by pointing (with the mouse pointer) at the

targeted peg and clicking the left mouse button. Note: Even when the “point and click”

option has been selected for a given test, if a touch screen computer is being used, the

touch screen option will still be active.

The Touch Screen option is identical to the Point and Click option except that the

participant will use their finger to touch the ring they wish to move and then the peg on

which it is to be deposited. NOTE: When the touch screen option is selected, the mouse

curser will be hidden but the mouse, if available, will still be operational; therefore, if the

touch screen modality is to be used, the mouse should not be available to the participant.

The Slider option “captures” the cursor in a slide bar located directly under the base of

the Working Area display. The cursor can be moved left or right by moving the mouse left

or right. A ring is selected for moving by positioning the cursor under the peg holding the

bead and clicking the left mouse button. The peg on which the ring is to be deposited is

selected by positioning the cursor under the selected peg and clicking the left mouse

button. This option is particularly useful when working with participants with motor control

problems who may have difficulty positioning either the mouse pointer or their finger with

the precision necessary to accomplish the test.

28

Instructions: The Instruction Editor window (Figure 13, below) is accessed by clicking

the “Instructions” button on the bottom left of the CREATE/EDIT Screen.

The test creator has two options for creating a new instruction. An instruction file that

was created at an earlier time can be imported using the Import From File capability, or

the new instruction can be typed directly into the edit field of the Instruction Editor. The

“Import from file” approach is preferred when the same or a similar instruction is going to

be used for a number of different tests, or when the instructions’ text format is particularly

complex. If an external text editor is used, it must be capable of saving the file in Richtext

(rtf) format.

29

Figure 13

Trial Navigation Buttons: These buttons, located in the left side of the CREATE/EDIT screen and immediately below the ring and peg grid, allow movement between defined

trials within a test.

Adding/Editing Trials

Once the overall parameters for a test have been defined, at least one trial must be

added before the test can be saved using the Save Test button. To add a trial (or a

number of trials) to a test, first select the appropriate test by highlighting it in the “Existing

Tests” drop-down list.

Four actions initiated by the four buttons located below the create/edit pegs (and labeled

New Trial, Edit Trial, Delete Trial, and Update) are provided for adding or editing trials.

(Note: When a creating or editing operation has been selected, the four navigation

buttons [located to the right of the screen, below the position grid] will be locked until the

trial definitions [ring count, ring placement, minimum moves, and goal have been

defined).

New Trial: Selecting New Trial will create a first trial for a selected test’s creation, or will

add a new trial to the end of the list of a selected test’s already defined trials. Clicking the

New Trial button initially enables the Ring Count drop-down list. From this list, select the

number of rings (between 3 and 6) to be used in this problem. Figure 11 shows the

selection of a five ring problem.

Selecting a Ring Count number results in that number of rings being displayed on the far

left peg, and the concomitant display of the minimum number of moves (Minimum Moves)

required to solve a “well-formed” tower problem with that specific number of rings; “well-

formed” problems are those in which in the starting position all rings comprise a single

stack and can always be solved 2x – 1 moves (where x is the number of rings in a stack).

For problems that are not well-formed (e.g., those beginning with a partial solution or

30

those in which the participant must first “unwind” an erroneous start at a solution), the test

author is responsible for determining and entering the correct value for Minimum Moves.

Specify the “goal” peg by left clicking the label GOAL immediately above the peg which is

to be the goal peg. Build the starting configuration of the trial problem by left clicking the

required ring stacked on the far left hand peg, then left click the starting location for that

ring on one of the three pegs in the problem space (i.e., one of the numbered boxes

located on either Peg0, Peg1, or Peg2).

Continue placing rings in this manner until all rings have been assigned a starting

location. It is the test author’ responsibility to see that ring placement is legal, that is, that

a larger ring is not placed on a smaller ring and there is no gap between two rings on the

same peg.

The Edit Trial operations initiate a procedure essentially identical to the one outlined for

the New Trial procedure. However, while New Trial appends a new trial to the end of the

list of trials. Edit Trial clears the currently displayed trial and allows the test author to

redefine that trial. And Delete Trial deletes the currently displayed trial from the list of

trials.

Once all the necessary trials have been defined, the test should be “saved” by clicking

the Update and Save Test buttons.

Normative Data

Participants were recruited from a college student population, relatives of students, or

from a local senior center. Participants under 18 years of age received five dollars per

hour and participants over 60 years of age received 10 dollars per hour. Participants

between the ages of 18 and 59 received extra course credit for their participation.

Participants reported no head injuries, neurological diseases, or psychiatric illnesses that

they believe would affect their performance.

5-Ring Tower of Hanoi Performance from 15-89 Years of Age

31

5- Ring Tower of Hanoi Mean Number of MovesDescriptive Statistics

Age Condition Trials Mean Standard Deviation

N per Group

15-19 Years of Age Trial 123456789

10111213141516

79.23 59.96 54.65 59.27 51.50 48.50 42.88 37.23 47.94 41.47 36.82 34.65 41.06 36.41 38.3535.35

25.88626.470319.339 23.333 22.937 25.017 17.739 10.554 21.698 14.0637.820 4.286

20.849 9.925

13.6657.762

26

20’s Trial 123456789

10111213141516

84.3363.85566.78 56.62 49.25 49.18 45.20 40.78 41.13 38.11 36.70 35.87 36.40 36.15 35.2334.30

27.89526.142430.137 23.053 23.035 20.596 18.443 13.086 14.06810.5429.0388.190

10.4528.720 9.4256.840

55

32

30’s Trial 123456789

10111213141516

76.3966.21763.83 62.78 53.78 41.09 53.13 48.78 44.68 45.84 40.58 41.58 44.26 42.79 34.9541.05

35.46327.132625.244 28.775 30.175 11.074 26.154 24.340 14.368 22.811 16.294 19.068 21.15018.534 5.632

19.592

23

40’s Trial 123456789

101112

70.9077.33375.19 57.86 64.86 52.05 50.95 44.76 51.61 52.72 44.0042.06

28.71227.450628.400 25.070 33.243 18.983 22.191 18.450 21.885 25.409 20.88111.404

21

13141516

42.61 45.50 41.5636.28

14.508 19.45819.1446.304

33

50’s Trial 123456789

10111213141516

71.0678.93759.87 67.25 78.38 63.00 61.75 50.81 49.13 53.44 49.88 49.06 50.06 44.69 41.1335.94

23.64030.647420.454 32.392 34.469 23.678 27.431 23.648 22.934 26.920 27.102 21.009 29.272 23.97720.2258.218

16

60’s Trial 123456789

10111213141516

77.179.41260.94 73.47 67.59 56.65 61.94 55.71 54.19 52.50 59.37 64.06 47.56 45.00 50.4448.13

29.41531.060525.079 30.338 34.411 29.546 32.967 30.536 24.039 29.401 31.508 34.048 15.245 22.127 30.11121.042

17

70’s Trial 123456

81.4375.08771.17 75.17 65.9158.04

24.85223.500329.140 31.589 26.75116.519

23

34

789

10111213141516

52.09 54.52 60.74 55.57 58.09 52.61 52.9151.22 47.1

47.96

20.221 23.469 28.491 23.924 23.905 20.991 25.141 27.336 25.62325.827

80’s Trial 123456789

10111213141516

77.3578.70069.70 63.75 65.90 67.95 76.85 69.30 58.60 62.00 58.25 57.45 52.65 57.70 55.3052.90

32.17632.754426.458 21.846 32.964 29.678 33.657 31.265 26.883 26.911 26.728 30.424 28.333 34.458 27.14722.877

20

35

3-, 4-Ring Tower of Hanoi Performance from 5-89 Years of Age Excess Moves

Number of Subjects per Age GroupValue Label N

Age Condition 1 5 to 9 221

2 10 to 14 258

3 15 to 19 693

4 20s 883

5 30s 218

6 40s 181

7 50s 145

8 60s 191

9 70s 235

10 80s 140

3 Ring (Trials 1-5) and 4 Ring (Trials 6-10) Tower of Hanoi Performance

Descriptive StatisticsAge Condition Mean Std. Deviation N

TOWER OF HANOI TRIAL 1 5 to 9 14.27 8.717 221

10 to 14 10.25 4.061 258

15 to 19 9.69 4.087 693

20s 9.45 4.199 883

30s 9.60 4.290 218

40s 9.31 3.571 181

50s 9.60 4.393 145

36

60s 11.06 8.377 191

70s 9.91 5.261 235

80s 11.52 6.055 140

Total 10.14 5.245 3165

TOWER OF HANOI TRIAL 2 5 to 9 14.32 10.369 221

10 to 14 10.10 5.416 258

15 to 19 8.74 3.896 693

20s 8.30 3.148 883

30s 8.47 3.331 218

40s 8.34 3.213 181

50s 8.57 3.905 145

60s 9.45 5.452 191

70s 8.33 2.898 235

80s 10.27 7.749 140

Total 9.15 5.040 3165

TOWER OF HANOI TRIAL 3 5 to 9 12.11 11.080 221

10 to 14 9.23 5.347 258

15 to 19 7.92 2.700 693

20s 7.84 3.201 883

30s 7.79 2.955 218

40s 7.78 2.187 181

50s 7.95 2.657 145

60s 8.76 5.333 191

70s 8.34 3.506 235

80s 9.57 8.891 140

Total 8.44 4.886 3165

TOWER OF HANOI TRIAL 4 5 to 9 10.66 7.550 221

10 to 14 8.41 2.948 258

15 to 19 7.70 2.650 693

20s 7.56 2.130 883

30s 7.58 2.401 218

40s 7.44 2.077 181

50s 7.83 2.514 145

60s 8.63 5.679 191

70s 7.70 1.991 235

80s 9.45 8.653 140

Total 8.04 3.828 3165

37

TOWER OF HANOI TRIAL 5 5 to 9 10.41 6.517 221

10 to 14 8.01 2.764 258

15 to 19 7.58 2.244 693

20s 7.44 2.192 883

30s 7.40 1.581 218

40s 7.56 2.186 181

50s 7.63 2.273 145

60s 7.64 2.549 191

70s 7.50 2.024 235

80s 9.09 5.287 140

Total 7.83 3.039 3165

TOWER OF HANOI TRIAL 6 5 to 9 42.73 21.910 221

10 to 14 37.91 20.418 258

15 to 19 31.73 16.035 693

20s 31.19 16.904 883

30s 31.60 15.964 218

40s 31.25 15.312 181

50s 32.19 15.918 145

60s 33.31 17.901 191

70s 33.60 17.630 235

80s 32.64 16.681 140

Total 33.11 17.611 3165

TOWER OF HANOI TRIAL 7 5 to 9 37.52 19.975 221

10 to 14 31.16 15.104 258

15 to 19 27.29 13.953 693

20s 26.90 14.451 883

30s 27.82 16.908 218

40s 24.92 11.748 181

50s 30.08 17.118 145

60s 29.01 15.753 191

70s 29.45 14.270 235

80s 31.65 18.562 140

Total 28.70 15.544 3165

TOWER OF HANOI TRIAL 8 5 to 9 32.91 16.101 221

10 to 14 30.61 15.689 258

15 to 19 26.25 14.038 693

38

20s 25.23 13.967 883

30s 26.43 11.880 218

40s 25.46 13.161 181

50s 27.10 15.745 145

60s 29.13 16.505 191

70s 27.75 14.532 235

80s 29.73 15.485 140

Total 27.23 14.632 3165

TOWER OF HANOI TRIAL 9 5 to 9 32.77 16.655 221

10 to 14 29.27 16.041 258

15 to 19 25.83 14.631 693

20s 24.37 13.460 883

30s 24.64 12.490 218

40s 24.18 11.364 181

50s 26.67 15.300 145

60s 28.39 14.745 191

70s 26.93 12.594 235

80s 28.59 15.938 140

Total 26.41 14.417 3165

TOWER OF HANOI TRIAL

10

5 to 9 29.75 13.800 221

10 to 14 26.25 12.726 258

15 to 19 24.03 13.459 693

20s 23.73 14.412 883

30s 23.87 14.463 218

40s 25.71 15.544 181

50s 23.23 11.685 145

60s 28.76 16.920 191

70s 25.39 12.141 235

80s 28.05 14.553 140

Total 25.14 14.124 3165

39

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Arnett, P.A., Rao, S.M., Grafman, J., Bernardin, L., et al. (1997). Executive function in multiple sclerosis: An analysis of temporal

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41

INDEX

Adding new or Editing Participants, 15

Add Trials, 29

Adding rings,Administrator (database) 30

• Setup, 10-14

• Administrator (all) user, 12, 14

• Pre-programmed, SANZEN, 11

Analysis

• Export, 21, 22

• Playback, 21

• Print, 21, 22

• Results, of, 19

• Running record, 21

• Screen, 20

• Suppress Participant Identification Information, 21

• Summary table, 21

Analysis summary table, 21

Analysis running record grid, 21

Auxiliary field, 15 Back-up

Participant file, 17

Color:

• Ring, 25

Create/Edit TOH test, 22

Create/Edit a test, screen, 23, 25, 26, 30

Data Administrator (user), 11-14

Data backup, 17

Data Entry only (user), 14

42

Data management:

• Administer UserCodes/password window, 13

• Administrator set-up, 10-14

• Analysis, 19-22

• Analysis, export to clipboard, 21,22

• Analysis, print, 21,22

• Analysis, running record, 21

• Analysis, summary table, 21

• Auxiliary field, 15

• Back-up, 17

• Login, 11

• Participant data Output to Text file, 15-17

• Participant database window, 11-14

• Password, 11, 12, 13

• Print, 21, 22

• Shared database, 10

• User code, 12

• User name, 11

• User privileges, 14

Data, normative data, 4

Delete Trial button, 30, 31

Demonstration Trial, 24

• Excluding, 20

Display Feedback, 24

Dropping (a ring onto a peg), 18-19, 27-28

Edit:

• A test, 22

• Participant information, 15

43

Trial instructions, 28-29

Edit Trial button,30, 31

Event i.d. number, 21

Executing a Tower of Hanoi test, 17-19

Exiting (terminating) an executed test, 17

Exporting (analysis data), 21-22

Exporting (participant info), 15-17

Feedback, 26-27

Feedback messages, 26

Goal peg, 31

Grid (analysis), 21

History of TOH, 4-8

Insert Trial button, 30, 31

Instruction Editor, 28

Instruction window, 26

Instructions (writing/importing), 28

Inter-trial Interval, (setting), 23

Location, of Participant Database, 14

Login, 11

Maximum moves, 24

Maximum trial time, 24

Messages, 26

44

Mouse (using for input), 18, 27 Navigation buttons, 29, 30

New Trial button, 30, 31

Normative data, 32-39 Output to text file

(participant data), 15-17

Participant:

• Adding new, 15

• Database, 11-14

• Data management window, 12

• Data Output to Text File, 16

• Editing an existing, 15

• Identification, editing, 15

• Identification, number, 15

• Identification, suppressing, 21

• Information, identifying, 16, 21

• Response options, 18, 27-28

• Selecting to edit data file, 15-17

• Selecting to execute a test, 17

• Selecting for Output to Text File, 16

Participant Database

• Add new user, 15

• Administration of, 10-14

• Auxiliary field, 15

• Location, 14

• Shared, 10

• User name, 11

• User Password, 11

• User Code, 11, 12 , 13

• Set-up, 10

Participant information:

• Add, 15

Edit, 15

Export, 21

45

Print, 21

Suppress, 21

Passwords, 11

Peg, 31

• Goal, 31

Play button (for Playback), 21

Playback, 21

Point and click, 18, 27

Position Grid, 29

Practice trial, 24 Pre-programmed

tests, 3, 18

Printing:

• Participant data (output to text file), 16

• Analysis results, summary table, 21

• Analysis results, running record, 21

Product Key Code, 8

References, 40

Registration, of software, 8

Response modality, 18, 27-28

Results (Analysis), 20

Ring Count, 31

Run Test button, 17

Screens (and windows):

46

Administer UserCode/passwords, 13

Analyze (data), 20

Create/edit Tower of Hanoi test, 23, 25, 26, 30

Login, 11

• Instruction Editor, 29

• Participants to Text File, 16

• Participant Data Management, 12

• Select Participant (for analysis), 20

• Select Participant (for editing), 12

• Select Participant (for testing), 18

• Test (example), 19

• Welcome, 1

Select (a) participant

• Data for output to text file, 15-17

• (for) Testing, 18

• (for) Data analysis, 20

• (for) text output, 16

• Suppressing identifying information, 21

Slide bar:

• Use of, 18, 27-28

• Reasons for, 18

Speed Control Slider, 21

Suppressing (participant info), 21 Terminating

(an executed test), 19

Test:

• Add trials, 29-31

• Analysis, 19-22

• Creating a test, 22

• Editing a test, 22

• End message, 26

• Executing (running), 17-19

Exiting, 19

Exporting (analysis data), 18-22

47

Exporting (participant data), 15-16

Exporting to clipboard, 21-22

• Inserting a trial, 30, 31

• Instructions, 28

• Installation and setup, 10-14

• Messages, 26

• Navigation buttons, 29-30

• Printing (analysis) data, 21-22

• Replacing a trial,

• Selecting to analyze (a participant’s) data, 20

• Selecting to edit (a test), 29, 30

• Selecting to execute (a test), 17

• Timed, 24

Text file (participant data), 15-16

Text-to-Speech, 25

Timed trial, 24

Touchscreen (using for input), 18, 27-28

Trial:

• Add, 29, 30

• Delete Trial button, 30-31

• Definitions, 30

• Edit, 29, 30

• Edit Trial button, 30, 31

• Exit, 19

• Feedback, 24, 26-27

• Insert new trial button, 29, 30

• Instructions, 28

• Navigation buttons, 29, 30

• New Trial button, 29, 30

• Timed, 23, 24

Use Demo trial, 24

Use Text-to-Speech, 25

Use slide bar, 18, 27-28

48

User:

• Administrator set-up, 10-14

• Levels of privilege, 14

User Code, 11, 12, 13

UserCode/password screen, 13

User Privileges (levels of), 14

Work Space, 21

49