SECTION III: ART AND IMPERIAL

POWERSimone Downs, Tiffany Bartucci

THE COLONIES, COMMODITIES, AND TRADE

Commodities and trade were the driving forces behind British global expansionism

Spices and teas, luxuries when first brought to England, increasingly became viewed as ABSOLUTE necessities. As such, many foreign areas became British colonies

Colonies also provided markets for British export the empire’s financial stability relied on this circle of trade.

THE COLONIES, COMMODITIES, AND TRADE CON’T

The Art Resource guide will examine China, India, and North American colonies. Art from China and India exhibit hybrid use of design and techniques in the works associated with imperialism. Native artists often sought to meet the demands of English patrons, while still using the techniques they were experts at.

Art from the American colonies is slightly different. The portrait in the resource packet was not intended as an object of trade and stayed within the United States for its entire history. A close analysis of the piece reveals the importance of trade in defining the American colonies immediately prior to the War for Independence, especially given the lofty position of tea, a valued import for Britain and the North American colonies.

PLATE, CHINA, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY (1739-43)

Produced in southern China in the eighteenth century

Shipped to Europe, with other goods from southern China, in 1740-43

Part of a set of a fifty plates and four dishes for Staffordshire, England aristocrats Keake Okeover and his wife Mary Nicol

The elaborate decoration and lack of variety in serving dishes suggests this set was commissioned to be strictly decorative

Made of hard paste porcelain, along with many other similar examples, in a southern Chinese potter’s workshop

It’s enamel decorations were made to meet the specific desires of the European patrons

The design was created in England and sent to China to be copied by an expert painter, and so this plate is a collaborative work.

The pattern, and other designs found on European goods produced in China, differed radically from the visual language of the Chinese, and so the potters had to have technical expertise to produce these wares

Gold decoration around the inner and outer rim replicate the look of metal embellishment

The Okeover and Nicol coats of arms (the central motif) rise from a pool of blue water and are surrounded by two horses and banners—this area is dominated by black, red, and gold, attracting attention

Floral motifs cover almost ever open space lack of negative space

Flowers and LMO (for Leake and Mary Okeover) decorate the outer rim

The technique of the hard paste originated in China

This technique was under Chinese monopoly for centuries

Porcelain is made from very fine white clay, like kaolin, mixed with feldspathic rock

It is fired at temps up to 1400 degrees Celsius

It was desired by Europeans because it is generally impermeable to water yet is still delicate and almost translucent. This contrasted to the heavy pottery and wood Europeans normally used for table goods

First porcelain objects were developed around 600 C.E. in northern China. Southerners started to make it by the 10th century.

First porcelain in Europe arrived in 14th century by way of the SILK ROAD

More porcelain goods came to Europe when the Portuguese established sea trade routes

By 16th century, trade was so important that Chinese artists were making porcelain goods specifically for export market—most shipped out of Canton. The wares continued to be highly rare and prized

Europeans did not gain knowledge of porcelain-making until 18th century. Hard paste porcelain was still rare.

Europeans who placed orders to the Chinese potters wanted teacups, candleholders, and mugs. These goods were not made for native markets, as English dining styles and customs clashed with Chinese

As such, models were sent to China to guide the potters in creating the European-demanded goods. Designs for patterns followed the same pattern

Enamel-working workshops were located in Canton or Jingdezhen

Cantonese workshops could finish designs in 2 or 3 months, while the workers in Jingdezhen had to take two entire years because they suffered from monsoons

This specific plate illustrates the European desire for exotic goods, but at the same time shows that Europeans demanded the Chinese adhere to European design ideals

The Chinese were highly skilled and flexible with their styles

The very exchange of money and ideas for this plate is part of the large history between China and Britain, which resulted in the British striving to gain dominance in the area in the 18th and 19th centuries

A COMMON INDIAN NIGHTJAR (CAPRIMULGUS ASIATICUS) This watercolor painting was done by an unknown Indian

artist for an European patron

The works during the 18th and early 19th century by Indian artist for European patrons were under the Company School painting or kampani kalam

Company School = demonstrates trained blending of styles + adaption of patron’s wants

Patrons were mostly employed by East India Company – had art created to showcase new interesting things; mostly from nature

THE PAINTING’S FEATURES This Indian Nightjar is common in India, fascinating to Europeans

– like tourist pictures

This painting is from the “Lucknow School” Awadh region in Northern India ; Company School started in Southern India but spread

Mughal Empire had a strong hold on the agriculturally rich zone; 1856: East India Company took over

Shown in profile, detailed, and the feathers are delineated from each other, outlined, and filed with brown, black, and grey tones

Bird casts a shadow

Bird is in foreground and sky and land are in neutral colors

COMMON INDIAN NIGHTJAR Scale of landscape is different with small shrubs in the background and small

compared to the bird’s larger appearance

This scaling is like the traditional miniature paintings = highly detailed, small paintings

Used watercolors instead of gouache, the traditional medium for Indian miniatures; both can show small details which was popular under the Munghals and Company School paintings

-Lord Impey (1777-85)- Chief Justice of High Court

-Marquess Wellesley (1798-1805)

-Claude Martin (1735-1800): French military officer commissioned this painting

Company school paintings: inexpensive, small, and for collectors usually; died out with the introduction of photography in 1840s since they documented more accurately

Paintings brought Indian and European skill together but also is connected to scientific knowledge and dominance over the territory

PAUL REVERE, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, 1768

Painted by John Singleton Copley, a famous North American portrait painter of the colonial era

Contemporary of Benjamin West, who painted North American history from a “temporal and spatial distance.” He will be discussed later

Moved to England prior to War for Independence Parents not affluent, probably born in Boston in 1738 Undoubtedly received and introduction to engraving from his

mothers second husband, Peter Pelham Established his reputation as a portrait painter in 1750s, by

1760s his reputation reached Europe Painted portraits not only of Revere, but also of Samuel Adams,

Thomas Mifflin, and John Hancock Painted in New York and Philadelphia in early 1770s, traveled

to London, Paris, Rome, and Florence in mid-1770s When back in London again, he started to incorporate historical

themes in his work too. Passed away in 1815

PAUL REVERE (1734-1818)

Famous for his August 1775 “midnight ride”

Revere was only one of several riders and he was not even famous for his role in the war in his lifetime

In 1861 H. W. Longfellow wrote a romanticized poem that gave Revere fame through false claims

In 1768 at age 34, Revere was an accomplished silversmith (he also worked with gold)

The painting may carry political undertones too

Silver working was a family tradition for the Reveres, and Paul Revere began at a young age

His shop produced utilitarian objects like buckles and buttons, as well as luxury goods like tea and coffee pots and salt cellars

Even constructed false teeth, engraved magazines and bookplates

Revere was a member of the Sons of Liberty and made his first political print in 1765

This group opposed controversial British policies

It was lead by Samuel Adams and spanned across many cities

Many of the members were middle-class trained artisans just like Revere

In 1765, the Sons were mainly concerned with the Stamp Act the phrase “no taxation without representation” definitely was used by the time the portrait was painted

Revere’s participation in politics was no secret. He openly challenged British control of the colonies

PAUL REVERE CON’T

THE PORTRAIT Revere is posed casually, his chin resting in

his right hand as if he is contemplative He holds an elegant silver teapot In front of him on the polished table are his

engraving tools we are encouraged to believe he is assessing his work, maybe putting on finishing touches

He is wearing the clothes of a workman: partially open linen shirt, waistcoat (also open), no jacket, no wig. It is seemingly casual.

NOT SO!!!!

The portrait is definitely posed. The waistcoat has GOLD buttons (serves well as an ad for his work, no?) and his table is SPOTLESS. This piece is no longer just casual.

These elements balance the intimate and formal qualities well.

The piece if highly detailed and lifelike

Made of oil and canvas, and is very large

Probably pretty costly, a price Revere could not afford

The two men met in 1763 when Copley ordered a gold bracelet. Perhaps Revere was given the portrait in exchange for some silver or gold goods

The painting remained in the family for generations

In 1928, the painting was publically displayed and later given as a gift to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

POLITICAL UNDERTONES Boston was an important center of American

commerce (goods flowed in and out from the colonies)

Teapots were LUXURY items and Revere only made 64 in his career. A laborer could not afford one

Portrait was definitely for elite patrons to see, but teapots were not the most expensive item revere made, coffee pots were

Revere made buckles, buttons, and spoons most often

The teapot could have been put in because tea had high political implications and was a source of bitter anger between the colonies and Britain

ARCHITECTURE AND POWER Architecture has always allowed humans to

make statements about power and dominance Buildings symbolically and physically transform

a place. It is a potent tool that was used to assert colonial power throughout the British Empire

Imperial architecture includes both religious and secular buildings

A revival of Gothic style was in England in the 19th century and Gothic architecture, like pointed arches and large windows, often combined local architectural traditions

Occasional Classical influences Colonial architecture is quite complex in its

formal qualities

VICTORIA TERMINUS BUILDING (CHHATRAPATI SHIVAJI TERMINUS) Built in the last quarter of the nineteenth century as a main

railway station in Bombay(now Mumbai)

Began construction in 1878; It was given its orginal name to celebrate the jubilee of Queen Victoria

Finished in 1887- Central point of England’s holding in India due to Bombay being most important port city

Headquarters for Great Indian Peninsular Railway and has since been expanded but the core of the building has been on touched

FREDRICK WILLIAM STEVENS (1847/1848-1900) Born in Bath,

England Formal training as an

architect when little 1867-assistant

engineer in the Public Works Department of India

Worked 10 years and was then offered the job to design the station

Known for usage of Gothic style

1893-Municipal Corporation Building; designed after retiring

Designed many other buildings and shaped Mumbai’s visual culture

CST’S ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES Hybridity of Indian and European influences

Italianate Gothic style-Big at the time in England

-pointed arch to form windows and doors

Turrets and towers portray the building’s height though extends horizontally

Dazzling with primarily red stone but also polychromatic stone, decorated tile, marble, and stained glass

Inspiration from Italian and English churches but also the St. Pancras Railway Station in London

IMPORTANCE OF THE CST

During Imperialism

Symbolized Colonial Rule

The statue that “crowns” represents Progress to come due to colonialism

Entrance has symbols of European and Indian power: lion and tiger together to create the city of Bombay with British power and Indian culture

Now a days

Tourist Attraction of Great Pride

Most important building of Mumbai that tourists MUST SEE

Copy in booklet was a souvenir of India’s beauty

If built during Company school era, would have been a main subject

NAME CHANGING

Bombay to Mumbai

From 1880s-1995: Bombay

Too close to Portuguese word for “good bay”

1995: Maharashtra state’s political party pushed name changes- push more Marathi identity and reject colonialism

Honors Mumbadevi, Hindu goddess

VT to Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus

From 1877-1996: Victoria Terminus

Chhatrapati Shivaji: seventeenth century King that lead against the Mughal’s and founded the Marathi nation

Symbol of a hero that defeats outside forces for the ingenious people

Hero for independence movement

POST-COLONIAL MUMBAI People still call it the VT rather than the

CST despite movement for more indigenous language usage

English is international language-still reps. Progress

Mumbai is the result of colonial rule and Indian pride

ROYAL EXHIBITION BUILDING Located in Melbourne, Australia Completed in 1880 Built for the Melbourne International

Expedition (1880-81); served for so much more

1888-site of the Melbourne Centennial Expedition celebrating the 100 years since European settlement on Australia

1901- First Parliament of Australia, after becoming a commonwealth

Mid-late 20th - Event venue

LITTLE MORE ON MELBOURNE• Bay in Southern Australia • Capital city of Victoria• 4 million people, one of most populous (now)

• Established in 1835 and became a city in 1847 after Queen Victoria approved

• Before, it was inhabited with indigenous• Settlers got there through Tasmania and then constructed a city City thrived 1850s on especially after gold was found in Victoria in

1851= POP. Growth Melbourne: Australia’s most important port and gained great wealth=

Royal Exhibition Building constructed

JOSEPH REED (1823?-1890) Born in Cromwell, England

Little is known of his life

1853: went to Melbourne

1854: won competition to design the State Library of Victoria

Later designed the Bank of New South Wales, Geelong Town Hall, and Wesley Church

Early on known for designing public, commercial, and religious architecture

Worked with Frederick Barnes(1824-84); Classical and Gothic modes

1883: Barnes retired and Reed worked with many others and designed many commissioned buildings

Married in 1884 and died in 1890, six years after first marriage

ROYAL EXHIBITION BUILDING

Little Extra Info!

The main section is still intact but the side wings Reed designed were destroyed

Additions were made on the building to expand and for temporary space growth

Exterior walls made of brick

Roof was made with timber, slate, and steel

Architectural Features and Layout

Church architecture with both Gothic and Classical influences

Long central space corresponds with the church nave’s and shorter spaces crosswise to the central area=church’s transepts

ROYAL EXHIBITION BUILDING Florence Cathedrals' dome inspiration for the

dome on an octagonal drum that covers the central crossing of the main structure

Romanesque entrance Located in the Carleton Gardens, semi-designed

by Reed

-showcase the native and exotic plant life Interior is open with numerous galleries Nave and Transepts have aisles next to them with

galleries above with lots of windows Interior columns, floor, ceiling, and dome are

made of timber; exterior walls made of masonry

- solid, imposing look from outside with a brightness inside

Building exhibition structures needed to be fast and more inexpensive thus timber is the way to go rather than all masonry

INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION IN MELBOURNE 1880 installment in

Melbourne was in a series that started in 19th century

1851: Great Exhibition in London (unveil Crystal Palace) start the showcasing of scientific, technologic advances with art and culture portrayed

Expensive, extravagant, and extensive

Hosted in building made for the show and lasted several months

Melbourne’s: October 1880- May 1881

Estimated one and half million guests came from all around the world

Buildings were to represent European ideas of progress

Massive building and tallest in Melbourne for a long time

Building was a way for visitors to see Melbourne’s progress

The dome has a walkway for people to view the skyline as well

ST. GEORGE’S CATHEDRAL, GEORGETOWN, GUYANA, ARTHUR BLOOMFIELD, COMPLETED 1894

Anglican church in the capital of Guyana (north coast of South America), Georgetown, named so in 1812 for King George III

Guyana was settled by Arawak and Carib native groups

17th and 18th centuries Dutch established colonies

British named the area British Guiana in 1814 Until 1834 the colony relied on slave labor;

with the abolition of slavery immigrants came in from all over

Gained independence in 1966, named country Guyana

Georgetown is located near the Demerara River (named Stabroek under Dutch, Longchamps briefly under the French)

It is currently the nations highest populated area, the seat of the government, and the commercial center

Guyana is ethnically diverse. Not only do Dutch, French, and British descendants live there, but African and even Indian (Indians came with labor demand after slavery was abolished)

Religiously diverse, although Christianity is the dominant religion. The Anglican church was the official religion before independence

THE CHURCH The most recent in a succession of important

Georgetown churches First was a small chapel dedicated to St. George in

1810. It was soon deemed too small. New St. George’s Cathedral was complete in 1842

and consecrated a cathedral because Georgetown was Georgetown was designated the seat of the Diocese of Guiana. It’s foundation was too weak

Last was designed in 1888 and completed and consecrated in 1894.

One of the tallest wooden churches in the world: 143 feet tall

Wood from local sources was selected to connect the church to the houses and public buildings around it

It is white to keep with the surrounding area too

Based on Latin Cross with a central tower Gothic=lightness and height (flying buttresses,

stained glass windows) Bloomfield altered the traditional European

architecture to be appropriate in the Caribbean setting

Importing heavy stone would have been too expensive and it would have looked out of place

The position of the church in Georgetown and its reliance on one of Britain’s celebrated architects illustrates the centrality of the Anglican Church in colonial rule great care was taken in the construction of the most cathedral of Britain’s Caribbean colonial holdings

ARTHUR BLOOMFIELD (1829-99) English, member of Royal Institute of British

Architects Father was a Bishop of the Church of

England Educated at Rubgy School and Trinity

College, Cambridge Apprentice to Phillip Charles Hardwick Awarded the Royal Gold Medal of the Royal

Institute of British Architects in 1891 Designed College of Music in London in

1882 Also designed St. Andrew’s Church in

Surbiton, England