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though the presence of theobromine renders it toxic tosome animals[2], such as dogs and cats.

Chocolate has become one of the most popular flavors inthe world. Gifts of chocolate molded into different shapeshave become traditional on certain holidays: chocolatebunnies and eggsare popular on Easter, chocolate coinson Hanukkah, Santa Claus and other holiday symbolson Christmas, and hearts on Valentine's Day. Chocolate isalso used in cold and hot beverages, toproduce chocolate milk and hot chocolate.

EtymologyThe word "chocolate" comes from the Aztecs ofMexico,and is derived from the Nahuatl wordxocolatl] which is acombination of the words,xocolli, meaning "bitter",and atl, which is "water".

Types of chocolate

Main article: Types of chocolate

A half beat of milk chocolate withsalmiak filling by Fazer

Several types of chocolate can be distinguished.
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Dark chocolate is produced by adding fat and sugar tothe cacao mixture. The U.S. Government calls this "sweetchocolate", and requires a 15% concentration ofchocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of

35% cocoa solids.[27] Dark chocolate, with its high cocoacontent, is a rich source ofthe flavonoidsepicatechin and gallic acid, which arethought to possess cardioprotective properties. Darkchocolate has also been said to reduce the possibility of aheart attack when consumed regularly in small amounts.[28] Semisweet chocolate is a dark chocolate with a lowsugar content. Bittersweet chocolate is chocolate liquor

to which some sugar (typically a third), more cocoabutter, vanilla and sometimes lecithin have been added.It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweetchocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking.

Unsweetened chocolate is pure chocolate liquor, alsoknown as bitter or baking chocolate. It is unadulteratedchocolate: the pure, ground, roasted chocolate beansimpart a strong, deep chocolate flavor.
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Chocolate is created from the cocoa bean. A cacaotree with fruit pods in various stages of ripening

Roughly two-thirds of the entire world's cocoa is produced

in Western Africa, with 43% sourced from Cte d'Ivoire.[29] According to the World Cocoa Foundation, some50 million people around the world depend on cocoa as asource of livelihood.[1] The industry is dominated by threechocolate makers,Barry Callebaut, Cargill[citationneeded] and Archer Daniels Midland Company (ADM).[citationneeded] In the UK, most chocolatiers purchase theirchocolate from them, to melt, mold and package to their

own design.

[30]

Despite some disagreement inthe EU about the definition,[clarification needed] chocolate is anyproduct made primarily ofcocoa solids and cocoa fat. Thedifferent flavors of chocolate can be obtained by varyingthe time and temperature when roasting the beans, byadjusting the relative quantities of the cocoa solids andcocoa fat, and by adding non-chocolate ingredients.[citationsneeded]

Production costs can be decreased by reducing cocoasolid content or by substituting cocoa butter with a non-cocoa fat. Cocoa growers object to allowing the resultingfood to be called "chocolate", due to the risk of lowerdemand for their crops.[1]

There are two main jobs associated with creatingchocolate candy, chocolate makers and chocolatiers.Chocolate makers use harvested cacao beansand other

ingredients to produce couverture chocolate. Chocolatiersuse the finished couverture to make chocolate candies(bars, truffles, etc.).
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Cacao varieties

Chocolate Cream

Cacao trees are small, understory trees that need rich,

well-drained soils. They naturally grow within 20 degreesof either side of the equator because they need about2000 millimeters of rainfall a year, and temperatures inthe range of 21 to 32 degrees Celsius. Cacao trees cannottolerate a temperature lower than 15 degrees Celsius (59degrees Fahrenheit).[32]

The three main varieties ofcacao beans used inchocolate are criollo, forastero and trinitario.

Representing only five percent of all cocoa beans grown,[33] criollo is the rarest and most expensive cocoa on themarket and is native to Central America, the Caribbeanislands and the northern tier ofSouth American states.[34] There is some dispute about the genetic purity ofcocoas sold today as Criollo, as most populations havebeen exposed to the genetic influence of other varieties.

Criollos are particularly difficult to grow, as they arevulnerable to a variety of environmental threats andproduce low yields of cocoa per tree. The flavor of Criollois described as delicate yet complex, low in classicchocolate flavor, but rich in "secondary" notes of longduration.[35]
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The most commonly grown bean is forastero,[33] a largegroup of wild and cultivated cacaos, most likely native tothe Amazon basin. The African cocoa crop is entirely ofthe Forastero variety. They are significantly hardier and

of higher yield than Criollo. The source of most chocolatemarketed,[33] forastero cocoas are typically strong inclassic "chocolate" flavor, but have a short duration andare unsupported by secondary flavors, producing "quitebland" chocolate.[33]

Trinitario is a natural hybrid of Criollo and Forastero.Trinitario originated inTrinidad after an introduction ofForastero to the local Criollo crop. Nearly all cacao

produced over the past five decades is of the Forastero orlower-grade Trinitario varieties.[36]

ProcessingCacao pods are harvested by cutting the pods from thetree using a machete, or by knocking them off the treeusing a stick. The beans with their surrounding pulp areremoved from the pods and placed in piles or binsto ferment. The fermentation process is what gives thebeans their familiar chocolate taste. It is important toharvest the pods when they are fully ripe because if thepod is unripe, the beans will have a low cocoa buttercontent, or there will be insufficient sugars in the whitepulp for fermentation, resulting in a weak flavor. Afterfermentation, the beans must be quickly dried to preventmold growth. Climate and weather permitting, this is

done by spreading the beans out in the sun from 5 to7 days.[37]

The dried beans are then transported from the plantationwhere they were grown to a chocolate manufacturingfacility. The beans are then cleaned (removing twigs,
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stones, and other debris), roasted, and graded. Next theshells are removed to extract the nib. Finally, the nibs areground and liquified, resulting in pure chocolate in fluidform: chocolate liquor. The liquor can be further

processed into two components: cocoa solids and cocoabutter.[38]

Blending(melting)Main article: Types of chocolate

Chocolate Melanger

Chocolate liquor is blended with the cocoa butter invarying quantities to make different types of chocolate orcouvertures. The basic blends of ingredients for thevarious types of chocolate (in order of highest quantity ofcocoa liquor first), are as follows:

Dark chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor,and (sometimes) vanilla Milk chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor,

milk or milk powder, and vanilla White chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, milk or milkpowder, and vanilla

Usually, an emulsifying agent such as soy lecithin isadded, though a few manufacturers prefer to exclude this
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ingredient for purity reasons and to remainGMO free,sometimes at the cost of a perfectly smooth texture.Some manufacturers are now using PGPR, an artificialemulsifier derived from castor oil that allows them to

reduce the amount of cocoa butter while maintaining thesame mouthfeel.

The texture is also heavily influenced by processing,specifically conching (see below). The more expensivechocolate tends to be processed longer and thus have asmoother texture and "feel" on the tongue, regardless ofwhether emulsifying agents are added.

Different manufacturers develop their own "signature"blends based on the above formulas, but varyingproportions of the different constituents are used.

The finest, plain dark chocolate couvertures contain atleast 70% cocoa (both solids and butter), whereas milkchocolate usually contains up to 50%. High-quality whitechocolate couvertures contain only about 33% cocoa.

Producers of high quality, small batch chocolate argue

that mass production produces bad quality chocolate.[33] Some mass-produced chocolate contains much lesscocoa (as low as 7% in many cases) and fats other thancocoa butter. Vegetable oils and artificialvanilla flavorare often used in cheaper chocolate to mask poorlyfermented and/or roasted beans.[33]
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A study reported by the BBC indicated that meltingchocolate in one's mouth produced an increase in brainactivity and heart rate that was more intense than thatassociated with passionate kissing, and also lasted four

times as long after the activity had ended.[50]

Circulatory benefitsRecent studies have suggested that cocoa or darkchocolate may possess certain beneficial effects onhuman health. This is mainly caused by a particularsubstance present in cocoa called epicatechin.[51] Cocoapossesses a significant antioxidant action, protecting

against LDLoxidation, perhaps more thanother polyphenol antioxidant-rich foods and beverages.Some studies have also observed a modest reductionin blood pressure and flow-mediated dilation afterconsuming dark chocolate daily.[52] There has even beena fad diet, named "Chocolate diet", that emphasizeseating chocolate and cocoa powder in capsules[citation needed].However, consuming milk chocolate or white chocolate,

or drinking fat-containing milk with dark chocolate,appears largely to negate the health benefit.[53] Processedcocoa powder (so called Dutch chocolate), processedwith alkali greatly reduces the antioxidant capacity ascompared to "raw" cocoa powder. Processing cocoa withalkali destroys most of the flavonoids.[54]

One-third of the fat in chocolate comes in the forms ofa saturated fat called stearic acid and a monounsaturated

fat called oleic acid. However, unlike other saturated fats,stearic acid does not raise levels of LDL cholesterol in thebloodstream.[55] Consuming relatively large amounts ofdark chocolate and cocoa does not seem to raise serumLDL cholesterol levels; some studies even find that itcould lower them.[56] Indeed, small but regular amounts of
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dark chocolate lower the possibility of a heart attack,[28] aresult of cholesterol imbalance according to thelipidhypothesis[citation needed] .

Other benefitsSeveral population studies have observed an increase inthe risk of certain cancers among people who frequentlyconsume sweet 'junk' foods such as chocolate[citation needed].However, very little evidence exists to suggest whether

consuming flavonoid-rich dark chocolate may increase ordecrease the risk of cancer. Evidence from laboratorystudies suggests that cocoa flavonoids maypossess anticarcinogenic mechanisms, but more researchis needed to prove this idea[citation needed].

Studies suggest a specially formulated type of cocoa maybe nootropic and delay brain function decline as peopleage.[57]

Mars, Incorporated, a Virginia-based candy company,spends money each year on flavonol research.[58] Thecompany is talking with pharmaceutical companies tolicense drugs based on synthesized cocoa flavonolmolecules. According to Mars-funded researchersat Harvard, the University of California, and Europeanuniversities, cocoa-based prescription drugs couldpotentially help treat diabetes, dementia and other

diseases.

Other research indicates that chocolate may be effectiveat preventing persistent coughing[citation needed]. Theingredient theobromine was found to be almost one thirdmore effective thancodeine, the leading cough
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standard limit for lead in cocoa powder or beans, which is1 g of lead per gram.[73] In 2006, the U.S. FDA loweredby one-fifth the amount of lead permissible in candy, butcompliance is only voluntary.[74] While studies show that

the lead consumed in chocolate may not all be absorbedby the human body, there is no known threshold for theeffects of lead on children's brain function and even smallquantities of lead can cause permanentneurodevelopmental deficits including impaired IQ.[75]

Toxicity in animalsMain article: theobromine poisoning

In sufficient amounts, the theobromine found in chocolateis toxic to animals such as horses, dogs, parrots, smallrodents, and cats because they are unableto metabolise the chemical effectively. If they are fedchocolate, the theobromine will remain intheir bloodstream for up to 20 hours, and these animalsmay experience epileptic seizures, heart attacks, internal

bleeding, and eventually death. Medical treatmentperformed by a veterinarian involvesinducing vomiting within two hours of ingestion andadministration ofbenzodiazepines or barbituratesforseizures, antiarrhythmics for heart arrhythmias, and fluiddiruesis.

A typical 20-kilogram (40-lb) dog will normally experiencegreat intestinal distress after eating less than 240 grams

(8.5 oz) of dark chocolate, but will not necessarilyexperience bradycardiaor tachycardia unless it eats atleast a half a kilogram (1.1 lb) of milk chocolate. Darkchocolate has 2 to 5 times more theobromine and thus ismore dangerous to dogs. According to theMerckVeterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 grams of baker's
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phytotherapy 1