Plastic(Tinjauanpustaka)

7/21/2019 Plastic(Tinjauanpustaka)

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Chapter II

Literature Review

1. Health1.1 Definiton

Health is defined in the World Health Organisations Constituation as a

state of complete physical. Social and mental well-being and not marely

the absence of disease or infirmity!. "hus health is a positi#e concept

emphasising social and personal resources as well as physical

capabilities!.

$ health person therefore needs to maintain healthy habits such as ta%ingregular e&ercises and ade'uate rest adopting a high le#el of personal

hygiene eating a nutritionally balanced diet abstaining from the abuse of

drugs and alcohol ta%ing care of ones mental well-being and de#eloping

social s%ills to interact in a positi#e manner within society. "o be healthy

is to be in a state of homeostatis (balance) with ones surroundings. "o

a#ail one self to the ad#ances of medical treatments and pre#enti#e

measures such as immuni*ations further booster ones health.

"o achie#e a healthy society remember that a healthy person has a duty to

the health of his fellow beings his surroundings and the en#ironment he

li#es in.

1.2 Factor that related to health

I. Inherent factors

Age+ elderly persons and the #ery young ae more prone to be more

se#erally effecti#e when sic% as a result of their reduced imunnity e.g.

yearly influen*a #accines are ad#ised for the elderly yearly.

Ethnic origin+ certain ethnic groups are more at ris% of de#eloping

some illness. ,robably as aresult of their a genetic ma%e up the

en#ironment they li#e in or the rituals they practice e.g.

nasopharyngeal cancer (,C) is more common in souththern Chinese


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especially among the fishing community. "his is thought to be partly

due to the addition of salted fish to congee fed to their young.$lso chinesee non smo%ing females ha#e the high ris% of lung cancer

which is thought to be related to the e&posure to mutagens in pumes

from oils use in wo% coo%ing. Genetic make up / inherited+ in families with a history of breast

cancer certain gens could be inherited which my result in an

increased ris% for the condition.

Sex+ Certain conditions e.g. seg lin%ed recessi#e inherited

haemophilia in which a coagulation factor is missing resulting in

easy bleeding occur only in males. "he females of the family may or

may not be carries of the disease. /ueen 0ictoria and her descendents

are well %nown to ha#e been affiliated whit this genetically inherited

condition.

. Outside factors

Sosial class- the affluents suffer from diseases of plenty . $ diet high

in fat is thought to be contributory to breast cancer which tends to

occurs in woman of the higher socieconomin class . On the other

handchildren and social classes 2 and 3 ha#e been found to ha#e an

increased morbidity and morality.

ccupation- occupation may be associated with certain diseases e.g.

lung cancer in asbestos wor%ers.

Education- education helps to inform and guide choices.Choosing a

healthy lifestyle helps pre#ent diseases.

!utrition- 4oth o#er and under-nutrition(malnutrition) are unhealthy

for the body

"a#its- Habits such as smo%ing and e&cessi#e drin%ing may lead to

lung and li#er cancer.

"a#itat- Where one li#es matters. $ large scale comprehensi#e study

in 1566 conduted by the chinesse uni#ersity of hong%ong found that

the number of local asthmatic children doubles that of 4ei7ing and

8uang*hou . High ris% factors include home smo%ingmaternal


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smo%ing use of synthetic pillow and bedding and the use of gas as

coo%ing fuel.

Environment- WHO estimates that e#ery year o#er 3 miliion people

die of illnesses lin%ed to unsafe drin%ing water improper e&creta

disposal and unclean domestic en#ironment.

9. :isease2.1 Definiton

$ diseaseis an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. t is

often construed to be a medical conditionassociated with specific

symptomsand signs.;1s perspecti#e on life and their personality.

9.9 ntrinsic determinants of disesase

:isease agents as determinants of disease

o =?i#ing= agents such as #iruses bacteria ric%ettsia proto*oa

helminths arthropods etc.

o on-li#ing= agents such as heat and cold water nutrients to&ic

substances etc.

Host determinants
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_signhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoimmune_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abnormality_(behavior)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distress_(medicine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_problemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_problemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disorder_(medicine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_variabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_signhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoimmune_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abnormality_(behavior)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distress_(medicine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_problemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_problemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disorder_(medicine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_variability


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o Species susceptibilities and natural reser#oirs

o 4reed susceptibilities

o $ge susceptibilities

o Se& associations in disease

2.3 Extrinsic determinants of disease

Climateo Macroclimates

$ large number of different factors combine to ma%e up the microclimate.

Some of these factors (heat cold rainfall wind humidity etc) can act as

disease agents in their own right either indi#idually or in combinations.o Microclimates

While macroclimates can ha#e a direct effect on microclimates the study of

macroclimates alone can fre'uently be misleading in achie#ing an

understanding of the epidemiology of a disease. @egions where e&isting

macroclimatic conditions might be thought unsuitable for the transmission of

a disease may in fact contain limited areas where the microclimatic

conditions are suitable for the sur#i#al of the disease agent and its #ector or

intermediate host. ($n e&ample may be a water hole or an irrigated pasture in

an arid en#ironment). Such areas often pro#ide enhanced conditions for

disease transmission since they may pro#e attracti#e to li#estoc%

particularly at those times of the year when the macroclimate is at its most

se#ere. f the host and the agent (and the #ector or intermediate host if they

e&ist) are in close contact the transmission of disease can be effected rapidly

and easily.

Soils4y interacting with climate soils determine #egetation and the en#ironment in

which the li#estoc% are %ept. "he main effect of #egetation is on nutrition. Soils

therefore act indirectly as determinants of disease by causing star#ation if there

is little or no #egetation or nutritiorial imbalances such as protein energy

#itamin or mineral deficiencies. Aalnutrition can be the direct cause of disease

or it can stress the host and thus increase its susceptibility to infection and disease


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from other sources. Soils can also ha#e an effect on the ability of the agent to

sur#i#e in the en#ironment through such factors as waterlogging pH etc.

AanAan is often able to create fa#ourable artificial microclimates for li#estoc%

rearing by pro#iding such inputs as housing water supplies irrigation etc.

Bnfortunately this often results in the creation of conditions fa#ourable for the

sur#i#al of disease agents and their intermediate hosts or #ectors. "his means

that by altering the en#ironment man can alter the determinants of the diseases

present in that en#ironment. "he changes in determinants will fa#our some

diseases and be detrimental to others. "hus changes in systems and methods of

production will result in changes in the relati#e importance of the diseases

present with perhaps some new diseases being introduced and others

disappearing. "he epidemiologist should be alert to such changes and should

attempt to predict the li%ely effect that these will ha#e on the o#erall disease

picture so that potentially dangerous situations can be a#erted or controlled.

. Dn#ironmental D&posure

3.1 Concerns About Reproductie !ealth Effects

O#er the past se#eral decades awareness has been growing regarding the

reproducti#e health effects of e&posures to certain chemicals. Scientists

clinicians and patients ha#e concerns about a number of recently identified

trends in fertility and reproduction (see Eigure 1). Some of these trends are

locali*ed to specific geographic locationsF others are more widespread.

8i#en the history of the slow response to emerging data on to&icants many

scientists clinicians and ad#ocates are concerned that delays in addressinge&posures will occur again.12D&perience has demonstrated that waiting until

firm proof! is a#ailable can cause significant time lags between the point

where there is %nowledge of a lin% between health outcomes and e&posure to

an en#ironmental to&icant and the time when regulatory action is ta%en or

clear guidance pro#ided. n the past serious steps to pre#ent and mitigate


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some en#ironmental threats to public health were ta%en only after decades of

data were collectedGand thousands of li#es affected. Eor e&ample physicians

did not counsel patients to a#oid tobacco e&posure until se#eral decades after

there were clear scientific data on the health effects of smo%ing. ?ead

mercury and asbestos are other e&amples of this unfortunate lesson. Eor this

reason many e&perts are fostering more widespread adoption of a

precautionary or pre#enti#e approach.

$s early as the 15Is scientists de#eloped the concept of the precautionary

principle which states When an acti#ity raises threats of harm to human

health or the en#ironment precautionary measures should be ta%en e#en if

some cause-and-effect relationships are not fully established scientifically.!

13

"his principle pro#ides a general approach to guide policy-ma%ing patient

counseling and personal decision-ma%ing about en#ironmental e&posures. On

the basis of currently a#ailable e#idence pro#iders can ta%e a precautionary

approach and recommend actions to a#oid e&posures.

3.2 Impact Enonmental exposure on Reproductie !ealth

@eproducti#e to&icants may contribute to a spectrum of ad#erse effects onreproducti#e health. "hese effects include menstrual irregularities early or

delayed puberty infertility subfertility early pregnancy loss fetal death

impaired fetal growth low birthweight premature birth and structural (e.g.

cardiac defect) or functional (e.g. learning disability) birth defects.161"he

impact of e&posure to a reproducti#e to&icant may not be immediately

e#ident. nstead the effects may emerge at %ey life transitionsJ for e&ample

when attempting conception during pregnancy during de#elopment of the

embryo or fetus in the newborn and during the offsprings childhood

puberty and e#entual fertility as an adult.1Eor this reason it is important to

be aware of the potential effects of a substance o#er a long period of time

rather than only during the period immediately after e&posure.

3.3 "imin# of Exposure


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"he timing of e&posure is another factor that strongly influences the ultimate

biological effect of e&posure to en#ironmental to&icants. $lthough e&posure to

these substances can affect indi#iduals at all stages of life e&posure during

critical windows of susceptibility may ha#e more significance. "hese

windows #ary somewhat depending on the particular to&icant and include

periods during gestation childhood adolescence and adulthood. 4ecause

these windows of susceptibility include #ery early pregnancy clinicians

should counsel women about e&posures throughout their reproducti#e li#es.

3.$ Mechanisms of Enironmental Exposure Effects

Some chemicals ha#e direct to&ic effects on the reproducti#e system.

Dndocrine-disrupting chemicals (D:Cs) can e&ert effects on hormone-

producing glands such as the thyroid or pituitary which in turn affect

reproducti#e health. D:Cs also may ha#e direct effects on the reproducti#e

system.

"o&icants can e&ert negati#e reproducti#e effects through se#eral mechanisms

as shown in Eigure 2.91Some chemicals %ill or damage cells. f these cells are

oocytes or sperm cells e&posure to the chemicals can result in infertility. f

they are other types of cells de#elopmental problems can occur. Eor e&ample

the anti-sei*ure drug phenytoin causes birth defects by disrupting normal

embryonic and fetal de#elopment without causing mutations in :$.1699

Other chemicals alter the structure of :$ causing gene mutations.91

:epending on the genes affected mutations can result in an inability to

concei#e or in birth defects in the offspring. Some chemotherapeutic agents

cause :$ mutations. Some industrial chemicals such as ben*ene also are

mutagenic. Einally some chemicals such as diethylstilbestrol (:DS) cause an

epigenetic effectJ they change the way in which genes are e&pressed which

can affect reproducti#e outcomes.


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2. "o&icity

$.1 Description

"o&icity is a general term used to indicate ad#erse effects produced by

poisons. "hese ad#erse effects can range from slight symptoms li%e headaches

or nausea to se#ere symptoms li%e coma and con#ulsions and death.

"o&icity is normally di#ided into four types based on the number of

e&posures to a poison and the time it ta%es for to&ic symptoms to de#elop. "he

two types most often referred to are acute and chronic. $cute to&icity is due to

short-term e&posure and happens within a relati#ely short period of time

whereas chronic to&icity is due to long-term e&posure and happens o#er a

longer period.

Aost to&ic effects are re#ersible and do not cause permanent damage but

complete reco#ery may ta%e a long time. Howe#er some poisons cause

irre#ersible (permanent) damage. ,oisons can affect 7ust one particular organsystem or they may produce generali*ed to&icity by affecting a number of

systems. Bsually the type of to&icity is subdi#ided into categories based on

the ma7or organ systems affected. Some of these are listed in table 1.

ndi#idual "o&icological nformation 4riefs ("4s) are a#ailable which more


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fully e&plain s%in and reproducti#e to&icities. $nother is a#ailable which

co#ers the formation of tumors and cancer.

4ecause the body only has a certain number of responses to chemical and

biological stressors it is a complicated business sorting out the signs and

symptoms and determining the actual cause of human disease or illness. n

many cases it is impossible to determine whether an illness was caused by

chemical e&posure or by a biological agent (li%e a flu #irus). $ history of

e&posure to a chemical is one important clue in helping to establish the cause

of illness but such a history does not constitute conclusi#e e#idence that the

chemical was the cause. "o establish this causeKeffect relationship it is

important that the chemical be detected in the body (such as in the bloodstream) at le#els %nown to cause illness. f the chemical produces a specific

and easily detected biochemical effect (li%e the inhibition of the en*yme

acetylcholinesterase) the resulting biochemical change in the body may be

used as conclusi#e e#idence.

,eople who handle chemicals fre'uently in the course of their 7obs and

become ill and need medical attention should tell their physicians about their

pre#ious e&posure to chemicals

$a#le %&8eneral to&icity categories

Categor' S'stem a((ected Common s'mptoms

@espiratory nose) trachea)

lungs

irritation) coughing) choking) tight chest

gastrointestinal stomach)

intestines

nausea) vomiting) diarrhea

@enal *idne' #ack pain) urinating more or less than usual

neurological #rain) spinal

cord

headache) di++iness) #ehavior con(usion)

depression) coma) convulsions

hematological ,lood anemia tiredness) weakness.

dermatological skin) e'es rashes) itching) redness) swelling

reproducti#e ovaries) testes) in(ertilit') miscarriage


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(etus

3. ,ollutans

%.1 Definiton

$ pollutantis a waste material that pollutes air water or soil. "hree

factors determine the se#erity of a pollutantJ its chemical nature the

concentration and the persistence. Some pollutants are biodegradable and

therefore will not persist in the en#ironment in the long term

%.2 "&pes of 'ollutans

Stock pollutants

,ollutants that the en#ironment has little or no absorpti#e capacity are

called stoc% pollutants (eg. persistent synthetic chemicals non-

biodegradable plastics and hea#y metals). Stoc% pollutants accumulate in

the en#ironment o#er time. "he damage they cause increases as more

pollutant is emitted and persists as the pollutant accumulates. Stoc%

pollutants can create a burdon for future generations by passing on

damage that persists well after the benefits recei#ed from incurring that

damage ha#e been forgotten.

und pollutants

Eund pollutants are those for which the en#ironment has some absorpti#e

capacity. Eund pollutants do not accumulate in the en#ironment unless the

emission rate e&ceeds the recei#ing en#ironment>s absorpti#e capacity (eg.

carbon dio&ide which is absorbed by plants and oceans). Eund pollutantsare not destroyed but rather con#erted into less harmful substances or

dilutedKdispersed to non-harmful concentrations.

%.3 'ollutans in food


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,ollutants found in food can be to&ic chemicals or biological contaminants

that are not naturally found in food. Eood pollutants can cause illness

ranging from moderate to se#ere. :e#elopment of health problems such as

cancer hormonal problems and problems with metabolism may occur and

in some cases can result in death.

6. ,lastic as pollutans on human body

(.1 Definition of 'lastic

plastic polymeric material that has the capability of being molded or

shaped usually by the application of heat and pressure. "his property of

plasticity often found in combination with other special properties such as

low density low electrical conducti#ity transparency and toughness

allows plastics to be made into a great #ariety of products. "hese include

tough and lightweight be#erage bottles made ofpolyethylene terephthalate

(,D") fle&ible garden hoses made ofpoly#inyl chloride(,0C) insulating

food containers made of foamedpolystyreneand shatterproof windows

made ofpolymethyl methacrylate.

n this article a brief re#iew of the essential properties of plastics ispro#ided followed by a more detailed description of their processing into

useful products and subse'uent recycling

6.2'lastic as Materials

,lastics are ine&pensi#e lightweight strong durable corrosion-resistant

materials with high thermal and electrical insulation properties. "he

di#ersity of polymers and the #ersatility of their properties are used toma%e a #ast array of products that bring medical and technological

ad#ances energy sa#ings and numerous other societal benefits ($ndrady

L eal 9II5). $s a conse'uence the production of plastics has increased

substantially o#er the last 6I years from around I.3 million tonnes in 153I

to o#er 96I million tonnes today. n Durope alone the plastics industry has
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468536/polyethylene-terephthalate-PET-or-PETEhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469242/polyvinyl-chloride-PVChttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469114/polystyrenehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1551203/polymethyl-methacrylate-PMMAhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528050http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528050http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468536/polyethylene-terephthalate-PET-or-PETEhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469242/polyvinyl-chloride-PVChttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469114/polystyrenehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1551203/polymethyl-methacrylate-PMMAhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528050http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528050


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a turno#er in e&cess of II million euros and employs 1.6 million people

(,lastics Durope 9II). $lmost all aspects of daily life in#ol#e plastics in

transport telecommunications clothing footwear and as pac%aging

materials that facilitate the transport of a wide range of food drin% and

other goods. "here is considerable potential for new applications of

plastics that will bring benefits in the future for e&ample as no#el medical

applications in the generation of renewable energy and by reducing

energy used in transport ($ndrady L eal 9II5).

0irgin plastic polymers are rarely used by themsel#es and typically the

polymer resins are mi&ed with #arious additi#es to impro#e performance.

"hese additi#es include inorganic fillers such as carbon and silica thatreinforce the material plastici*ers to render the material pliable thermal

and ultra#iolet stabili*ers flame retardants and colourings. Aany such

additi#es are used in substantial 'uantities and in a wide range of products

(Aee%er et al.9II5). Some additi#e chemicals are potentially to&ic (for

e&ample lead and tributyl tin in poly#inyl chloride ,0C) but there is

considerable contro#ersy about the e&tent to which additi#es released from

plastic products (such as phthalates and bisphenol $ 4,$) ha#e ad#erse

effects in animal or human populations. "he central issue here is relating

the types and 'uantities of additi#es present in plastics to upta%e and

accumulation by li#ing organisms ($ndrady L eal 9II5F Moch L Calafat

9II5F Aee%er et al.9II5F Oehlmann et al.9II5F "alsness et al.9II5F

Wagner L Oehlmann 9II5). $dditi#es of particular concern are phthalate

plastici*ers 4,$ brominated flame retardants and anti-microbial agents.

4,$ and phthalates are found in many mass produced products including

medical de#ices food pac%aging perfumes cosmetics toys flooring

materials computers and C:s and can represent a significant content of

the plastic. Eor instance phthalates can constitute a substantial proportion

by weight of ,0C (Oehlmann et al.9II5) while 4,$ is the monomer

used for production of polycarbonate plastics as well as an additi#e used
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C48http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528050http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528050http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11347604http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11347604http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C65http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C48http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528050http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528050http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11347604http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11347604http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C65http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055


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for production of ,0C. ,hthalates can leach out of products because they

are not chemically bound to the plastic matri& and they ha#e attracted

particular attention because of their high production #olumes and wide

usage (Wagner L Oehlmann 9II5F "alsness et al.9II5). ,hthalates and

4,$ are detectable in a'uatic en#ironments in dust and because of their

#olatility in air (@udel et al.9II19II). "here is considerable concern

about the ad#erse effects of these chemicals on wildlife and humans

(Aee%er et al.9II5F Oehlmann et al.9II5). n addition to the reliance on

finite resources for plastic production and concerns about additi#e effects

of different chemicals current patterns of usage are generating global

waste management problems. 4arnes et al.(9II5)show that plastic

wastes including pac%aging electrical e'uipment and plastics from end-

of-life #ehicles are ma7or components of both household and industrial

wastesF our capacity for disposal of waste to landfill is finite and in some

locations landfills are at or are rapidly approaching capacity (:efra et al.

9II6). So from se#eral perspecti#es it would seem that our current use and

disposal of plastics is the cause for concern (4arnes et al.9II5FHopewell

et al.9II5).

6.3 "&pe of plastic

,lastic mar%ed with an S, code of 1 is madewith ,olyethylene "erephthalate which is also%nown as ,D"D or ,D". Containers made fromthis plastic sometimes absorb odors and fla#orsfrom foods and drin%s that are stored in them.tems made from this plastic are commonlyrecycled. ,D"D plastic is used to ma%e many

common household items li%e be#eragebottles medicine 7ars peanut butter 7arscombs bean bags and rope. @ecycled ,D"D isused to ma%e tote bagscarpet fiberfillmaterial in winter clothing and more.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C65http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11321907http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11321907http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11321907http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14594359http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C21http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C21http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C21http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C21http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528059http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528059http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528059http://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/bag-tote.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C65http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11321907http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14594359http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C21http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C21http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528059http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528059http://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/bag-tote.htm


14/38

,lastic mar%ed with an S, code of 9 is madewith High-:ensity ,olyethylene or H:,D.H:,D products are #ery safe and they are not%nown to transmit any chemicals into foods or

drin%s. H:,D products are commonly recycled.tems made from this plastic include containersfor mil% motor oil shampoos and conditionerssoap bottles detergents and bleaches. Aanypersonali*ed toysare made from this plastic aswell. (,lease noteJ it is D0D@ safe to reuse anH:,D bottle as a food or drin% container if itdidnt originally contain food or drin%N) @ecycledH:,D is used to ma%e plastic crates plasticlumber fencing and more.

,lastic labeled with an S, code of is madewith ,oly#inyl Chloride or ,0C. ,0C is notoften recycled and it can be harmful ifingested. ,0C is used for all %inds of pipesand tiles but it>s most commonly found inplumbing pipes. "his %ind of plastic should notcome in contact with food items. @ecycled,0C is used to ma%e flooring mobile homes%irting and more.

,lastic mar%ed with an S, code of 2 is madewith ?ow-:ensity ,olyethylene or ?:,D. ?:,Dis not commonly recycled but it is recyclable incertain areas. t is a #ery healthy plastic thattends to be both durable and fle&ible. ,lasticcling wrap sandwich bags s'uee*able bottlesand plastic grocery bags are all made from?:,D. @ecycled ?:,D is used to ma%e garbagecans lumber furniture and more.

,lastic mar%ed with an S, code of 3 is madewith ,olypropylene or ,,. ,, is not commonlyrecycled but it is accepted in many areas. "histype of plastic is strong and can usuallywithstand higher temperatures. $mong manyother products it is used to ma%e plastic diapers"upperware margarine containers yogurt bo&es
http://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/tradeshow-promotions/plastic-yo-yo-toy.htmhttp://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/tradeshow-promotions/plastic-yo-yo-toy.htm


15/38

syrup bottles prescription bottles and somestadium cups. ,lastic bottle caps are often madefrom ,, as well. @ecycled ,, is used to ma%e icescrapers ra%es battery cables and more.

,lastic mar%ed with an S, code of 6 is madewith ,olystyrene also %nown as ,S and mostcommonly %nown as Styrofoam. t iscommonly recycled but it is difficult to do soand often ends up in landfills anyway.:isposable coffee cups plastic food bo&esplastic cutlery pac%ing foam and pac%ingpeanuts are made from ,S. @ecycled ,S isused to ma%e insulation license plate frames

rulers and more.

"he S, code of is used to designatemiscellaneous types of plastic that are notdefined by the other si& codes. ,olycarbonateand ,olylactide are included in this category."hese types of plastics are difficult to recycle.,olycarbonate or ,C is used in baby bottleslarge water bottles (multiple-gallon capacity)compact discs and medical storage containers.

@ecycled plastics in this category are used toma%e plastic lumber among other products.

6.4 The composition, structure, and properties of plastics

Aany of the chemical names of the polymers employed as plastics ha#e

become familiar to consumers although some are better %nown by their

abbre#iations or trade names. "hus polyethylene terephthalate and

poly#inyl chloride are commonly referred to as ,D" and ,0C while
http://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/custom-travelmugs/nantucket-polypropylene-stadium-cup-17oz.htmhttp://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/mug-personalized-travel.htmhttp://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/custom-travelmugs/nantucket-polypropylene-stadium-cup-17oz.htmhttp://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/mug-personalized-travel.htm


16/38

foamed polystyrene and polymethyl methacrylate are %nown by their

trademar%ed names Styrofoam and ,le&iglas (or ,erspe&).

ndustrial fabricators of plastic products tend to thin% of plastics as either

commodity! resins or specialty! resins. ("he term resin dates from the

early years of the plastics industryF it originally referred to naturally

occurring amorphous solids such as shellacand rosin.) Commodity resins

are plastics that are produced at high #olume and low cost for the most

common disposable items and durable goods. "hey are represented chiefly

bypolyethylenepolypropylenepoly#inyl chloride and polystyrene.

Specialty resins are plastics whose properties are tailored to specific

applications and that are produced at low #olume and higher cost. $mongthis group are the so-called engineering plastics or engineering resins

which are plastics that can compete with die-cast metals in plumbing

hardware and automoti#e applications. mportant engineering plastics

less familiar to consumers than the commodity plastics listed abo#e are

polyacetalpolyamide(particularly those %nown by the trade name nylon)

polytetrafluoroethylene(trademar% "eflon)polycarbonate polyphenylene

sulfide epo&y and polyetherether%etone. $nother member of the specialty

resins is thermoplastic elastomers polymers that ha#e the elastic

properties of rubber yet can be molded repeatedly upon heating.

,lastics also can be di#ided into two distinct categories on the basis of

their chemical composition. One category is plastics that are made up of

polymers ha#ing only aliphatic (linear) carbonatoms in their bac%bone

chains. $ll the commodity plastics listed abo#e fall into this category. "he

structure of polypropylene can ser#e as an e&ampleF here attached to e#ery

other carbon atom is a pendant methyl group (CH)J
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/539742/shellachttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468511/polyethylene-PEhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469069/polypropylenehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468270/polyamidehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/423155/nylonhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469146/polytetrafluoroethylene-PTFEhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468348/polycarbonate-PChttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1372259/epoxyhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/94880/carbon-chain-polymerhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/539742/shellachttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468511/polyethylene-PEhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469069/polypropylenehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468270/polyamidehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/423155/nylonhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469146/polytetrafluoroethylene-PTFEhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468348/polycarbonate-PChttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1372259/epoxyhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/94880/carbon-chain-polymer


17/38

"he other category of plastics is made up ofheterochain polymers."hese

compounds contain atoms such as o&ygen nitrogen or sulfur in their

bac%bone chains in addition to carbon. Aost of the engineering plastics

listed abo#e are composed of heterochain polymers. $n e&ample would be

polycarbonate whose molecules contain two aromatic (ben*ene) ringsJ

"he distinction between carbon-chain and heterochain polymers is

reflected in the table in which selected properties and applications of the

most important carbon-chain and heterochain plastics are shown and from

which lin%s are pro#ided directly to entries that describe these materials in

greater detail. t is important to note that for each polymer type listed in

the table there can be many subtypes since any of a do*en industrial

producers of any polymer can offer 9I or I different #ariations for use in

specific applications. Eor this reason the properties indicated in the table

must be ta%en as appro&imations.

,roperties and applications of commercially important plastics

polymer family and

type

density

(gKcm)

degree of

crystallinit

y

glass

transition

temperatur

e

(C)

crystal

melting

temperatur

e

(C)

deflection

temperature

at 1. A,a

(C)

"hermoplastics

Carbon-chainhigh-density

polyethylene (H:,D)

I.53+

I.5

high +19I 1 G

low-density

polyethylene (?:,D)

I.59+

I.5

moderate P19I 11I G

polypropylene (,,) I.5I+ high P9I 16 G
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/264221/heterochain-polymerhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/264221/heterochain-polymerhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers


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I.51

polystyrene (,S) 1.I+1.1 nil 1II G G

acrylonitrile-

butadiene-styrene

($4S)

1.I+1.1 nil 5I+19I G G

poly#inyl chloride

unplastici*ed (,0C)

1.+1.6 nil 3 G G

polymethyl

methacrylate (,AA$)

1.9 nil 113 G G

polytetrafluoroethylen

e (,"ED)

9.1+9.9 moderate-

high

196 9 G

Heterochain

polyethylene

terephthalate (,D")

1.+1.2 moderate 65 963 G

polycarbonate (,C) 1.9 low 123 9I G

polyacetal 1.2 moderate +3I 1I G

polyetherether%etone

(,DDM)

1. nil 13 G G

polyphenylene sulfide

(,,S)

1.3 moderate 9 G

cellulose diacetate 1. low 19I 9I G

polycaprolactam

(nylon 6)

1.1+1.9 moderate 3I 91I+99I G

"hermosetsQ

Heterochain

polyester (unsaturated) 1.+9. nil G G 9II

epo&ies 1.1+1.2 nil G G 11I+93I

phenol formaldehyde 1.+9.I nil G G 13+II

urea and melamine

formaldehyde

1.3+9.I nil G G 15I+9II

polyurethane 1.I3 low G G 5I+1II

polymer family and

type

tensile

strengt

h

(A,a)

elongation

at brea%

(R)

fle&ural

modulus

(8,a)

typical products and

applications

"hermoplastics

Carbon-chain

high-density 9I+I 1I+1III 1+1.3 mil% bottles wire and
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76439/Polyvinylidene-chloride-PVDC#toc76441http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76439/Polyvinylidene-chloride-PVDC#toc76441http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76444/HEMA-and-cyanoacrylate-polymers#toc76447http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76444/HEMA-and-cyanoacrylate-polymers#toc76447http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76489/Polyimides#toc76491http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76489/Polyimides#toc76491http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76469/Cellulosics#toc76469http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76473/Polyamides#toc76473http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76473/Polyamides#toc76473http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76493/Polysulfide-rubber#toc76494http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76439/Polyvinylidene-chloride-PVDC#toc76441http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76439/Polyvinylidene-chloride-PVDC#toc76441http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76444/HEMA-and-cyanoacrylate-polymers#toc76447http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76444/HEMA-and-cyanoacrylate-polymers#toc76447http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76489/Polyimides#toc76491http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76489/Polyimides#toc76491http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76469/Cellulosics#toc76469http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76473/Polyamides#toc76473http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76473/Polyamides#toc76473http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76493/Polysulfide-rubber#toc76494http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers


19/38

polyethylene (H:,D) cable insulation toys

low-density

polyethylene (?:,D)

+I 1II+63I I.93+I.3 pac%aging film grocery

bags agricultural mulch

polypropylene (,,) I+2I 1II+6II 1.9+1. bottles food containers

toyspolystyrene (,S) 3+3I 1+9 9.6+.2 eating utensils foamed

food containers

acrylonitrile-

butadiene-styrene

($4S)

13+33 I+1II I.5+.I appliance housings

helmets pipe fittings

poly#inyl chloride

unplastici*ed (,0C)

2I+3I 9+I 9.1+.2 pipe conduit home

siding window frames

polymethyl

methacrylate (,AA$)

3I+3 9+1I 9.9+.9 impact-resistant

windows s%ylights

canopies

polytetrafluoroethylen

e (,"ED)

9I+3 9II+2II I.3 self-lubricated bearings

nonstic% coo%ware

Heterochain

polyethylene

terephthalate (,D")

3I+3 3I+II 9.2+.1 transparent bottles

recording tape

polycarbonate (,C) 63+3 11I+19I 9.+9.2 compact discs safety

glasses sporting goodspolyacetal I 93+3 9.6+.2 bearings gears shower

heads *ippers

polyetherether%etone

(,DDM)

I+1I3 I+13I .5 machine automoti#e and

aerospace parts

polyphenylene sulfide

(,,S)

3I+5I 1+1I .+2.3 machine parts

appliances electrical

e'uipment

cellulose diacetate 13+63 6+I 1.3 photographic film

polycaprolactam(nylon 6)

2I+1I I+II 1.I+9. bearings pulleys gears

"hermosetsQ

Heterochain

polyester (unsaturated) 9I+I +12 boat hulls automobile

panels

epo&ies 3+12I 2 12+I laminated circuit boards
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76439/Polyvinylidene-chloride-PVDC#toc76441http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76439/Polyvinylidene-chloride-PVDC#toc76441http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76444/HEMA-and-cyanoacrylate-polymers#toc76447http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76444/HEMA-and-cyanoacrylate-polymers#toc76447http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76489/Polyimides#toc76491http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76489/Polyimides#toc76491http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76469/Cellulosics#toc76469http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76473/Polyamides#toc76473http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76473/Polyamides#toc76473http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76453/Polychloroprene-chloroprene-rubber-CR#toc76455http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymershttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76439/Polyvinylidene-chloride-PVDC#toc76441http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76439/Polyvinylidene-chloride-PVDC#toc76441http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76444/HEMA-and-cyanoacrylate-polymers#toc76447http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76444/HEMA-and-cyanoacrylate-polymers#toc76447http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76489/Polyimides#toc76491http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76489/Polyimides#toc76491http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76469/Cellulosics#toc76469http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76473/Polyamides#toc76473http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76473/Polyamides#toc76473http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76475/Aramids#toc76476http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76479/Polycarbonate-PC#toc76483


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flooring aircraft parts

phenol formaldehyde 3I+193 1 +9 electrical connectors

appliance handles

urea and melamine

formaldehyde

3+3 1 .3 countertops dinnerware

polyurethane I +6 2 fle&ible and rigid foams

for upholstery insulation

Q$ll #alues shown are for glass-fibre-reinforced samples (e&cept for polyurethane).

Eor the purposes of this article plastics are primarily defined not on the

basis of their chemical composition but on the basis of their engineering

beha#iour. Aore specifically they are defined as eitherthermoplastic

resins or thermosetting resins.

(.$ 'lastics in the Food Industr&

"he manufacturing of plastics and plastic products has come a long way in

the food ser#ice industry. "hese food pac%ages are essential to %eep food

from becoming contaminated or damaged during distribution while

%eeping food fresh. "he food industry uses a wide range of plastics

including cups plates bowls %itchenware pac%aging and bottles. "here is

an emphasis on increasing the uses of #arious recycled products including

plastic. Aany agencies such as the B.S. Eood and :rug $dministration

are in#ol#ed in collecting polymeric materials (usually food industry

containers) and recycling these materials to create new food containers.

"he world demand for food containers is estimated to increase nearly .

percent per year. "his is o#er T113 billion in 9I1 due to an increase in the

global output of food and an influence towards fast foods to meet fast-

paced lifestyles with the highest gain being for plastic containers.

Eood Storage

t is estimated that nearly half of the worlds supply of food goes to waste.

One of the main reasons for such significant food loss is due to poor food
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76493/Polysulfide-rubber#toc76494http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/591693/thermoplastichttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/591750/thermosetting-plastichttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76462/Ethylene-propylene-copolymers#toc76464http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468698/major-industrial-polymers/76493/Polysulfide-rubber#toc76494http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/591693/thermoplastichttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/591750/thermosetting-plastic


21/38

storage methods. Howe#er with the in#ol#ement of seal-tight plastic

products perishables such as fruits #egetables and meats last much

longer while still maintaining freshness. Eoods can also be refrigerated or

%ept fro*en in plastic containers safely using rubber or plastic loc%ed-lids

that %eep o&ygen from entering the container. "his is especially important

in food ser#ice industries where large amounts of perishable foods are

being %ept and ser#ed. Highly resistant plastics including polystyrene and

polypropylene ha#e also been used to create refrigerator door panels and

molding to help ma&imi*e usable space %eep the cold inside to maintain

the freshness of foods and repel stains and spills.

@ecycled ,lastics in Eood ,ac%aging ,er#asi#e ,lastics

"he Safety of ,olyethylene "erephthalate (,D")

,lastics and the Aicrowa#e

$#ailability of Eresh Eood

,lastic products in the food industry ha#e also played a beneficial role in

the a#ailability of fresh foods at a decent turn-around time. "he emergingtechnologies related to plastics ha#e made it possible to shelf stable food

products and reduce preparation coo%ing and ba%ing and clean-up time.

"he wor%load then decreases while the producti#ity increases. Studies

ha#e shown that these ad#ancements in food and food preparation many

due to the increased use of plastics pro#ides significant sa#ings in labor a

reduction in food waste and contamination and a high customer

satisfaction rate. O#er 3R of waste is sent to landfills and dumps.

Howe#er plastics can be melted down and reused. "his reduces a large

amount of waste when these plastics are recycled and made into new

plastic containers. "his method also helps to reduce pollution disposal

costs and en#ironmental problems.
http://www.fda.gov/food/foodingredientspackaging/foodcontactsubstancesfcs/ucm093435.htmhttp://e360.yale.edu/content/feature.msp?id=2209http://www.plasticsinfo.org/s_plasticsinfo/sec_generic.asp?cid=657&did=2605http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Microwave/Microwave-Plastics-FDADec02.htmhttp://www.fda.gov/food/foodingredientspackaging/foodcontactsubstancesfcs/ucm093435.htmhttp://e360.yale.edu/content/feature.msp?id=2209http://www.plasticsinfo.org/s_plasticsinfo/sec_generic.asp?cid=657&did=2605http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Microwave/Microwave-Plastics-FDADec02.htm


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Concerns about ,lastics and our Health

Currently there is a lot of concern about the chemicals contained in

plastics and how our daily use of plastics especially as food and be#erage

containers could allow these chemicals to enter our bodies. ,roper use of

plastic containers and %nowing the ris%s can help you to minimi*e your

e&posure. "he following lin%s will bring you to websites that share those

concerns and pro#ide you with more detailed information.

4reast Cancer + "he Dstrogen ConnectionJ ,lastics

4e Wise with ,lastics

4isphenol $ (4,$) nformation for ,arents

$ Call for the @eduction of 4,$ D&posure

Eood Safety

Customer demands for high 'uality and safe food products ha#e led to

modifications and inno#ati#e de#elopments of plastic pac%aging materials

and products. Color changing plastics ha#e been incorporated into #arious

food-pac%aging materials as a way to alert consumers about the conditions

of the food inside. "hese plastics ha#e the ability to identify products that

are on the #erge of spoilage or ha#e lost their wholesomeness. Aany food

ser#ice industries ha#e adopted plastic color-coded cutting boards to

pre#ent cross contamination. "hey typically accept a coding system of si&

colors that represent a group of foods such as coo%ed meats uncoo%ed

meats raw fish dairy products or raw #egetables. Dmployees are

typically pro#ided a laminated sheet that tells them which groups of foods

belong to which colors to a#oid food contamination.

How to "ell Which ,lastic Containers are @is%yU

Safe Bse of ,lastic Eood ,ac%aging and Containers

Helping Darth-Eriendly Corn-4ased ,lastics "a%e the Heat
http://envirocancer.cornell.edu/research/endocrine/videos/plastics.cfmhttp://healthychild.org/5steps/5_steps_5/?gclid=COem5vyP4qQCFRxqgwodJSg7KQhttp://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/http://www.wecf.eu/english/articles/2010/06/bpa-call.phphttp://www.foodconsumer.org/newsite/Safety/chemical/plastic_containers_0203100731.htmlhttp://www.ava.gov.sg/FoodSector/FoodSafetyEducation/Food+Facts/SafeUsePlasticContainers/index.htmhttp://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/sep10/plastics0910.htmhttp://envirocancer.cornell.edu/research/endocrine/videos/plastics.cfmhttp://healthychild.org/5steps/5_steps_5/?gclid=COem5vyP4qQCFRxqgwodJSg7KQhttp://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/http://www.wecf.eu/english/articles/2010/06/bpa-call.phphttp://www.foodconsumer.org/newsite/Safety/chemical/plastic_containers_0203100731.htmlhttp://www.ava.gov.sg/FoodSector/FoodSafetyEducation/Food+Facts/SafeUsePlasticContainers/index.htmhttp://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/sep10/plastics0910.htm


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0acuum Sealing

"he process of #acuum sealing not only sa#es money but also %eeps food

fresh while greatly reducing the ris% of microorganisms or bacteria from

entering the preser#ed foods. Eoods can be placed in plastic bags or

containers before putting it through a machine to suc% all of the air from

the container to store in the refrigerator or free*er. 0acuumed sealed

plastic products %eep their fla#or for a longer period of time and are less

li%ely to dry out the food. Bnli%e many other types of food pac%aging

containers #acuum-sealed foods ha#e a low li%eliness of obtaining free*er

burn. Aost food #acuum bags are designed using high-graded safe plastic

materials.

Eood Standards $gency

4isphenol $ and Consumer Safety

Bsing ,lastics in Eood ,ac%aging

$d#anced ,lastics ,ac%aging $iding Eood :eli#ery

(.% Effect of 'lastic Debris in the Enironment and on )ildlife

"here are some accounts of effects of debris from terrestrial habitats for

e&ample ingestion by the endangered California condor *&mno#&ps

californianus(Aee et al.9II). Howe#er the #ast ma7ority of wor%

describing en#ironmental conse'uences of plastic debris is from marine

settings and more wor% on terrestrial and freshwater habitats is needed.

,lastic debris causes aesthetic problems and it also presents a ha*ard to

maritime acti#ities including fishing and tourism (Aoore 9IIF 8regory

9II5). :iscarded fishing nets result in ghost fishing that may result in

losses to commercial fisheries (Aoore 9IIF 4rown L Aacfadyen 9II).

Eloating plastic debris can rapidly become coloni*ed by marine organisms

and since it can persist at the sea surface for substantial periods it may

subse'uently facilitate the transport of non-nati#e or Valien species
http://www.food.gov.uk/foodlabelling/packagingbranch/plastics/http://www.bisphenol-a.org/human/consafety.htmlhttp://www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/detail?site=131&itemId=1083935962&type=RESOURCEShttp://www.borealisgroup.com/industry-solutions/advanced-packaging/pp-aids-air-quality/food-challenge-rigid-packaging/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C39http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C39http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C39http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18949831http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18949831http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C16http://www.food.gov.uk/foodlabelling/packagingbranch/plastics/http://www.bisphenol-a.org/human/consafety.htmlhttp://www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/detail?site=131&itemId=1083935962&type=RESOURCEShttp://www.borealisgroup.com/industry-solutions/advanced-packaging/pp-aids-air-quality/food-challenge-rigid-packaging/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C39http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18949831http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18949831http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C16


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(4arnes 9II9F 4arnes et al.9II5F 8regory 9II5). Howe#er the problems

attracting most public and media attention are those resulting in ingestion

and entanglement by wildlife. O#er 96I species including in#ertebrates

turtles fish seabirds and mammals ha#e been reported to ingest or

become entangled in plastic debris resulting in impaired mo#ement and

feeding reduced reproducti#e output lacerations ulcers and death (?aist

155F :errai% 9II9F 8regory 9II5). "he limited monitoring data we ha#e

suggest rates of entanglement ha#e increased o#er time (@yan et al.9II5).

$ wide range of species with different modes of feeding including filter

feeders deposit feeders and detriti#ores are %nown to ingest plastics.

Howe#er ingestion is li%ely to be particularly problematic for species that

specifically select plastic items because they mista%e them for their food.

$s a conse'uence the incidence of ingestion can be e&tremely high in

some populations. Eor e&ample 53 per cent of fulmars washed ashore

dead in the orth Sea ha#e plastic in their guts with substantial 'uantities

of plastic being reported in the guts of other birds including albatross and

prions (8regory 9II5). "here are some #ery good data on the 'uantity of

debris ingested by seabirds recorded from the carcasses of dead birds. "his

approach has been used to monitor temporal and spatial patterns in the

abundance of sea-surface plastic debris on regional scales around Durope

(0an Erane%er et al.9II3F @yan et al.9II5).

$n area of particular concern is the abundance of small plastic fragments

or microplastics. Eragments as small as 1.6 m ha#e been identified in

some marine habitats and it seems li%ely there will be e#en smaller pieces

below current le#els of detection. $ recent wor%shop con#ened in the BS$

by the ational Oceanic and $tmospheric $dministration concluded that

microplastics be defined as pieces 3 mm with a suggested lower si*e

boundary of m so as to focus on microplastics that will be captured

using con#entional sampling approaches ($rthur et al.9II5). Howe#er

we consider it important that the abundance of e#en smaller fragments is
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11976671http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C35http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C35http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12405208http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528052http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528052http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528052http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C62http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C62http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C62http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528052http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528052http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528052http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11976671http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C35http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C35http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12405208http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528052http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C62http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528052http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C9


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not neglected. ,lastic fragments appear to form by the mechanical and

chemical deterioration of larger items. $lternati#e routes for microplastics

to enter the en#ironment include the direct release of small pieces of

plastics that are used as abrasi#es in industrial and domestic cleaning

applications (e.g. shot blasting or scrubbers used in proprietary hand

cleansers) and spillage of plastic pellets and powders that are used as a

feedstoc% for the manufacture of most plastic products. :ata from

shorelines from the open ocean and from debris ingested by seabirds all

indicate that 'uantities of plastic fragments are increasing in the

en#ironment and 'uantities on some shores are substantial (X1IR by

weight of strandline materialF4arnes et al.9II5). ?aboratory e&periments

ha#e shown that small pieces such as these can be ingested by small

marine in#ertebrates including filter feeders deposit feeders and

detriti#ores ("hompson et al.9II2) while mussels were shown to retain

plastic for o#er 2 days (4rowne et al.9II). Howe#er the e&tent and

conse'uences of ingestion of microplastics by natural populations are not

%nown.

n addition to the physical problems associated with plastic debris there

has been much speculation that if ingested plastic has the potential to

transfer to&ic substances to the food chain (see "euten et al.9II5). n the

marine en#ironment plastic debris such as pellets fragments and

microplastics ha#e been shown to contain organic contaminants including

polychlorinated biphenyls (,C4s) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

petroleum hydrocarbons organochlorine pesticides (99Y-bis(p-

chlorophenyl)-111 trichloroethane (::") and its metabolitesF together

with he&achlorinated he&ane (HCH)) polybrominated diphenylethers

(,4:Ds) al%ylphenols and 4,$ at concentrations ranging from ng g+1to

g g+1. Some of these compounds are added to plastics during manufacture

while others adsorb to plastic debris from the en#ironment. Wor% in Zapan

has shown that plastics can accumulate and concentrate persistent organic
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15131299http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15131299http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15131299http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18678044http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18678044http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18678044http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C59http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C59http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C59http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C12http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15131299http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18678044http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C59


26/38

pollutants that ha#e arisen in the en#ironment from other sources. "hese

contaminants can become orders of magnitude more concentrated on the

surface of plastic debris than in the surrounding sea water (Aato et al.

9II1). "euten et al.(9II5)describe e&periments to e&amine the transfer of

these contaminants from plastics to seabirds and other animals. "he

potential for transport #aries among contaminants polymers and possibly

also according to the state of en#ironmental weathering of the debris.

@ecent mathematical modelling studies ha#e shown that e#en #ery small

'uantities of plastics could facilitate transport of contaminants from plastic

to organisms upon ingestion. "his could present a direct and important

route for the transport of chemicals to higher animals such as seabirds

("euten et al.9II9II5) but will depend upon the nature of the habitat

and the amount and type of plastics present. Eor instance the e&tent to

which the presence of plastic particles might contribute to the total burden

of contaminants transferred from the en#ironment to organisms will

depend upon competiti#e sorption and transport by other particulates

($rthur et al.9II5). "he abundance of fragments of plastic is increasing in

the en#ironmentF these particles especially truly microscopic fragments

less than the m proposed by O$$ (see earlier) ha#e a relati#ely

large surface area to #olume ratio that is li%ely to facilitate the transport of

contaminants and because of their si*e such fragments can be ingested by

a wide range of organisms. Hence the potential for plastics to transport

and release chemicals to wildlife is an emerging area of concern.

Aore wor% will be needed to establish the full en#ironmental rele#ance of

plastics in the transport of contaminants to organisms li#ing in the natural

en#ironment and the e&tent to which these chemicals could then be

transported along food chains. Howe#er there is already clear e#idence

that chemicals associated with plastic are potentially harmful to wildlife.

:ata that ha#e principally been collected using laboratory e&posures are

summari*ed by Oehlmann et al.(9II5). "hese show that phthalates and
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11347604http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11347604http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11347604http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11347604http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C59http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C59http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C59http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18075085http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18075085http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18075085http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C59http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11347604http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11347604http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C59http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18075085http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C59http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055


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4,$ affect reproduction in all studied animal groups and impair

de#elopment in crustaceans and amphibians. Aolluscs and amphibians

appear to be particularly sensiti#e to these compounds and biological

effects ha#e been obser#ed in the low ng l+1to g l+1range. n contrast

most effects in fish tend to occur at higher concentrations. Aost

plastici*ers appear to act by interfering with hormone function although

they can do this by se#eral mechanisms (Hu et al.9II5). Dffects obser#ed

in the laboratory coincide with measured en#ironmental concentrations

thus there is a #ery real probability that these chemicals are affecting

natural populations (Oehlmann et al.9II5). 4,$ concentrations in a'uatic

en#ironments #ary considerably but can reach 91 g l+1in freshwater

systems and concentrations in sediments are generally se#eral orders of

magnitude higher than in the water column. Eor e&ample in the @i#er

Dlbe 8ermany 4,$ was measured at I. g l+1in water compared with

2 g %g+1in sediment (dry weight). "hese findings are in star% contrast

with the Duropean Bnion en#ironmental ris% assessment predicted

en#ironmental concentrations of I.19 g l+1for water and 1.6 g %g+1(dry

weight) for sediments.

,hthalates and 4,$ can bioaccumulate in organisms but there is much

#ariability between species and indi#iduals according to the type of

plastici*er and e&perimental protocol. Howe#er concentration factors are

generally higher for in#ertebrates than #ertebrates and can be especially

high in some species of molluscs and crustaceans. While there is clear

e#idence that these chemicals ha#e ad#erse effects at en#ironmentally

rele#ant concentrations in laboratory studies there is a need for further

research to establish population-le#el effects in the natural en#ironment

(see discussion in Oehlmann et al.9II5) to establish the long-term effects

of e&posures (particularly due to e&posure of embryos) to determine

effects of e&posure to contaminant mi&tures and to establish the role of

plastics as sources (albeit not e&clusi#e sources) of these contaminants
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19278865http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19278865http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19278865http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19278865http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528055


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(see Aee%er et al.(9II5)for discussion of sources and routes of

e&posure).

(.( Effect on !umans + Epidemolo#ical and Experimental Eidence

"urning to ad#erse effects of plastic on the human population there is a

growing body of literature on potential health ris%s. $ range of chemicals

that are used in the manufacture of plastics are %nown to be to&ic.

4iomonitoring (e.g. measuring concentration of en#ironmental

contaminants in human tissue) pro#ides an integrated measure of an

organism>s e&posure to contaminants from multiple sources. "his approach

has shown that chemicals used in the manufacture of plastics are present in

the human population and studies using laboratory animals as model

organisms indicate potential ad#erse health effects of these chemicals

("alsness et al.9II5). 4ody burdens of chemicals that are used in plastic

manufacture ha#e also been correlated with ad#erse effects in the human

population including reproducti#e abnormalities (e.g. Swan et al.9II3F

Swan 9IIF ?ang et al.9II).

nterpreting biomonitoring data is comple& and a %ey tas% is to setinformation into perspecti#e with dose le#els that are considered to&ic on

the basis of e&perimental studies in laboratory animals. "he concept of

Vto&icity and thus the e&perimental methods for studying the health

impacts of the chemicals in plastic and other chemicals classified as

endocrine disruptors is currently undergoing a transformation (a paradigm

in#ersion) since the disruption of endocrine regulatory systems re'uires

approaches #ery different from the study of acute to&icants or poisons.

"here is thus e&tensi#e e#idence that traditional to&icological approaches

are inade'uate for re#ealing outcomes such as Vreprogramming of the

molecular systems in cells as a result of e&posure to #ery low doses during

critical periods in de#elopment (e.g. Ayers et al.9II5). @esearch on

e&perimental animals informs epidemiologists about the potential for
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16079079http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16079079http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16079079http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18949837http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C36http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C36http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C36http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19337501http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19337501http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19337501http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528058http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16079079http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18949837http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C36http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19337501


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ad#erse effects in humans and thus plays a critical role in chemical ris%

assessments. $ %ey conclusion from the paper by "alsness et al.(9II5)is

the need to modify our approach to chemical testing for ris% assessment.

$s noted by these authors and others there is a need to integrate concepts

of endocrinology in the assumptions underlying chemical ris% assessment.

n particular the assumptions that dose+response cur#es are monotonic

and that there are threshold doses (safe le#els) are not true for either

endogenous hormones or for chemicals with hormonal acti#ity (which

includes many chemicals used in plastics) ("alsness et al.9II5).

"he biomonitoring approach has demonstrated phthalates and 4,$ as

well as other additi#es in plastics and their metabolites are present in thehuman population. t has also demonstrated that the most common human

e&posure scenario is to a large number of these chemicals simultaneously.

"hese data indicate differences according to geographical location and

age with greater concentrations of some of these chemicals in young

children. While e&posure #ia house dust is e&tensi#e (@udel et al.9II) it

would appear that at least for some phthalates (e.g. diethylhe&yl phthalate

:DH,) foodstuffs and to a lesser e&tent use of oral drugs probably

present ma7or upta%e pathways (Wormuth et al.9II6). D&posure data for

4,$ are similar but less e&tensi#e. While a#erage concentrations of

phthalates in selected populations worldwide appear 'uite similar there is

e#idence of considerable #ariability in daily inta%e rates among

indi#iduals and e#en within indi#iduals (,ec% et al.9II5). D&posures

through ingestion inhalation and dermal contact are all considered

important routes of e&posure for the general population ($dibi et al.9IIF

@udel et al.9II). Moch L Calafat (9II5) show that while meanKmedian

e&posures for the general population were below le#els determined to be

safe for daily e&posure (BS$ D,$ reference dose @f:F and Duropean

Bnion tolerable daily inta%e ":) the upper percentiles of di-butyl

phthalate and :DH, urinary metabolite concentrations show that for some
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C51http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C51http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C51http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16834635http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16834635http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16834635http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C47http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C47http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C47http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14594621http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14594621http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14594621http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14594359http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14594359http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14594359http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528056http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C51http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16834635http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873021/#RSTB20090053C47http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14594621http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14594359http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528056


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people daily inta%e might be substantially higher than pre#iously assumed

and could e&ceed estimated safe daily e&posure le#els. Current Vsafe

e&posure le#els are typically based on the application of traditional

to&icological assumptions regarding acute to&icants to calculate daily

e&posures for chemicals in a range of widely used plastic items. "he

to&icological conse'uences of such e&posures especially for susceptible

subpopulations such as children and pregnant women remain unclear and

warrant further in#estigation. Howe#er there is e#idence of associations

between urinary concentrations of some phthalate metabolites and

biological outcomes (Swan et al.9II3F Swan 9II). Eor e&ample an

in#erse relationship has been reported between the concentrations of

:DH, metabolites in the mother>s urine and anogenital distance penile

width and testicular decent in male offspring (Swan et al.9II3FSwan

9II). n adults there is some e#idence of a negati#e association between

phthalate metabolites and semen 'uality (Aee%er L Sathyanarayana) and

between high e&posures to phthalates (wor%ers producing ,0C flooring)

and free testosterone le#els. Aoreo#er recent wor% (?ang et al.9II) has

shown a significant relationship between urine le#els of 4,$ and

cardio#ascular disease type 9 diabetes and abnormalities in li#er en*ymes

and Stahlhut et al.(9II5)ha#e reported that e&posure of adults in the BS$

to 4,$ is li%ely to occur from multiple sources and that the half-life of

4,$ is longer than pre#iously estimated and the #ery high e&posure of

premature infants in neonatal intensi#e-care units to both 4,$ and

phthalates is of great concern (Calafat et al.9II5). "hese data indicate

detrimental effects in the general population may be caused by chronic

low-dose e&posures (separately or in combination) and acute e&posure to

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