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Construction

MaterialsTheir nature and

behaviour

Third edition

Edited by

J.M. Illston and

P.L.J. Domone

London and New York

Copyright 2001 Taylor & Francis Group

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The biggest thing university taught me was thatwith ambition, perseverance and a book you cando anything you want to.

It doesnt matter what the subject is; once youvelearnt how to study, you can do anything you

want.George Laurer, inventor of the bar code


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Contents

Contributors

Acknowledgements

Preface P.L.J. Domone and J.M. Illston

Part One Fundamentals W.D. Biggs, revised and updated by I.R. McColl and J.R. Moon

Introduction

1 States of matter1.1 Fluids1.2 Solids1.3 Intermediate behaviour

2 Energy and equilibrium

2.1 Mixing2.2 Entropy2.3 Free energy2.4 Equilibrium and equilibrium diagrams

3 Atomic structure and interatomic bonding3.1 Ionic bonding3.2 Covalent bonding3.3 Metallic bonding3.4 Van der Waals bonds

4 Elasticity and plasticity4.1 Linear elasticity4.2 Consequences of the theory4.3 Long-range elasticity4.4 Viscoelasticity4.5 Plasticity

5 Surfaces5.1 Surface energy

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5.2 Water of crystallisation5.3 Wetting5.4 Adhesives5.5 Adsorption

6 Fracture and fatigue

6.1 Brittle fracture6.2 Ductile fracture6.3 Fracture mechanics6.4 Fatigue

7 Electrical and thermal conductivity

Part Two Metals and alloys W.D. Biggs, revised and updated by I.R. McColl and J.R. Moon

Introduction

8 Physical metallurgy8.1 Grain structure8.2 Crystal structures of metals8.3 Solutions and compounds

9 Mechanical properties of metals9.1 Stressstrain behaviour9.2 Tensile strength

9.3 Ductility9.4 Plasticity9.5 Dislocation energy9.6 Strengthening of metals9.7 Unstable microstructures

10 Forming of metals10.1 Castings10.2 Hot working10.3 Cold working10.4 Joining

11 Oxidation and corrosion11.1 Dry oxidation11.2 Wet corrosion11.3 Control of corrosion11.4 Protection against corrosion

12 Metals, their differences and uses12.1 The extraction of iron12.2 Cast irons

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12.3 Steel12.4 Aluminium and alloys12.5 Copper and alloys

Part Three Concrete P.L.J. Domone

Introduction

13 Portland cements13.1 Manufacture13.2 Physical properties13.3 Chemical composition13.4 Hydration

13.5 Structure and strength of hardened cement paste13.6 Water in hcp and drying shrinkage13.7 Modifications of Portland cement13.8 Cement standards and nomenclature13.9 References

14 Admixtures14.1 Plasticisers14.2 Superplasticisers14.3 Accelerators14.4 Retarders

14.5 Air entraining agents14.6 Classification of admixtures14.7 References

15 Cement replacement materials15.1 Pozzolanic behaviour15.2 Types of material15.3 Chemical composition and physical properties15.4 Supply and specification

16 Aggregates for concrete16.1 Types of aggregate16.2 Aggregate classification: shape and size16.3 Other properties of aggregates16.4 Reference

17 Properties of fresh concrete17.1 General behaviour17.2 Measurement of workability17.3 Factors affecting workability

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24 High performance concrete24.1 High strength concrete24.2 Self-compacting concrete24.3 References

Part Four Bituminous materials D.G. Bonner

Introduction

25 Structure of bituminous materials25.1 Constituents of bituminous materials25.2 Bitumen25.3 Types of bitumen25.4 Aggregates

25.5 Reference

26 Viscosity and deformation of bituminous materials26.1 Viscosity and rheology of binders26.2 Measurement of viscosity26.3 Influence of temperature on viscosity26.4 Resistance of bitumens to deformation26.5 Determination of permanent deformation26.6 Factors affecting permanent deformation26.7 References

27 Strength and failure of bituminous materials27.1 The road structure27.2 Modes of failure in a bituminous structure27.3 Fatigue characteristics27.4 References

28 Durability of bituminous materials28.1 Introduction28.2 Ageing of bitumen28.3 Permeability

28.4 Adhesion28.5 References

29 Practice and processing of bituminous materials29.1 Bituminous mixtures29.2 Recipe and designed mixes29.3 Methods of production29.4 References

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Part Five Brickwork and Blockwork R.C. de Vekey

Introduction

30 Materials and components for brickwork and blockwork30.1 Materials used for manufacture of units and mortars

30.2 Other constituents and additives30.3 Mortar30.4 Fired clay bricks and blocks30.5 Calcium silicate units30.6 Concrete units30.7 Natural stone30.8 Ancillary devices ties and other fixings/connectors30.9 References

31 Masonry construction and forms

31.1 Introduction31.2 Mortar31.3 Walls and other masonry forms31.4 Bond patterns31.5 Specials31.6 Joint-style31.7 Workmanship and accuracy31.8 Buildability, site efficiency and productivity31.9 Appearance31.10 References

32 Structural behaviour and movement of masonry32.1 Introduction32.2 Compressive loading32.3 Shear load in the bed plane32.4 Flexure (bending)32.5 Tension32.6 Elastic modulus32.7 Movement and creep of masonry materials32.8 References

33 Durability and non-structural properties of masonry33.1 Introduction33.2 Durability33.3 Chemical attack33.4 Erosion33.5 Staining33.6 Thermal conductivity33.7 Rain resistance33.8 Sound transmission33.9 Fire resistance

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33.10 Sustainability issues33.11 References

Part Six Polymers L. Hollaway

Introduction

34 Polymers: types, properties and applications34.1 Polymeric materials34.2 Processing of thermoplastic polymers34.3 Polymer properties34.4 Applications and uses of polymers34.5 References

Part Seven Fibre composites

Introduction

35 Fibres for polymer composites

35.1 Fibre manufacture35.2 Fibre properties35.3 References

36 Analysis of the behaviour of polymer composites36.1 Characterisation and definition of composite materials36.2 Elastic properties of continuous unidirectional laminae36.3 Elastic properties of in-plane random long-fibre laminae36.4 Macro-analysis of stress distribution in a fibre/matrix composite36.5 Elastic properties of short-fibre composite materials

36.6 Laminate theory36.7 Isotropic lamina36.8 Orthotropic lamina36.9 The strength characteristics and failure criteria of composite laminae36.10 References

37 Manufacturing techniques for polymer composites37.1 Manufacture of fibre-reinforced thermosetting composites37.2 Manufacture of fibre-reinforced thermoplastic composites37.3 References

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38 Durability and design of polymer composites38.1 Temperature38.2 Fire38.3 Moisture38.4 Solution and solvent action38.5 Weather

38.6 Design with composites38.7 References

39 Uses of polymer composites39.1 Marine applications39.2 Applications in truck and automobile systems39.3 Aircraft, space and civil applications39.4 Pipes and tanks for chemicals39.5 Development of uses in civil engineering structures39.6 Composite bridges

39.7 Retrofitting bonded composite plates to concrete beams39.8 Composite rebars39.9 References

40 Properties of fibre and matrices40.1 Physical properties40.2 Structure of the fibrematrix interface

41 Structure and post-cracking composite theory

41.1 Theoretical stressstrain curves in uniaxial tension41.2 Uniaxial tension fracture mechanics approach41.3 Principles of fibre reinforcement in flexure41.4 References

42 Fibre-reinforced cements42.1 Asbestos cement42.2 Glass-reinforced cement (GRC)42.3 Natural fibres in cement42.4 Polymer fibre-reinforced cement

42.5 References

43 Fibre-reinforced concrete43.1 Steel fibre concrete43.2 Polypropylene fibre-reinforced concrete43.3 Glass fibre-reinforced concrete43.4 Reference

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Contributors

Professor D.G. BonnerDepartment of Aerospace, Civil andEnvironmental EngineeringUniversity of HertfordshireHatfield CampusCollege LaneHatfield

Herts AL10 9AB(Bituminous materials)

Professor J.M. Dinwoodie OBE16 Stratton RoadPrinces RisboroughNr AylesburyBucks HP17 9BH(Timber)

Dr P.L.J. DomoneDepartment of Civil and EnvironmentalEngineeringUniversity College LondonGower Street, London WC1E 6BT(Editor and concrete)

Professor D.J. HannantDepartment of Civil EngineeringUniversity of SurreyGuildford

Surrey GU2 5XH(Fibre reinforced cements and concrete)

Professor L. HollawayDepartment of Civil EngineeringUniversity of SurreyGuildfordSurrey GU2 5XH(Polymers and polymer composites)

Professor J.M. Illston10 Merrifield RoadFordSalisburyWiltshire SP4 6DF(Previous editor)

Dr I.R. McCollSchool of Mechanical, Materials, ManufacturingEngineering and ManagementUniversity of NottinghamUniversity ParkNottingham NG7 2RD(Fundamentals and metals)

Dr J.R. MoonSchool of Mechanical, Materials, Manufacturing

Engineering and ManagementUniversity of NottinghamUniversity ParkNottingham NG7 2RD(Fundamentals and metals)

Dr R.C. de VekeyBuilding Research EstablishmentGarstonWatfordHerts WD2 7JR

(Brickwork and blockwork)


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I.R. McColl

Dr Ian McColl is a senior lecturer at the Univer-sity of Nottingham. His first degree is in physicsand after receiving his PhD from Nottingham hewas involved in industrially sponsored research

and development work at the university beforetaking up a lecturing post in 1988. He teachesmainly in the areas of engineering materials andengineering design. His research interests centrearound the fretting and fatigue properties ofengineering materials, components and assem-blies, and the use of surface engineering toimprove these properties.

J.R. Moon

Dr Bob Moon is a metallurgist married to thefirst woman to study civil engineering at the Uni-versity of Nottingham. His PhD was awarded bythe University of Wales (Cardiff) in 1960. He hasworked in the steel industry in South Wales,researched into titanium and other new metals atIMI in Birmingham and into superconductors,magnetic materials and materials for steam tur-bines at C.A. Parsons on Tyneside. He joined thestaff of the University of Nottingham over 30

years ago and has taught materials to civil engi-neers for the majority of that time. He is nowreader in materials science and researches into thetriangle connecting processing, microstructureand properties of materials made from powders.

R.C. de Vekey

Dr Bob de Vekey studied chemistry at HatfieldPolytechnic and graduated with the Royal Societyof Chemistry. He subsequently gained a DIC inmaterials science and a PhD from ImperialCollege, London on the results of his work at theBuilding Research Establishment (BRE) on mater-ials. At BRE he has worked on many aspects ofbuilding materials research and development and

between 1978 and 2000 led a section concernedmainly with structural behaviour, testing, dura-bility and safety of brick and block masonrybuildings. From September 2000 he has relin-quished his previous role and become an associ-ate to the BRE. He has written many papers andadvisory publications and has contributed toseveral books on building materials and masonryand has been involved in the development ofUK and international standards and codes forbuilding.


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Acknowledgements

I first of all want to express my thanks to JohnIllston for his tremendous work and vision thatresulted in the first two editions of this book, andfor his encouragement and helpful advice in theearly stages of preparing this edition. My thanksalso go to all the contributors who have willinglyrevised and updated their text despite many other

commitments. They have all done an excellentjob, and any shortfalls in the book are entirelymy responsibility. I greatly appreciate the adviceand inspiration provided by my students at UCLand my colleagues at UCL and elsewhere, whohave suffered due to my neglect of other dutieswhilst preparing and editing the manuscript.

Finally, but most importantly, I must acknow-ledge the support given to me by my wife andchildren, who I have neglected most of all, but

who have borne with good grace the many hoursI have spent in my study.P.L.J. Domone

I wish to express my appreciation to the BuildingResearch Establishment (BRE) and in particularto Dr A.F. Bravery, Director of the Centre forTimber Technology and Construction, not only

for permission to use many plates and figuresfrom the BRE collection, but also for providinglaboratory support for the production of thefigures from both existing negatives and fromnew material.

Thanks are also due to several publishers forpermission to reproduce figures.

To the many colleagues who have so willinglyhelped me in some form or other in the produc-tion of this revised text I would like to record myvery grateful thanks. In particular, I would like torecord my appreciation to Dr P.W. Bonfield andDr Hilary Derbyshire, BRE; Dr J.A. Petty, Uni-versity of Aberdeen; Dr D.G. Hunt, University ofthe South Bank for all their valuable and helpfuladvice. I would also like to thank colleagues atBRE for assistance on specific topics: C.A.

Benham, J. Boxall, Dr J.K. Carey, Dr V. Enjily,C. Holland, J.S. Mundy, Dr R.J. Orsler, J.F.Russell, E.D. Suttie and P.P. White. Lastly, mydeep appreciation to both my daughter, who didmuch of the word processing, and my wife forher willing assistance in editing my text and inproof reading.

J.M. Dinwoodie


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Preface

This book is an updated and extended version ofthe second edition, which was published in 1994.This has been extremely popular and success-ful, but the continuing recent advances in manyareas of construction materials technology haveresulted in the need for this new edition.

The first edition was published under the title

Concrete, Timber and Metals in 1979. Its scope,content and form were significantly changed forthe second edition, with the addition of threefurther materials bituminous materials,masonry and fibre composites with a separatepart of the book devoted to each material,following a general introductory part on Funda-mentals.

This overall format has been retained. One newsmall part has been added, on polymers, which

was previously subsumed within the section onpolymer composites. The other significantchanges are, first, in the section on concrete,where Portland cement, admixtures, cementreplacement materials and aggregates now havetheir own chapters, and new chapters on mixdesign, non-destructive testing and high perform-ance concrete have been added; and, second, inthe section on fibre reinforced cement and con-crete, which has been rearranged so that eachtype of composite is considered in full in turn.

All of the contributors to the second editionwere able and willing to contribute again, withtwo exceptions. First, the co-author of the firstedition and editor and inspiration for the secondedition, John Illston, is enjoying a well-earnedretirement from all professional engineering andacademic activities, and did not wish to continueas editor for this edition. This role was taken overby Peter Domone, with considerable apprehen-

sion about following such an illustrious predeces-sor and the magnitude of the task. Fortunately,

John Illston provided much needed encourage-ment, advice and comments, particularly in theearly stages,

Second, one of the contributors, Bill Biggs, hadsadly died in the intervening period, but two new

contributors have revised, extended and updatedhis Fundamentals and Metals sections. Themost significant addition is a consideration ofequilibrium phase diagrams.

Objectives and scope

As before, the book is addressed primarily to stu-dents taking courses in civil or structural engi-neering, where there is a continuing need for the

unified treatment of the kind that we have againattempted. We believe that the book providesmost if not all of the information required by stu-dents for at least the first two years of three- orfour-year degree programmes. More specialistproject work in the third or fourth years mayrequire recourse to the more detailed texts thatare listed in Further reading at the end of eachsection. We also believe that our approach willcontinue to provide a valuable source of interestand stimulation to both undergraduates and

graduates in engineering generally, materialsscience, building, architecture and related disci-plines.

The objective of developing an understandingof the behaviour of materials from a knowledgeof their structure remains paramount. Only inthis way can information from mechanicaltesting, experience in processing, handling andplacing, and materials science, i.e. empiricism,


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Materials structural level

This level is a step up in size from the molecularlevel, and the material is considered as a compos-ite of different phases, which interact to realisethe behaviour of the total material. This may be a

matter of separately identifiable entities withinthe material structure as in cells in timber orgrains in metals; alternatively, it may result fromthe deliberate mixing of disparate parts, in arandom manner in concrete or asphalt or somefibre composites, or in a regular way in masonry.Often the material consists of particles such asaggregates distributed in a matrix like hydratedcement or bitumen. The dimensions of the parti-cles differ enormously from the wall thickness ofa wood cell at 5103 mm to the length of a

brick at 225mm. Size itself is not an issue; whatmatters is that the individual phases can be recog-nised independently.

The significance of the materials structural levellies in the possibility of developing a more generaltreatment of the materials than is provided fromknowledge derived from examination of the totalmaterial. The behaviours of the individual phasescan be combined in the form of multiphasemodels which allow the prediction of behaviour

outside the range of normal experimental obser-vation. In formulating the models considerationmust be given to three aspects:

1. Geometry: the shape, size and concentrationof the particles and their distribution in thematrix or continuous phase.

2. State and properties: the chemical and physi-cal states and properties of the individualphases influence the structure and behaviourof the total material.

3. Interfacial effects. The information under (1)and (2) may not be sufficient because theinterfaces between the phases may introduceadditional modes of behaviour that cannot berelated to the individual properties of thephases. This is especially true of strength, thebreakdown of the material often being con-trolled by the bond strength at an interface.

To operate at the materials structural level

requires a considerable knowledge of the threeaspects described above. This must he derivedfrom testing the phases themselves, and addition-ally from interface tests. While the use of themultiphase models is often confined to research inthe interest of improving understanding, it is

sometimes taken through into practice, albeitmostly in simplified form. Examples include theestimation of the elastic modulus of concrete, andthe strength of fibre composites.

The engineering level

At the engineering level the total material is con-sidered; it is normally taken as continuous andhomogeneous and average properties are assumed

throughout the whole volume of the materialbody. The materials at this level are thosetraditionally recognised by construction practi-tioners, and it is the behaviour of these materialsthat is the endpoint of this book.

The minimum scale that must be considered isgoverned by the size of the representative cell,which is the minimum volume of the materialthat represents the entire material system, includ-ing its regions of disorder. The linear dimensionsof this cell varies considerably from, say, 103 mm

for metals to 100mm for concrete and 1000mmfor masonry. Properties measured over volumesgreater than the unit cell can be taken to apply tothe material at large. If the properties are thesame in all directions then the material isisotropic and the representative cell is a cube,while if the properties can only be described withreference to orientation, the material isanisotropic, and the representative cell may beregarded as a parallelepiped.

Most of the technical information on materialsused in practice comes from tests on specimens ofthe total material, which are prepared to repre-sent the condition of the material in the engin-eering structure. The range of tests, which can beidentified under the headings used throughoutthis book, includes strength and failure, deforma-tion, and durability. The test data is often pre-sented either in graphical or mathematical form,but the graphs and equations may neither express


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the physical and chemical processes within thematerials, nor provide a high order of accuracy ofprediction. However, the graphs or equationsusually give an indication of how the propertyvalues are affected by significant variables; suchas the carbon content of steel, the moisture

content of timber, the fibre content and orienta-tion in composites or the temperature of asphalt.It is extremely important to recognise that thequality of information is satisfactory only withinthe ranges of the variables used in the tests.Extrapolation beyond those ranges is very risky;this is a common mistake made not only by stu-dents, but also often by more experienced engi-neers and technologists who should know better.

Comparability and variability

Throughout this book we have tried to excitecomparison of one material with another. Atten-tion has been given to the structure of eachmaterial, and although a similar scientific founda-tion applies to all, the variety of physical andchemical compositions gives rise to great differ-ences in behaviour. The differences are carriedthrough to the engineering level of informationand have to be considered by practitioners

engaged in the design of structures who first haveto select which material(s) to use, and then en-sure that they are used efficiently, safely andeconomically.

Selection of materials

The engineer must consider the fitness of thematerial for the purpose of the structure beingdesigned. This essential fitness-for-purpose is a

matter of ensuring that the material will performadequately both during construction and in sub-sequent service. Strength, deformation and dura-bility are likely to be the principal criteria thatmust be satisfied, but other aspects of behaviourwill be important for particular applications, forexample water-tightness or speed of construction.In addition, aesthetics and environmental impactshould not be forgotten.

Table 0.1gives some properties of a number of

individual and groups of materials. These aremainly structural materials, with some othersadded for comparison. The mechanical propertieslisted stiffness, strength (or limiting stress) andwork to fracture (or toughness) are all definedand discussed in this book. It is immediately

apparent that there is a wide variety of eachproperty that the engineer can select from (orcope with, if it is not ideal). It is also interestingto note the overall range of each property.Density varies by about two orders of magnitudefrom the least to the most dense (timber tometals). Stiffness varies by nearly three orders ofmagnitude (nylon to diamond), strength by aboutfour orders (concrete to diamond) and work tofracture by the greatest of all, five orders (glass to

ductile metals). The great range of the last prop-erty is perhaps the most significant of all. It is ameasure of how easy it is to break a material,particularly under impact loading, and how wellit copes with minor flaws, cracks, etc.; it shouldnot be confused with strength. Low values areextremely difficult for engineers to deal with low strength and stiffness can be accommodatedby bigger section sizes and structural arrange-ments (within limits), but low toughness is muchmore difficult to handle. It is one reason why

fibre composites have become so popular.Clearly, in many circumstances more than one

material satisfies the criterion of fitness-for-purpose; for instance, members carrying tensioncan be made of steel or timber, facing panels canbe fabricated from fibre composite, metal, timberor masonry. The matter may be resolved by theengineer making a choice based on his or herjudgement, with often some help from calcula-tions. For example, comparisons of minimum

weight or minimum cost options for a simplestructure with different materials, obtained withsome fairly elementary structural mechanics, withdifferent materials gives some interesting results.

Consider the cantilever shown in Figure 0.1.For linear elastic behaviour, the deflection at thefree end is given by:

Fl3/3EI

where E is the elastic modulus of the material and


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TABLE 0.1 Selected properties of a range of materials

Material Density Stiffness (E) Strength or limiting Work to fracture (tonne/m3) (GPa) stress (MPa)* (toughness) (kJ/m2)

Diamond 3.5 1000 50000 Common pure metals 519 20200 2080 1001000Structural steel 7.85 195205 235450 100130High strength steel 7.85 205 2601300 15120Cast iron 6.97.8 170190 2201000 0.20.3Silica glass 2.6 94 50200 0.01Titanium and alloys 4.5 80130 1801320 25115Aluminium and alloys 2.7 6979 40630 830

Timber 0.170.98 0.61.0 perp grain 90200 (tens) 820 Crack perp grain(dry) 916 par grain 1590 (comp)** 0.52 crack par grain

Spruce (par. to grain) 0.5 13 4080 0.51Concrete 1.82.5 2045 410 (tens) 0.03

20150 (comp)Epoxy resin 1.11.4 2.63 30100 0.10.3Glass fibre comp (grp) 1.42.2 3545 100300 10100Carbon fibre composite 180200 600700 530Nylon 1.11.2 24 5090 24Rubber 0.951.15 210 1530

*in tension unless stated; yield stress for metals, otherwise ultimate stress.

**on clear specimens.


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Variability and characteristic strength

An important issue facing engineers is the vari-ability of the properties of the material itself,which clearly depends on the uniformity of itsstructure and composition.

The strength or maximum allowable stress is ofparticular concern. In tension, for ductile mater-ials this can be taken as the yield strength or theproof stress (seeChapter 9),but for brittle mater-ials it may have to be chosen on the basis of theapproach described in Chapter 6.In compression,brittle materials have a well defined maximumstress, but ductile materials may not fail at all,they just continue being squashed.

The variability can be assessed by a series oftests on nominally similar specimens from either

the same or successive batches of a material; thisusually gives a variation of strength or maximumstress with a normal or Gaussian distribution asshown in Figure 0.2. This can be represented bythe bell-shaped mean curve given by the equation

y exp (0.3)where y is the probability density, and is thevariate, in this case the strength. The strength

results are therefore expressed in terms of twonumbers:

1. the mean strength, m, where for n results:

m/n (0.4)

(m)2

2s2

1

s2

Strength Numberofresultsorprobabilitydensity

m

FIGURE 0.2 Histogram and normal distribution ofstrength.

2. the range or variability, expressed as the stan-dard deviation, s, given by

s2[(m)2/(n1)] (0.5)

The standard deviation has the same units as thevariate.

For comparison of different materials or different

kinds of the same material the non-dimensionalcoefficient of variation cv is used, given by

cvs/m (0.6)

cv is often expressed as a percentage.

TABLE 0. 2 Weight and cost comparisons for the use of alternative materials for the cantilever of Figure 0.1(all figures relative to mild steel1, material properties as in Table 0.1)

Material Cost Minimum weight Minimum cost (/tonne) Stiffness criterion Strength criterion Stiffness criterion Strength criterion

E1/3

/ max1/2

/ E1/3

/./tonne max1/2

/./tonne

Diamond 2106 3.8 31.8 1.9106 1.6105

Structural steel 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0Silica glass 3.4 2.4 2.1 0.8 0.7Titanium and alloys 27.5 1.4 3.0 0.05 0.1Aluminium and alloys 5.0 2.1 3.4 0.4 0.7Spruce (par. to grain) 1.0 6.4 7.7 6.4 7.7Concrete 0.7 1.8 0.6 2.6 0.8Epoxy resin 3.8 1.5 3.2 0.4 0.8Nylon 7.5 1.7 3.6 0.2 0.5

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Values of typical mean strengths and their coeffi-cients of variation for materials in this book are

given in Table 0.3. Steel and ungraded timber atthe two ends of the scale. The manufacture of steelis a well developed and closely controlled processso that a particular steel can be readily reproducedand the variability of properties such as strength issmall; conversely, ungraded or unprocessed timber,which in its natural form is full of defects such asknots, and inevitably exhibits a wide variation inproperty values. The variability can, however, bereduced by processing so that the coefficient of

TABLE 0. 3 Comparison of strengths of construction materials and their coefficients of variation. ccompres-sion, t tension

Material Mean strength Coefficient of Comment MPa variation (%)

Steel 460t 2 Structural mild steel

Concrete 40c 15 Typical concrete cube strength at 28 daysTimber 30t 35 Ungraded softwood

120t 18 Knot free, straight grained softwood11t 10 Structural grade chipboard

Fibre cement composites 18t 10 Continuous polypropylene fibre with 6%volume fraction in stress direction

Masonry 20c 10 Small walls, brick on bed

Area % failure

failure rate

Strength Marginks

Numberofresults

Characteristicstrength

m

FIGURE 0.3 Failure rate, margin and characteristicstrength.

1

10

100

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

k

Failure

rate(%)

FIGURE 0.4 Relationship between k and failurerate for normally distributed results

variation for chipboard or fibreboard is appreciablylower than that for ungraded timber.

Engineers need to take both the mean strengthand the strength variation into account in deter-mining a safe strength at which the possibility offailure is reduced to acceptable levels. If the meanstress alone is used, then by definition half of thematerial will fail to meet this criterion, which isclearly unacceptable. The statistical nature of thedistribution of results means that a minimumstrength below which no specimen will ever failcannot be defined, and therefore a value knownas the characteristic strength (char) is used, which

is set at a distance below the mean, called the


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margin, below which an acceptably small numberof results will fall.

The total area under the normal distributioncurve of Figure 0.2represents 100 per cent of theresults, and the area below any particularstrength is the number of results that will occur

below that strength, or in other words the failurerate (Figure 0.3). The greater the margin, thelower the failure rate. Clearly, if the margin iszero, then the failure rate is 50 per cent. It is aproperty of the normal distribution curve that ifthe value of the margin is expressed as ks where kis a constant, then k is related to the failure rateas in Figure 0.4.Hence

charmks (0.7)

Engineering judgement and consensus is used tochoose an acceptable failure rate. In practice, thisis not always the same in all circumstances; forexample, 5 per cent is typical for concrete(i.e. k1.64), and 2 per cent for timber (i.e.k1.96).

As we have said, this analysis uses values of sobtained from testing prepared specimens of thematerial concerned. In practice it is also necessary

to consider likely differences between these andthe bulk properties of material, which may varydue to size effects, manufacturing inconsistencies,etc., and therefore further materials safety factorswill need to be applied to the characteristicstrength. It is beyond the scope of this book to

consider these in any detail guidance can beobtained from relevant design codes and designtext books.

Concluding remarks

We hope that this preface has encouraged you toread on. It has described the general content,nature and approach of the book, and sets thescene for the level and type of information on the

various materials that is provided. It has alsogiven an introduction to some ways of comparingmaterials, and discussed how the unavoidablevariability of properties can be taken into accountby engineers. You will probably find it useful torefer back to these latter two sections from timeto time.

Enjoy the book.

A note on units

In common with all international publications, and with national practice in many countries, the SIsystem of units has been used throughout this text. Practice does however vary between different partsof the engineering profession and between individuals over whether to express quantities which havethe dimensions of [force]/[length]2 in the units of its constituent parts, e.g. N/m2, or with the interna-tionally recognised combined unit of the Pascal (Pa). In this book, the latter is used in Parts 1 to 7, andthe former in Part 8, which reflects the general practice in other publications on the materials con-cerned.

The following relationships may be useful whilst reading:1 Pa 1 N/m2

1kPa 103 Pa 103 N/m2 1 kN/m2

1MPa 106 Pa 106 N/m2 1 N/mm2

1GPa 109 Pa 109 N/m2 1 kN/mm2

The magnitude of the unit for a particular property is normally chosen such that convenient numbersare obtained e.g. MPa (or N/mm2) for strength and GPa (or kN/mm2) for modulus of elasticity ofstructural materials.

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