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The Contract of Guarantee and Islamic
Banking O1ì��í�� �¦G ©
Assessing The Perspective of Oriantalistic
Scholarship of Islam Êîïð�w��231�ñ�£�¦G
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ŒÛMyˆ~)²!ZÖp»óY,{Non Arabic Words in the Holy Qura'n ((((A Research Overview))))
/ eZËqƒ·×iŒ
// eZËqƒ·ZuZLÃgz¹
Abstract
It is very interesting to note that the Holy Qura'n is revealed in
Arabic Language. The issue the Holy Text of the Qura'n consists of any
non-Arabic word in the Qura'n or not, has been controversial among the
Islamic Scholars for a long time. One group of the Scholars claimed that
the Holy Qura'n does not comprise any of the non-Arabic words while
some others have view that there are few non-Arabic words in the Holy
Qura'n and it does not take Qura'n out of being revealed in Arabic
because that the Arabic words are in small number which is considered
as nothing as compare to Arabic words it the Holy Text.
The Article illuminates views of both side with their arguments and
makes an effort to unite both side based upon various arguments by the
scholars of contemporary and old time keeping in view that the article
validates that Holy Qura'n contains non-Arabic words.
ŒÛMyˆMZÑz™sÂ[ìÔZknZkÆ**xÌ{]�XExZÅMyдÃ6,gzÝeZà첉fYäZkñçq6, œ‰Û^ð]Öφ!á z){~fñ™Zxä ]Öf†a^áXX(ZZ]¦iÏ^áXX LL
ZZ]Ö`³³³‚Fpæ]Öfn³³³^áʳ³± xÃÌ"Å�XZkÅZq-úc*VVw™Ô0Z',Z�&Í-:ö EGXÅÂ[
ìXZkÂ[~QrVäŒÛMy™*Æ64**x!*5ÒyG�X œ‰Û«ð]Öφ!áXX8--Eg;ÔуgÔ0*ÎyX Zk6,zWÔ%EÄZsðÔZb /
ç}%EÄZsðÔZb8--Eg;ÔуgÔ0*ÎyX //
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Exegetical Methodology of Qazi Baizavi in his Tafsir
"Anwar al Tanzil wa Asrar al Tawil"
/ qƒ·ZGt
ABSTRACT
The Anwar al Tanzil wa Asrar al Tawil, is well known tafsir by Qazi
Nasir ul Din Abdullah Bin Umar. Qazi Baizavi was born in 585 A.H and died
in 685 A.H. He was expert an imperical and septic learnings, he wrote more
than twelve books in various branches of Islamic studies. His tafsir is
considered one of Tafasir "Bil Ray Al Mahmood(Tafsir based on
commended reasoning and Ijtihad). In fact,Qazi Baizavi's work is a precise
of Allama Jarullah Zamakhari's Tafsir "Al-Kashaf". Qazi Baizavi has given
much importance in his tafsir to diction, grammar, comprechension, and
discussions related to fiqh.
The critics have of opinion that Qazi Biazvi reported unauthentic
prophetic tradition(Ahadith) at the end of every Surah. It came true while
studying his Tafsir. Moreover, he cited many Israe'li Traditions while the
interpretaion of verses but with critical analysis. He did not only represented
and endorced Iman Shafi'e's Fiqh but he also rejected other school of
thoughts particularly "Hanafi School of Thought". For the acknowledgment
of his work, it is suffise that his Tafsir has been studied as particular in the
Religious Institutes of Sub Continent for the long time of history. Thus, it is
need to be known the methodology of Imam Baizavi in his remarkable
Tasir.
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áááá$$$$úúúúJJJJ
LLLLtttt~~~~åååå6666,,,,))))~~~~AAAAZZZZ‚‚‚‚2222»»»»óóóóYYYY^,,,,{{{{Research Review of The Contemporary Authoring
Styles on Khasais e Nabavi(Prophet
Muhammad~~~~VVVV 's Characteristics)
/ eZËð¡a
ABSTRACT
The life of Prophet(~V ) is the complete and comprehensive role
model for human being. He possesses Qura'nic Characteristics. He has
some distinguish attributes those nobody else has in the human history.
To convey the personality of Prophet(~V ) to the offspring, likewise
the old scholars, Many scholars of modern time wrote books on the
different aspect of characteristic of Prophet(~V )with the diversity of
methodologies. Some focused on collecting His(~V )attributes wherever
they found in the books without critical analysis of traditions, while the
others tried to sift the Prophetic Traditions and collect the authentic of them.
Some authors paid attention to present attributes in dialectic method
whereas the others formed them on scientific way. It is noteable here that
orientalists also worte on the topics whethe in positive or in negative form.
The article is an effort to point out the contemporary work done by
the scholars in collecting the characteristics of Holy Prophet(~V ).Moreover,
it draws the attention towards the qualities and problems of the work done
on the topic, as it recomends that the topic should be dealt and presented
with the authentic and basic sources. All it is analyzed briefly.
/ZÁÏZf$6,zWÔуg»Ò',ZñpZ&-Eg;ÔуgÔ0*ÎyX
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92X†ZØŠgŒãÔeZËÔ9Zsx-ZvmzÅZzgà:f[»Z0+Zi„Ôm362ÔÂ[uZñÔуgÔ5002YX
03 . Zafar Ali Qureshi, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his western Critics, P 489, Idara
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58
ÇzVÆ',R~‘ÐêLZßw}»Zg»YDevelopment of Principles of Jurisprudence in
Medieval Sub-Continent
/ eZËÃgztŒ
ABSTRACT
The light of Islam reached the Sub-Continent in the life time of the
Prophet(~V ). Soon afterward companions of the Prophet (~V ) is said to have
arrived here. The 1st mosque in the Sub- Continent was built in 629AD (8 Hijra),
this was the 1st Islamic school too. History of compilation of Usul al fiqh started in
the last two decades of 1st Islamic century. Since the beginning of compilation of
Usul al fiqh till today, the work has been going on in various languages and regions
in different forms poetry & prose, brief & detailed. Ulema of Sub-Continent
contributed in their best capabilities with sincerity. They traveled far and wide for
seeking knowledge of Usul al fiqh. Some of them returned to the Sub-Continent,
later on it so happened that some eager students, thirsty for knowledge of Usul al
fiqh came to Sub-Continent. Some Ulema settled in other countries permanently,
contributing to this field. Some emperors and kings gave patronage to the scholars
which helped in the progress of Usul al fiqh.
The paper discusses the period from the life of the Prophet(~V ) up to 10th
Century Hijra in chronological order and discusses the written contribution (not
oral) of scholars and jurists of Sub-Continetonly.
/Zk6,zWÔ‘$4542.ç GEGHGEe6g¹ÔZ+Z~e~Z+B2.çEEGE8-Zh(ßY-Eg;Ô™ZcÔ0*ÎyX
59
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ß‘40îGEÅ|ZzgZkÅ%zzÕÿReality of Mohatra Contract & Its Current Forms
/ Ýx©g
Abstract
The economic system of Islam does not allow the interest and fraud
(cheating). This system does not consider it fair to exploit the compulsions
of others. It is our bad luck (misfortune) that the majority of the business
community is unaware of the economic teachings of islam. The problem of
Bay Aena has assumed the severe form in the society. The majority of the
people is ignorant of the real nature of this Bay on one hand, while on the
other hand it is also the cause of the spread of selfishness and greed.
Through this paper, it has been tried to determine the religious position of
Bay Aena in the light of the views of the Islamic Scholars. Moreover, its
different forms prevalent in the society have also been analysed.
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23 . www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/rural-population-percent-of-tota
l-population-wb-data.html.
33 . www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/agricultural-land-percent-of-land
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/ )g=
Abstract
The topic is relating to introduction and historical background of Quranic
Orthography. After narrating a brief introduction of Quranic Orthography
(ilm-ur-rasam), I have elaborated the characteristics of Quranic Orthography in
this Article. In addition, conflicting views of Muslim scholars regarding the subject
are also highlighted. As Masahif-e-Usmania are basis of Quranic Orthography, the
historical background and other aspects and features of these Masahif are also
identified. I have also described few examples of the conflicts between Quranic
orthography and Arabic calligraphy.
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Zsògc*„~)›à-VÆ£tz�ÛZø )¸Z°çÆÚø~Sà_·(
Rights and Duties of Non-Muslims in the Islamic State
(A Special Study in the light of Islamic Legal Maxims)
/ eZËfzZ3gZAbstract
The Non-Muslims whom live in the territory of Islamic State are called
Zimmis. They are as citizens of the Islamic State as Muslims. This paper shows
the rights of the non-Muslims which they have in the Islamic State along with their
duties in which they are to be bound to perform positively. In their religious
matters, they remain free from any sort of restriction and to be dealt with their own
personal laws; however, they are to be bound in public Law of the State like other
Muslim citizens. When they obey the public law, then the State is bound to protect
their fundamental human rights i.e., right to life, tight to property and right to
respect or honor as well. Their religious places are to be protected by the Islamic
State. They have right to worship according to their own religion and have right to
perform their other rituals. They are not be forced for accepting Islam at any
period of life. However, in response of these rights they are to be bound to pay
poll tax and if they have land than land tax as well. In these taxes their women,
children and clergy men are to be exempted from paying any sort of taxes. If
some of them join to the service of the State's Army and Defense ministry then
too are be free from all sort of taxes. In criminal matters or in other illegal
practices, the public Law is to be applied over them. If they disobey the Law of the
Land and become rebel then they are tol be treated as enemies of the State.
Zk6,zWÍg7†¤/�f$»ÒÃg1Z,ÔgZzf~Ô0*ÎyX /
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( ‚LLZŒZZ§óó»!-:
÷EXEZzg¡Z]zá÷)ïz‹t
Tafsir ''Ahsan ut Tafasir", Its Methodology &
Characteristics (Research & Analysis)
"/ eZË™:+
Abstract
The Tafsiri literature of subcontinent varies in respect of its quality and
quantity. It has a wide deep range. Many scholars have contributed to this field. In
this literature, three trends are dominant; these tafsiri trends demonstrate specific
impressions of the individual a Mutassir. As such we have mystical interpretation,
jurisprudential and scientific interpretation and theological interpretation. All
reflecting the mind of their mufassirun.
In the mystical writings, the writers narrate the hidden meanings of the
Qur'an which are difficult for a common man to understand. In jurisprudential
Tafsir, the Islamic laws and the related affairs are discussed and explained.
Moreover, different sects in Islam are interpret Qura'an according to their school
of thought.
In theological interpretations, the words of Qur'an are explained in the
context of the Qur'an itself or the sayings of The Holy Prophet(PBUH). This type
of interpretation is called "Tafsir Bilmasur".
Maulana Sayyed Ahmad Hasan Mahaddis Dehlavi,s Tafseer-e-Qur'an
"Ahsan-ul-Tafaseer" is representative of Tafseer Bilmasur.
His Tafseer enjoys very prominent place among the Tafseeri literature of
sub-continent. To explain and interpret the "aspects" of the Holy Qur'an, Maulana
has heavily relied upon and benifitted greatly from The Qur'an, saying of The Holy
Prophet, his companions (Sahaba kiram) and Tabeen and ancient Arabic
language.
In this research article, the salient features of "Ahsan-ul-Tafaseer" are
discussed.
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( ‚LLZŒZZ§óó»!-:
÷EXEZzg¡Z]zá÷)ïz‹t
Tafsir ''Ahsan ut Tafasir", Its Methodology &
Characteristics (Research & Analysis)
"/ eZË™:+
Abstract
The Tafsiri literature of subcontinent varies in respect of its quality and
quantity. It has a wide deep range. Many scholars have contributed to this field. In
this literature, three trends are dominant; these tafsiri trends demonstrate specific
impressions of the individual a Mutassir. As such we have mystical interpretation,
jurisprudential and scientific interpretation and theological interpretation. All
reflecting the mind of their mufassirun.
In the mystical writings, the writers narrate the hidden meanings of the
Qur'an which are difficult for a common man to understand. In jurisprudential
Tafsir, the Islamic laws and the related affairs are discussed and explained.
Moreover, different sects in Islam are interpret Qura'an according to their school
of thought.
In theological interpretations, the words of Qur'an are explained in the
context of the Qur'an itself or the sayings of The Holy Prophet(PBUH). This type
of interpretation is called "Tafsir Bilmasur".
Maulana Sayyed Ahmad Hasan Mahaddis Dehlavi,s Tafseer-e-Qur'an
"Ahsan-ul-Tafaseer" is representative of Tafseer Bilmasur.
His Tafseer enjoys very prominent place among the Tafseeri literature of
sub-continent. To explain and interpret the "aspects" of the Holy Qur'an, Maulana
has heavily relied upon and benifitted greatly from The Qur'an, saying of The Holy
Prophet, his companions (Sahaba kiram) and Tabeen and ancient Arabic
language.
In this research article, the salient features of "Ahsan-ul-Tafaseer" are
discussed.
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Objectives of Prophetic Dialogue and the Limit of Its Usage
in the act of Da’wah (Examples from the Selected Ahadith of Sahihain[Sahih Bukhari &
Sahih Muslim])
���� ��� � ���� �� * Abstract
To reconcile the disputes and to understand or make other
understand, dialogue has been one of the most important and
convincing means throughout the human history. In connection with
Da’wah Many verses of the Holy Qura’n and several Prophetic
Traditions accentuate on the way of dialogue. Its significance and
necessity have been increased in this recent time of Globalization.
The study aims at illuminate the issue and covers some
important issue as follows:
Meaning of Dialogue, its Significance, different terms
relating to it like Argumentation(����),Debate )������( and how do they
defer from each other as well as objectives of Prophetic Dialogue
and how can we use it to call people to Islam in the light of
Prophetic Tradition selected from the two most authentic Ahadith
book (Sahih al Bukhari and Sahih Al Muslim).
��)��� �� ����� ���� ���� ! "#�$��� %�� !&� '() ��� *+,-�� �+.-�� "#��/-� 01 2 ��3�
�/ �4) "#/5) 6 7�� 6-8: __________________________
* ���,�� :�;$&�</4��� "�=��-� <�>?�@A ��;,@� "?�8 *+$� "<���/-� <�4+$B�.
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������� ��� ��� ������� ������� �� ������� ���� )������ � ��(
Jurist’s Views on Conflict & Preference amongst the
Islamic Legal Evidences; An Analytical Study
��� ��� ��� � * ���� ��� ����**
Abstract
Conflicts and preferences amongst Islamic legal evidences
is one of the scholarly, investigative and principled subjects. In
fact there is absolutely no conflict among Islamic legal evidences
but apparently reader finds conflicts. It is because of little
awareness about history, context and debate of abrogating of
revelation. These apparent conflicts cease with the insight and
knowledge of the above mentioned aspects of revelation.
Mujtahid should be equipped with the ways to handle the
apparent conflicts among the Islamic legal evidences and he
should be cognizant of the principles with which he could prefer
one evidence to other.
Islamic scholars have compiled principles of conflict and
preference among legal evidences and removed the apparent
conflicts through rational and literary arguments. Many books
have been written on the topic.
In this brief article I have described the concept, elements
and conditions of conflict. This essay also encompasses different
angles of removing these conflicts in the light of the principles
established by jurisprudents and mujtahids. In the other discourse
of article, status and conditions of preference have been discussed
in accordance with the sayings of mujtahids and some examples
have also been presented.
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]ÖjçÒn‚Êo]Öφ�á]ÖÓ†mÜ
The Emphasis in the Holy Qura'n
þþþþ ]Ö‚Òjç…]Êjí^…œuÛ‚ì^á
Abstract
This study that is entitled”Al Tawkeed fil Qura'n Al-Kareem"
study at Syntax and Rehetoric level, it aims at examining how much,
where and why the way of Tawkeed is used in the Holy Qura'n.
" ]Öj³³³³³³³³³³çÒn³³³³³³³³³‚ " which litteral meaning is "act of affirming; assertion;
confirmation or the thing that is affirmed" is a term that has
significance in both Syntax and Rehetoric. It has two kind 1.Tawkeed
Lafzi(to strengthen a meaning using a word twice in the one sentence)
2.Tawkeed Ma'nvi(using specific word to affirm the meaning). Use of
of the this way is based upon the addressee if he is with empty mind
there is no need to use Tawkeed but if he has doubt, it is better to use
it and if the addresse is denier, Tawkeed must be used to affirm the
meaning. The study finds out different use of Tawkeed in the Holy
Qura'n, its significence and objectives through the various verses of
the Holy Qura'n.
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���� ��� �� �� ������� Allegorical Exegesis and Its Important Books
������� ����� � �����*
��� ��� ���� ** Abstract
This article is about Tafseer ul ishaari and the Important books
narrated in it. This article is about Sufism and it tells about nature, origin
and evolution of Sufism. It also tells about different kinds of Sufism and
about the kinds of Sufism discussed in Tafseer ul ishaari.
The Difference between Tafseer e Sufi and Tasfeer ul ishaari has
also been narrated in this article. Examples of Tasfeer ul Ishaari have been
given from Quran and Hadith. Scholars' opinion and their differences
regarding Tasfeer ul ishaari have also been discussed in it. Opinion of Ibn
us Sulah , Al-Shatibi, Al-Zarqani, Al-zarkashi, Ibn ul Arabi and As-
Siyouti has been included. Five conditions under which Tasfeer ul ishaari
is acceptable, have also been narrated here.
Important Books written about Tafseer ul ishaari have also been
discussed briefly. Old Mufassireen have devided Tafseer ul ishaari into 5
main kinds and Ishaari Tafaseer are within these 5 kinds. Famous Tafaseer
ul Ishaari that have been discussed in the article are : "Tafseer ul Quraan
lil-Tastari ","Tafseer il Iloosi ", "Haqaiq e Tafseer" by Al-Silmi "Tafseer
e Ibn ul Arabi","Araesul Bayan fi Haqaequl Quran" by Roz Bahan al-Biqli
Ash-Sherazi and "Tafseer ul Nisaburi".
Some other Mufassareen have also written Important exegeses on this
topic but only their names have been given in this article. Such books
include "Lataefil ishaarat " by Qasheeri , "At-Taveelat in Najamiyah" by
Najmuddin Kubra and "Bahr ul Haqaeq wal Ma'ani fi Tafseer al Sabáa Al-
Masani" by Najmuddin Dayah.
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Sameen Halbi’s Methodology in Morphological and
Syntactical Citation in his Tafsir “ Al- Durr Al- Masoon”
(An Analytical Study)
������� �� � ��*
Abstract
As natives, Arabs had no need of using the notation of the
vowel, and its manner of articulation but, gradually, there was
destruction in their use of dexterity especially when they started
interaction with the non-Arabs. Hence, they had to form rules of
Arabic Grammar which comprises of Morphology and Syntax.
The growth of syntax and diction in Arabic Knowledge has
been raised up under the influence of Qura’nic interpretation. Mufassireen used different methods in their exegesis regarding
Morphological and Syntactic citation. But Sameen Halbi is one of
those Mufassireen who are known as Linguistics and he focused on
explanation of verses of Holy Quran in special context of five branches of Linguistics: Syntax(������), Morphology(�������) Linguistic(�����), Semantics(�����), Diction( �!���). So the research on the
methodology of Sameen Halbi in his Tafsir “Al-Durr-ul-Masoon” is
more significant.
The article elucidates the word “Istishhad”, introduction and
importance of Sameen’s Tafsir, His methodology in morphological
and syntactical citation and his strong relation with Basri school of
syntax.
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Calling Non-Muslims to Islam as an Institutional Pattern
(Islam Presentation Committee as an Example)
����� �� � ��� ��� *
���� �� ��� ������� **
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Abstract
In fact calling to Almighty Allah is the major responsibility of
Messengers and Prophets who are chosen personalities and ambassadors
to the human being. And it is further responsibility of successors and
inheritors Ulemas. No doubt calling to Allah is the best deed after the
believe in Allah because its purpose to guide the people towards truth,
lead them to right way, to haten them from the bad way and to bring them
out from the darkness towards the light.
Islam has more emphasized on collective effort than that of
individually conducted as well as it is the unique feature of Islam that it is
necessary for all Muslims to call others towards right path and forbid them
from bad path.
Islam Presentation Committee owned by Al-Najat Charity
Society(A Kuwait base Committee) is an example of collaborative and
institutional work for invite the non-muslims towards Islam with their
different religious backgrounds. It has many departments for different sort
of people involving in the act of Dawa’h wa Al- Irshad. This is an
introductory Article about the activities of the Islam Presentation
Committee which might beneficial for all those who involve in the great
act of Da’wah wa Al-Irshad
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1
THE CONTRACT OF GUARANTEE AND ISLAMIC BANKING
Dr.Samia Maqbool Niazi*
Abstract
It may be stated at the outset that a comprehensive treatment of the topic of guarantee is beyond the scope of this paper. Accordingly, we will not discuss issues like the taking of a guarantee, that is, clauses usually incorporated in the forms of banks, variations in the position of the guarantor; variation in the terms of the original contract; and special types of guarantors. In other words, the focus of this paper will be on the nature of the contract of guarantee itself, so that it can easily be compared with its counterpart in Islamic law. The description of guarantees in law will, therefore, attempt to highlight those points that are needed for comparison Key Words: Guarantee, Dama’n, Surety, Liability, Islamic Banking.
Introduction
Charles Dickens said that “Credit is a system whereby a person who
can’t pay gets another person who can’t pay to guarantee that he can pay.” In contrast to this, it is said that a guarantor is “a fool with a fountain pen”(1). The purpose of this paper is to identify with precision the contract of guarantee in law, distinguishing it from closely resembling contracts and relationships, and then to elaborate the Islamic version of this contract with equal precision along with its applications in Islamic banking as it is prevalent today.
The words “guarantee” and “guaranty” are both used as nouns as well as verbs. The noun in both cases denotes the contract of guarantee or guaranty, while the verb denotes the act of providing a guarantee or guaranty(2). It appears that there is no major distinction between the two words, and “guarantee” is preferred in England as well as in the United States, while “guaranty” is mostly used as a noun(3). The terms guarantee _____________________________ * Assistant Professor, Department of Law,Faculty of Shariah and Law
International Islamic University Islamabad.
2
and suretyship are sometimes used interchangeably. According to some,suretyship is the old term for the contract of guarantee(4). There is a historical distinction between “guarantor” and “surety” in that a surety was once a hostage, but there is no contemporary legal distinction and the use of both words together is redundant(5). Yet, Black’s Law Dictionary says that although the terms are used interchangeably, the two terms should not be confounded(6). The contract of suretyship provides, it says, a joint undertaking with the principal debtor, while guarantee is an independent separate undertaking(7). The Pakistan Contract Act uses the term “surety” in place of “guarantor”(8). The Act also states that the liability of the surety is “co-extensive with the principal debtor”(9), but that is not joint liability. To avoid confusion, in this paper we will use the term guarantee and not suretyship. The word “surety” will be used in the meaning assigned to it by the Contract Act, 1872.
It may be stated at the outset that a comprehensive treatment of the topic of guarantee is beyond the scope of this paper. Accordingly, we will not discuss issues like the taking of a guarantee, that is, clauses usually incorporated in the forms of banks, variations in the position of the guarantor; variation in the terms of the original contract; and special types of guarantors. In other words, the focus of this paper will be on the nature of the contract of guarantee itself, so that it can be easily be compared with its counterpart in Islamic law. The description of guarantees in law will, therefore, attempt to highlight those points that are needed for comparison.
The Contract of Guarantee in Western and Pakistani Law
Parties to the Contract and Their Rights and Liabilities
The Contract
A contract of guarantee is one in which the guarantor agrees to perform the obligation, or to discharge the liability, of a third party if the latter fails to do so(10). There are three parties to the contract(11):
1. The principal debtor: He is the person primarily liable for the obligation or liability whether existing or contemplated.
2. The creditor: He is the person entitled to the benefit of the obligation or liability.
3. The guarantor: He promises the creditor to discharge the liability of the principal debtor if the debtor should fail to do so(12). The guarantor is called surety in the Contract Act, 1872, as already stated.
3
The obligation that is being guaranteed is most often the payment of money. It does not have to be, and may be the performance of a particular act(13). The consideration moves from the creditor and is in reality his assurance to the guarantor(14), who has made the request, that he will forbear for some time, that is, he will give time to the principal debtor(15). This is valid as consideration does not have to be passed on to the guarantor(16).
It is obvious from the above explanation that the guarantor has secondary liability
(17), and the liability arises only on default by the debtor(18). The contract of guarantee is a contract and not a mere unilateral promise. It is covered by the general principles of contract law as to its creation and interpretation. In addition, the special rules of guarantee law also apply to it(19). Although liability of the guarantor is secondary, it is not necessary that the principal debtor be sued first. The creditor can bring action against the guarantor immediately a default has occurred(20). The guarantor, however, is not liable, unless the debtor defaults. A contract of guarantee may be either oral or written(21), but oral guarantees are useless as far as banks are concerned. A guarantee obtained by misrepresentation or concealment is not valid(22).
Liability of the Guarantor
The liability of the guarantor commences upon default by the debtor(23). In other words, as stated earlier, the liability is secondary. Thus, upon default by the debtor, the creditor need not sue the debtor; he can sue the guarantor directly(24).
The scope of the liability depends upon the terms of the guarantee. The guarantee may cover the entire debt or a particular amount(25). Again, the guarantee may be specific, extending up to a specified time, or continuing(26). There are guarantees that are called “all monies” guarantees. These create a very broad liability, but are discouraged by the law(27). The courts in general interpret guarantees strictly, and in case the terms are vague, they tend to favour the guarantor(28). Where there is more than one guarantor, they may be severally and jointly liable, and the creditor can have recourse to any one of them(29).
Rights of the Guarantor After he has Discharged the Liability
When the guarantor is required to pay, he is “subrogated”(30) to the creditor’s rights, that is, he stands in the shoes of the creditor(31). He can now sue the principal debtor for indemnity(32). This is why guarantee is a contract and not merely a unilateral declaration. To protect this right of recourse of the guarantor, the creditor is placed under a duty not to modify
4
the principal contract without the express or implied consent of the guarantor(33). The guarantor also has the right to set-off any proper counter-claim against the creditor(34). The subrogation also entitles the guarantor to benefit of any securities of the debtor held by the creditor(35). The fact that such subrogation is not mentioned in the guarantee does not prevent the operation of such right(36).
The guarantor who is obliged to pay is entitled to demand contribution from the co-guarantors(37). This form of liability is not affected by multiple or separate documents of guarantee(38).
Guarantee Distinguished From Other Contracts
A contract of guarantee is different from indemnity in a number of respects. A contract of indemnity is where one party (the indemnifier) undertakes to become liable to another against any loss arising out of a transaction with a third party. The liability arises irrespective of any
default(39). Indemnity involves an undertaking to keep the party to whom it
is given free from loss(40). An indemnity contract involves two parties, while guarantee involves three(41). Liability on an indemnity is primary, and is activated in the event of something happening. The guarantor, however, is liable only if the principal debtor defaults. The guarantor’s liability is, therefore, secondary(42). The liability on an indemnity may arise from the terms of the contract of indemnity or by legal implication(43). This shows that an indemnity need not be written.
It is important to note that a distinction between a guarantee and indemnity is often blurred and to avoid problems lenders frequently require both undertakings in support of a loan(44).
A letter of credit issued by a bank on behalf of a client to a third party in reality constitutes a guarantee, but is not strictly regarded in law as a guarantee, and particular rules of law applicable to guarantees are not applied to letters of credit as regards interpretation and enforcement(45). As compared to this, a letter of comfort, for example one issued by a holding company about the future financial stability of its subsidiary, is not considered a guarantee and the rules of guarantee do not apply to it.
Discharge of the Guarantor (Surety)
The ways in which the guarantor is discharged from liability are listed below with brief explanations. 1. Discharge by payment. A guarantor is discharged from his
obligation under the guarantee if the principal debtor pays the principal debt. Such discharge is revocable as the payment may be fraudulent(46).
5
2. Discharge by release of the principal debtor. An express release of the principal debtor from all further liability will discharge the guarantor, because such release extinguishes the guaranteed debt(47). This includes any act or omission of the creditor the legal consequence of which is the discharge of the principal debtor(48).
3. Discharge by agreement to give time. The Contract Act states that the surety is discharged when a contract between the creditor and the principal debtor leads to a composition, the granting of more time, or an agreement not to sue the principal debtor, unless the surety assents to such contract(49). In contrast, when the creditor makes a contract with a third person to give more time to the principal debtor, the surety is not released(50). Further, mere forbearance on the part of the creditor will not discharge the surety(51).
4. Discharge by material variation of principal contract. Any variance, without the surety’s consent, in the terms of the principal contract discharges the surety as to transactions subsequent to the
variance(52). 5. Discharge by material variation of contract of guarantee and
creditor’s act or omission impairing surety’s eventual remedy. If the creditor departs from the terms of the guarantee, like not giving a period stipulated to the principal debtor, or does any act inconsistent with the rights of the surety, so that eventual remedy against the principal debtor is impaired, the surety is discharged(53).
6. Discharge by change in legal position of the parties. This is not mentioned by the Contract Act, 1872, however, it is settled law in England. It covers, for instance, cases of partnerships where the constitution of the partnership is subsequently changed or new partners are admitted(54).
Determination of Guarantees
1. Determination by notice. A continuing guarantee may be revoked any time as to future transactions, by notice to the creditor(55). It is possible, however, to include a clause in other guarantees that they will be revoked by notice(56), but it is difficult to imagine a bank accepting such a condition.
2. Determination by death. In the absence of any contract to the contrary, the death of a surety operates as a revocation of a continuing guarantee with respect to future transactions(57).
3. Determination by mental incapacity or bankruptcy. This will apply to future and not to past transactions. Mental incapacity will be governed by sections 11 and 12 of the Contract Act, 1872.
6
Applications of Guarantees
Lenders require that the repayment of loans be guaranteed, especially where otherwise unsecured(58). Wherever an amount has to be repaid, guarantees are obtained. As a guarantee is the simplest form of security it is for that reason the commonest(59). A guarantee, however, is not a particularly safe form of security(60). Unless a charge is taken over some form of property, a loan secured by a guarantee is regarded by bankers as an unsecured loan(61).
The Contract of Guarantee in Islamic Law
The broad features of the contract of guarantee in law have now been identified. These features will enable us to compare this contract with its counterpart in Islamic law. For purposes of comparison we will rely mostly on Sharï‘ah Standard No. 5 issued by the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions (AAOIFI). The title of the standard is Ḍamānāt. The word has been translated as “Guarantees”(62). Where needed, we will also refer to the works of the earlier jurists and modern scholars.
The Meaning of the Word Ḍamàn
The word ḍamān in its literal modern sense means: to be or become responsible; be guarantee; give security or guarantee; ensure; safeguard; to insure; to be jointly liable; and to have joint responsibility(63). When we examine the literature on fiqh, we find the term ḍamān being used in almost every area of the law. Thus, it is found in criminal law, in the sense of paying compensation for an injury caused. The meaning of compensation is found in other areas of the law as well. Another meaning is that of liability, which is also the modern meaning. Thus, we say “so and so will be held liable for this” or “will pay compensation for this.” It is also used in the sense of the capacity or readiness “ to bear loss” as in the qā‘idah: “al-kharāju bi’ḍ-ḍamān.” Nevertheless, despite this variety in meanings, we do find the earlier Muslim jurists using the term ḍamàn for the contract of guarantee in Islamic law. This is the contract of kafālah where it applies to wealth and debts, that is, kafālah bi’l-māl
(64).
Ḍamàn and Sharī‘ah Standards for Islamic Banks
Sharī‘ah Standard No. 5, referred to above, uses the term ḍamānāt (guarantees) in the modern sense and then includes a large number of contracts under it that are not guarantees, but independent contracts, even though their purpose is the provision of security or collateral. The use of the term ḍamān in this imprecise way brings vagueness into the study of
7
Islamic law and we feel that there is a need to be more precise. The following contracts and transactions are included in this standard under the heading of guarantees(65). 1. Guarantees in contracts of trust (amānah). 2. Guarantees for existing leased properties. 3. Personal guarantees (kafālah). 4. Pledges (rahn). 5. Letters of guarantee. 6. Documentary credits.
Types of Kafālah: Surety and Ḍamān
Examining the Evidence (Dalīl) for Kafālah
In almost every book on fiqh, whether classical or modern(66), the following verse of the Qur’àn [Qur’àn 12:72] is quoted as evidence for the legal validity of the contract of guarantee or kafālah:
They said: “We miss the great beaker of the king; for him who produces it, is (the reward of) a camel load; I will be bound by it.”
The argument advanced is that as the word za‘īm means kafīl (surety), therefore, the contract of kafālah is legally valid. We find it difficult to agree with this reasoning. An examination of the transaction that is the subject-matter of the verse reveals that this is not the contract of kafālah, but what is called a “general offer,” a unilateral contract that becomes binding on both parties once the promisee completes the act required. In Islamic law it goes by the name of ju‘ālah, also ji‘ālah. In this case, the promisor is merely saying to the promisee that if he can bring the king’s beaker he will have a camel load. The contract would have been valid even without the words “I will be bound by it.” In our view, this evidence does not justify the contract of kafālah.
Thereafter, a tradition is quoted to support the contract. This is the tradition of Salmah ibn Akwa‘ in which the Prophet (pbuh) refused to offer funeral prayers over the indebted deceased till one person offered a guarantee for its repayment(67). This tradition has another problem even though the contract of guarantee is clearly mentioned. It implies that the consent of the principal debtor is not required (dead in this case). If consent is not required, it is difficult to see how the guarantor will recover the debt from the principal debtor.
Consensus of the jurists (ijmā‘) is also claimed for the contract(68). The consensus also upholds the illegality of charging for the provision of
8
guarantee, because guarantee is a kind of a loan to the principal debtor and charging for it will convert it into a contract of ribā
(69). The evidence for guaranteeing an unknown amount or a future
obligation is the tradition al-za`īm ghārim. It may be translated as: the gurantor is liable (for the debt)(70). The Åanafï jurists rely on this tradition for the legality of kafālah(71). As the tradition conveys an unqualified meaning, it is considered to cover all eventualities.
Types of Kafàlah
Kafālah in fiqh is primarily of two types(72). The first is kafālah bi’nafs or surety for the person. This is the old contract of suretyship for producing the person, and in which the guarantor sometimes became a hostage(73). It can be compared to the provision of bail in criminal cases today. The other type is kafālah bi’l-māl or standing surety for debts. This second type is the subject matter of this paper and we shall focus on this type.
The Liability of the Surety and the Principal Debtor in Islamic Law
The Nature of Kafālah and Liability
In order to understand the liability of the principal debtor and the surety in Islamic law, it is essential to see how the nature of the contract of kafālah is understood and how its meaning is traced in fiqh. The meaning of kafālah is understood in two ways:
1. Merger of Liabilities With Respect to the Demand: The first way of considering the nature of kafālah is to treat it as the merger of liabilities for purposes of demand of the debt for the parties, but not with respect to the debt itself. The debt remains the liability of the principal debtor as it was originally. The surety, however, becomes subject to demand from the creditor just like the principal debtor. This case is similar to the separation of demand for the debt in the case of the agent and the principal in the case of a bay‘ (sale). The ḥuqūq and the ḥukm are separated. Likewise, in this case the demand is directed towards the surety when the debt remains attached to the dhimmah (liability) of the aṣīl (principal debtor). It may also be compared to rahn (pledge) where the right of disposal is separated from the ownership of property. Likewise, in this case(74).
2. Merger of Liabilities With Respect to the Debt. The second way is to merge the liability (dhimmah) of the surety with the liability of the principal debtor for the debt itself. The basis here is that kafālah here is a credit given to the principal debtor attached to his dhimmah and the obligation for meeting the demand of the debt. The obligation for
9
meeting this demand depends upon the original debt. In this situation, even though the debt is due from them both, the demand can be directed to either one of them, just like the case of the usurper who has usurped from the first usurper (ghāṣib). Each one of them is liable for the value of the property, but the property itself is due only from one of them(75).
Liability in Kafàlah Compared to Liability in Ḥawālah
To better understand the meaning of kafālah, it needs to be compared to ḥawālah (transfer of debt). Ḥawàlah and its derivative meanings convey the idea of transfer from one location to another. The legal meaning is the transfer of the debt from the liability (dhimmah) of the principal debtor to that of another person within a relationship of trust and creditworthiness. The jurists disagree about the legal implications of the two contracts.
1. The Ḥanafī view. According to the H;.anafï jurists, the difference between kafālah and ḥawālah is that in kafālah the principal debtor is not absolved of liability (he remains liable for the debt), while in åawàlah the principal debtor is no longer liable for the debt after the contract of ḥawālah is concluded(76).
2. Ibn Abī Laylā’s view. In Ibn Abï Laylà’s view, the contract of kafālah absolves the principal debtor of liability as in the case of ḥawālah. The basis is that the debt is established against the liability (dhimmah) of the surety and this necessarily absolves the principal debtor of liability. The reason is that as long as one dhimmah holds the debt completely, all other dhimmas have to be free of it. If it moves from this to another dhimmah, the first one becomes free. As the debt is established against the dhimmah of the surety, the dhimmah of the principal debtor becomes free. Thus, in his view, in both ḥawālah and kafālah, the principal debtor is absolved of liability(77).
3. Imām Zufar’s view. As distinguished from this view, Imàm Zufar maintained that in the contract of ḥawālah the principal debtor is not absolved of liability. Thus, in both ḥawālah and kafālah, the principal debtor remains liable. In his view, the only thing that is added through the contracts is that the demand for the debt has been strengthened or doubled, not that it has been removed altogether from one of the parties(78).
4. The Response of the Ḥanafï jurists. To counter these arguments, the Ḥanafï jurists maintain that each contract, that is, ḥawālah and kafālah, has been assigned a different name and this indicates
10
different legal effects. Likewise, the contract of salam has been given a specific name for legal effects that are implied by the term used for the contract. The legal effect is the immediate payment of the price and its possession within the session of the contract. It also implies the delay of the goods bought. The meaning of ṣarf is the payment of each counter-value within the session. In the same way the contract of kafālah conveys the meaning of merger of liabilities. The implication is that one dhimmah be merged with another. This is not possible if the principal debtor is absolved of liability. As distinguished from this ḥawālah means transfer, and this meaning is realised when the liability is transferred from the dhimmah of the principal debtor(79). The above analysis leads the jurists to conclude that the creditor has
the choice to claim the debt from any of the two debtors, the principal debtor or the surety, and to make a demand upon any of them. It may be added here that under certain circumstances the principal debtor can be absolved of liability in a contract of kafālah through stipulation. From this we may conclude that primary and secondary liability can also be varied(80).
The Rules of the Contract of Guarantee (Ḍamān) in Islamic Law
The rules for kafālah will now be stated very briefly with the purpose of comparison with the contract of guarantee in Western law. For this purpose we have relied upon the Sharī‘ah Standard alone, although most of the rules can be derived from the books of fiqh, both earlier and modern. 1. Kafālah is of two types: Kafālah that is with the consent of the
principal debtor and kafālah that is without the consent of the principal debtor. The banks only accept the form in which the principal debtor has given his consent(81).
2. It is permitted to fix a period of the guarantee and to determine and amount to be paid(82).
3. It is also permitted to make the contract conditional and to associate it with a future obligation(83).
4. It is not permitted to charge an amount for providing a guarantee, but the guarantor is entitled to the costs incurred(84).
5. It is permitted to guarantee a debt that is not determined as yet or one that has not become due as yet(85).
6. It is permitted for the creditor to demand the debt, at his choice, from the principal debtor or from the guarantor(86).
11
7. It is permitted to the guarantor to set an order in which the demand is made, that is, the creditor demanding the debt from the principal debtor, and upon default, demanding it from the guarantor(87). This means that secondary liability for the guarantor can be created, but is not essential and he may consent to have primary liability.
8. If the creditor absolves the principal debtor of the debt liability, the guarantor’s liability is terminated. If the creditor absolves the guarantor of liability, the liability of the principal debtor still stands(88).
9. The contract of kafālah may be part of a loan agreement or be independent of it(89).
10. It is permitted to have more than one guarantor(90). 11. In the case of future obligations, the guarantor may determine the
guarantee by notice served upon the creditor, but this is done before the debt liability has arisen(91).
The Standard does not discuss ways in which the contract of guarantee is determined. A perusal of the books of fiqh shows that this is almost the same or the same rules can be easily derived(92). We are not dealing with this issue here.
Conclusion
A comparison of the contract in both legal systems shows that the contract is almost exactly the same. This does not mean that there are no problems when the contract is compared with fiqh literature. For instance, the jurists may not allow a guarantee for an unknown debt or for a debt that has not come into existence as yet(93).
12
Reference 1. Clive Boxer, Professional Liability Today (1988). 2. Black’s Law Dictionary, s.v. “Guarantee” and “Guaranty”. 3. Leaving the rest of the world confused. 4. P.J.M. Fidler, Sheldon and Fidler’s Practice and Law of Banking, 11th ed. (London: Pitman, 1985), 303. 5. Andrew Terry and Des Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 2nd ed. (Australia: Harcourt Brace, 1997), 945. 6. Black’s Law Dictionary, s.v. “Guaranty”. 7. Ibid. 8. Contract Act, 1872, section 126. 9. Contract Act, 1872, section 128. 10.Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 945. The Contract Act defines it as follows: “A contract of guarantee is a contract to perform the promise, or discharge
the liability, of a third person in case of his default.” Contract Act, 1872, section 126. The words “in case of his default” distinguish it from the contract of indemnity.
11. Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 945. 12. Ibid. 13. M.L.Barron, Fundamentals of Business Law, 3rd ed. (Australia: McGraw Hill, 2000),
340. 14. Consideration in a guarantee is defined as: “Anything done, or any promise made, for the benefit of the principal debtor.” Contract Act, 1872, section 127. 15. The creditor’s forbearance to sue does not discharge surety. Contract Act, 1872,
section 137. 16. Fidler, Practice and Law of Banking, 305. 17. Barron, Fundamentals of Business Law, 340; Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and
the Law, 945. 18. As stated in Contract Act, 1872, section 126. 19. Barron, Fundamentals of Business Law, 342; Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 945. The special rules for guarantee in the Contract Act, 1872 are
contained in sections 127 to 147. 20. Barron, Fundamentals of Business Law, 342. 21. Contract Act, 1872, section 126. This is strange as the rule in England, much before
the Contract Act was drafted, was that guarantees be written. 22. Contract Act, 1872, sections 142 and 143. 23. Barron, Fundamentals of Business Law, 342; Terry and Guigni, Business, Society
and the Law, 948. 24. Barron, Fundamentals of Business Law, 342. 25. In Pakistani law, the liability of the guarantor is co-extensive with the debtor, that is,
if interest is owed on an amount due, the surety is liable for that too. Contract Act, 1872, section 128.
26. A guarantee that extends to a series of transactions is called a continuing guarantee. Contract Act, 1872, section 129.
27. Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 948, citing A Pocketful of Change (Martin Report).
28. Ibid.
13
29. The Contract Act provides the details of such liability and requires the co-sureties to
contribute equally. Contract Act, section 146 and other sections following. 30. Is entitled to. 31. This right is affirmed by the Contract Act. It says that on payment or performance,
the surety “is invested with all the rights which the creditor had against the principal debtor.” Contract Act, 1872, section 140.
32. Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 948. 33. Ibid. The Contract Act says that the surety is discharged if any variation is made in
the principal contract without the surety’s consent. Contract Act, 1872, section 133. 34. Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 948. 35. The Contract Act grants the surety the right to benefit of the securities that the
creditor holds against the principal debtor. If the creditor loses or parts with such securities, the surety is discharged, even if he is not aware of such securities. Contract Act, 1872, section 141.
36. Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 949, citing the decision by Lord Eldon in Aldrich v Cooper (1803), 32 ER 402 at 405 and Dixon J. in Williams v Frayne (1937), 58 CLR at 738.
37. If one of the co-sureties is released by the creditor, the other sureties are not discharged, and the released surety remains liable to the other sureties.
38. Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 949, citing A.E.Goodwin Ltd. v A.G.Healing Ltd. (1979), 7 ACLR 481 at 490.
39. Barron, Fundamentals of Business Law, 341; Terry and Guigni, Business, Society
and the Law, 945. The Contract Act defines the contract of indemnity and says that loss may be caused by the indemnifier himself or the conduct of another person.
40. Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 945. Such loss includes any damages paid by the promisee or costs incurred in a related suit. Contract Act, 1872, section 125.
41. Barron, Fundamentals of Business Law, 341. 42. Ibid.; Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 945. 43. For example, an indemnity in favour of employees in respect of liabilities incurred
by them in the course of employment. Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the
Law, 946. 44. Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 946. An examination of the form
of guarantee required by Pakistani banks may reveal that the document has both guarantee and indemnity mixed up in the same document that goes by the name of guarantee.
45. Ibid. 46. Fidler, Practice and Law of Banking, 305. 47. Ibid., 321. 48. Contract Act, 1872, section 134. This section mentions a contract between the
creditor and the principal debtor. 49. Contract Act, 1872, section 135. 50. Contract Act, 1872, section 136. 51. Contract Act, 1872, section 137. 52. Contract Act, 1872, section 133. 53. Contract Act, 1872, section 139. The section should also cover unlawful disposal of
the securities held against the principal debtor, as stated above, but the Act has mentioned it expressly.
14
54. Fidler, Practice and Law of Banking, 329. 55. Contract Act, 1872, section 130. 56. Fidler, Practice and Law of Banking, 330. 57. Contract Act, 1872, section 131. 58. Terry and Guigni, Business, Society and the Law, 945. 59. Fidler, Practice and Law of Banking, 303. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid. 62. See the English translation of Sharï‘ah Standard No. 5 issued by the AAOIFI, on
page,53. 63. Hans Wehr, A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, s.v. “ðamàn”. 64. See Abū Bakr al-Kāsānī, Badā’ī‘ al-Ṣanā’i‘, vol. 4, 600 (see also the Urdu translation
of this book). Wahbah al-Zuhaylī attributes the use of this term to al-Māwardī in a classification given by him. See Wahbah al-Zuhaylī, al-Fiqh al-Islāmī wa Adillatuhu, vol. 6, 4141.
65. See AAOIFI, Sharī‘ah Standards: 1423 H–2002, 57–67. 66. See Sharī‘ah Standard No. 5, 74; Wahbah al-Zuhaylī, vol. 6, 4141; the verse is relied
upon for kafālah in most books of fiqh, as already stated. 67. The tradition is recorded by al-Nasā’ī, Ibn Màjah and al-Bayhaqī in their Sunan. 68. See Sharī‘ah Standard No. 5, 74. 69. Ibid. 70. The tradition is recorded by Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, Abū Dāwūd, al-Tirmidhī and others. 71. Abū Bakr al-Kàsànï, Badā’i‘ al-Ṣanā’i‘, vol. 4, 600. 72. For the details of the two types of kafālah, see Abū Bakr al-Kāsānī, Badā’i‘ al-
Ṣanā’i‘, vol. 4, 600 onwards and Wahbah al-Zuhaylī, al-Fiqh al-Islāmī, vol. 6, 4141 onwards.
73. As stated above. 74. Abū Bakr al-Kàsànï, Badā’i‘ al-Ṣanā’i‘, vol. 4, 611; Wahbah al-Zuhaylï, al-Islāmī,
vol. 6, 4144. 75. Abū Bakr al-Kàsànï, Badā’i‘ al-Ṣanā’i‘, vol. 4, 611; Wahbah al-Zuhaylï, al-Islāmī,
vol. 6, 4144. 76 Abū Bakr al-Kàsànï, Badā’i‘ al-Ṣanā’i‘, vol. 4, 611; Wahbah al-Zuhaylï, al-Islāmī,
vol. 6, 4165. 77. Abū Bakr al-Kàsànï, Badā’i‘ al-Ṣanā’i‘, vol. 4, 612; Wahbah al-Zuhaylï, al-Islāmī,
vol. 6, 4166. 78. Abū Bakr al-Kàsànï, Badā’i‘ al-Ṣanā’i‘, vol. 4, 612; Wahbah al-Zuhaylï, al-Islāmī,
vol. 6, 4166. 79. Abū Bakr al-Kàsànï, Badā’i‘ al-Ṣanā’i‘, vol. 4, 612; Wahbah al-Zuhaylï, al-Islāmī,
vol. 6, 4167. 80. See Wahbah al-Zuhaylī, al-Fiqh al-Islāmī, vol. 6, 4167. 81. Sharï‘ah Standard No. 5, item 3/1/2. 82. Ibid., item 3/1/4. 83. Ibid. 84. Ibid., item 3/1/5. 85. Ibid., item 3/2. 86. Ibid., item 3/3/1. 87. Ibid. 88. Ibid., item 3/3/2.
15
89. Ibid., item 3/3/3. 90. Ibid., item 3/1/1. 91. Ibid., item 3/1/4. 92. For example, Abū Bakr al-Kāsānī discuss it in Badā’i‘ al-Ṣanā’i‘, vol. 4, on page
613. 93. See ibid., 606. The Author stipulates that the debt should be known.
17
ASSESSING THE PERSPECTIVE OF ORIENTALISTIC
SCHOLARSHIP OF ISLAM
Dr. Muhammad Feroz-ud-Din Shah Khagga*
Dr. Ghulam Hussain**
Abstract
In this article, an effort has been made to find out the answers of
the two basic and fundamental questions; first, is an Orientalist to be a
Western scholar can justify his academic antagonism against Islam or to
what extent he can perform his scholarship without prejudice? Secondly,
as the Muslims around the globe, have their inner strong belief in Islamic
teachings and hence, they show their reverence while dignifying the
stature of their religious dogmas, in the same sequence, an Orientalist,
being a Jew or a Christian could be declared as an impartial in his critical
approach towards Islam?. It is very well known that Orientalism is an old
phenomenon historically, noticeable with some marvelous contributions to
Islamic studies and Arabic literature. However, to Muslim circles,
Orientalism normally blemished with obvious or concealed antagonism.
Prejudice, misconstruing the Islam and redundant comments regarding
Qur’ān and Sunnah, occasionally reach the point of ludicrousness.
Key words: Orientalism, Islamic Sources, Methodology, Textual Corpus.
SKETCH OF ORIENTALISM
In ancient Arabic literature the term Orientalism is not found and it has not
been used in its present meaning among Arabs. Basically, this term has
been produced and fabricated by Western scholars and it refers to the
science in which people acquire expertise in Eastern languages, literature
and social rites and rituals. However, in Arabic “Mustashriq” is a western
scholar who shows his grave interest in Eastern studies, literature, and
societies. According to Zulfu Madina, the meaning of Mustashriq can be
________________________________________
* Assistant Professor of Islamic Studies, University of Sargodha
** Assistant Professor of Islamic Studies, PMAS Arid Agriculture University,
Rawalpindi
18
more confined to a western researcher who takes interest in the study of
Islam, Islamic civilization, social activities and its languages(1)
.
Edward Said has declared Orientalism as an integral part of
European culture and civilization that puts strong influence on
imaginations, theories and approaches of its people in various forms. For
this, we may find a broader definition of Orientalism. According to him,
he says:
“I will be clear to the reader (and will become clearer still throughout the
many pages that follow) that by Orientalism I mean several things, all of
them, in my opinion, interdependent. The most readily accepted
designation of Orientalism is an academic one, and indeed, and indeed the
label still serves in a number of academic institutions. Anyone who
teaches, writes about, or researches the Orient and this applies whether the
person is an anthropologist, sociologist, historian, or philologist either in
its specific or its general aspects, is an Orientalist, and what he or she does
is Orientalism. Compared with Oriental studies or area studies, it is true
that the term Orientalism is less preferred by specialists today, both
because it is too vague and general because it connotes the high-handed
executive attitude of nineteenth-century and early –twentieth- century
European Orientalism. Nevertheless books are written and conferences
held with ‘the Oreient’ as their main focus, with the Orientalist in his new
or old guise as their main authority. The point is that even if it does not
survive as it once did, Orientalism lives on academically through its
doctrines and theses about the Orient and the Oriental”(2)
.
Dr. Aḥmad ‘Abd al-Ḥamīd Ghorāb, an Arab Muslim scholar, has
mentioned several definitions of Orientalism in his work “Ru’yah
Islamiyyah Lil Istishrāq”, where he comprehensively deduces the
conclusion out of all the discussion he made. He points out that
westerner’s impartial research study of Eastern history, civilization,
religions, languages, political and social system, resources and future
benefits on the bases of ethnic superiority and to get political control over
the eastern countries is called Orientalism3. Almost similar assertion has
also been made by Edward Said that clears the role and objective of this
movement:
19
To speak of Orientalism therefore is to speak mainly, although not
exclusively, of a British and French cultural enterprise, a project whose
dimensions take in such disparate realms as the imagination itself, the
whole of India and the Levant, the Biblical texts and the Biblical lands, the
spice trade, colonial armies and a long tradition of colonial administrators,
a formidable scholarly corpus, innumerable Oriental "experts" and
"hands", an Oriental professorate, a complex array of "Oriental" ideas
(Oriental despotism, Oriental splendor, cruelty, sensuality), many Eastern
sects, philosophies, and wisdoms domesticated for local European use the
list can be extended more or less indefinitely(4)
.
THE ORIGINS OF ORIENTALISM
At the origin of the game of opposing essentializing attitudes
between the "West" and "Islam" there is an obvious phenomenon: the
preliminary construction of a Self-Other polarity in mediaeval Christian
Europe, due to the experience of a menacing, neighbouring "world of
Islam." A similar, specular construction also characterized the opposite
side, reinforced, since the era of the Crusades, by signs of a possible
reverse in the power relationship between the two worlds, which was, up
to that moment, favourable to Islam. We can admit that in this pre-modem
stage Other-constructions are still defensive, not broadly instrumentalized
and still tightly dependent on the protection of a Self defined by the past.
But the dichotomization of the broader universe of experience, which led
Christian Europe to conceive Islam as an anti-Christian apostasy(5), was
about to acquire a new meaning as Europe began to perceive itself as
bound to a fate of progress, evidenced by its growing power in controlling
nature, territories and, eventually, enemies(6)
.
Edward said presented three different approaches about orientalism in
view of academic discipline. His comments are very important in regard
reality of orientalism.
“The three definitions as expounded by Said illustrate how Orientalism is
a complex web of representations about the Orient. The first two
definitions embody the textual creation of the Orient while the latter
definition illustrates how Orientalism has been deployed to execute
authority and domination over the Orient. The three are interrelated,
20
particularly since the domination entailed in the third definition is reliant
upon and justified by the textual establishment of the Orient that emerges
out of the academic and imaginative definitions of Orientalism.”(7)
.
POWER BETWEEN THE OCCIDENT AND THE ORIENT:
The true contribution of Edward Said is that He pointed out the
limits of orientalists workings. His approaches regarding orientalists
exposure are up to the mark.
“An integral part of Orientalism, of course, is the relationship of power
between the Occident and the Orient, in which the balance is weighted
heavily in favour of the former. Such power is connected intimately with
the construction of knowledge about the Orient. It occurs because the
knowledge of ‘subject races’ or ‘Orientals’ makes their management easy
and profitable; ‘knowledge gives power, more power requires more
knowledge, and so on in an increasingly profitable dialectic of information
and control’. The knowledge of the Orient created by and embodied within
the discourse of Orientalism serves to construct an image of the Orient and
the Orientals as subservient and subject to domination by the Occident.
Knowledge of the Orient, because generated out of strength, says Said, in
a sense creates the Orient, the Oriental and his world”(8)
.
THE LATEST PHASE OF ORIENTALISM
The latest phase of Orientalism corresponds with the displacement
of France and Britain on the world stage by the United States. Despite the
shifting of the centre of power and the consequent change in Orientalizing
strategies, the discourse of Orientalism, in its three general modes,
remains secure. In this phase, the Arab Muslim has come to occupy a
central place within American popular images as well as in the social
sciences. Said argues that this was to a large extent made possible by the
‘transference of a popular anti-Semitic animus from a Jewish to an Arab
target ... since the figure was essentially the same’. The dominance of the
social sciences after the Second World War meant that the mantle of
Orientalism was passed to the social sciences”(9)
.
To maintain a view of Orientalism as a discourse is to give it a
focus that opens up gaps in its coverage. Placing the beginnings of
Orientalism, as late as Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt rather than in the
21
eighteenth-century upsurge of interest in the Indo-European languages
better suits Said’s demonstration of European power in the discourse(10)
.
Furthermore, Edward Said presented true patron of orientalists
intellectual status.
“For these and many other reasons, Orientalism immediately stimulated
and continues to generate responses from several quarters and with
varying degrees of hostility. The vigour and range of these criticisms
reveal how profound the influence of the book has been. But the nature of
the criticisms has invariably tended to confirm Said’s claim about the
constricted nature of intellectual work in the academy: its ‘theological’
and exclusionary specialization, its disciplinary confinement, its tendency
towards caution and its retreat from the human realities of its subject
matter”(11)
.
EVALUATION OF ORIENTALISTS’ CONTRIBUTION:
As far as the modern Orientalistic endeavors are concerned, these
have to a great extent been able to liberate themselves from the manacles
of medieval chauvinism, unjustified deformation and open hostility, the
overall unsympathetic attitude of Orientalists to Islam; yet its fundamental
sources have not changed absolutely. The rude attacks on Islam and its
fundamental sources have given a way to subtle techniques of research
and interpretation, and the open criticism of Islamic history and its culture
has now been clothed into modern apparel of objective study and
paraphernalia of academic disciplines. It is not uncommon that in many of
the writings of great Orientalists of modern times one finds reappearance
of the hoary story of Judo-Christian origin of Islam and portrait of Islam
as a religion of immoderation, narrow-mindedness, intolerance and
aggression. With few exceptions, the modern breed of professional
Orientalists, in imitation to their predecessors, directly or indirectly
continue to present deformed picture of Islam to their students and do not
hesitate in extending their distortion and misrepresentation to many of
their so-called masterly writings on Islam and Muslim history. Some of
them present a fossilized and mummified version of Islam which belongs
to the bygone time and has no relevance to the present age. While some
others study Islamic history and literature with prejudiced mind and
22
preconceived notions to present frightening picture of slam which is more
likely to cause revulsion than understanding in the Minds of the readers.
Still some other have been commissioned for or taken themselves the job,
as it were, of a sanitary inspector to report about the drains and cesspools
of an otherwise lush green garden with its beautiful green lawns, flower
beds and magnificent landscapes. Since they are not concerned with the
beauties of the garden, they present a stinking picture of the garden of
Islamic history from the mission of the Prophet to the engineered downfall
of the Caliphate and the modern wave of global Islamic resurgence. They
select some isolated evidences, magnify them out of proportion, piece
them together like a jigsaw puzzle and present an astonishingly different
picture of Islam which has hardly any relevance to the Islam believed and
practiced by millions of Muslims in the world. 12 For the same reason, in
the Muslims’view, Orientalism is an 'intellectual weapon' of
Christianity and the West for weakening Islam by way of blurring
Islamic doctrines and disconnecting Muslims from Islam(13)
.
Ever since the colonial period the Western Universities have
monopolized the teaching of Oriental Studies and have been attracting
Muslim students to study Islam and receive higher education under the
guidance of Western Islamic scholars. Consciously or unconsciously, most
of these Western educated Muslim scholars have developed a habit of
looking at their religion through the eyes of their Western teachers and of
communicating the same distorted image of Islam to Muslim students in
their own countries as well. It is not surprising when one finds a Western
trained Muslim scholar like Syed Ḥossein Naṣr complaining that the
prejudice and misunderstanding of Western Orientalists is ‘wreacking
intellectual havoc among many modernised Muslims’. It is therefore
alleged not without justification that since what is taught and published by
the Orientalists is not free from prejudice and hostility, they bear great
moral responsibility for indoctrinating their many immature and
defenceless Muslim students. In addition to this they also have a large
share in the disillusionment with Islam, scepticism, moral and spiritual
apathy and the overpowering urge of modernism found in the ruling elite
of Muslim countries today(14)
.
23
INCEPTION OF ORIENTALISTIC ORGANS:
It is interesting to note that in 1901, one of the prestigious organs
of the colonial press, the fortnightly “Questions Diplomatique at Colonials
of France” conducted a comprehensive investigation of the prospects of
Islam in the 20th
century. All the leading Orientalists of the period were
invited to deliberate on the issue. The French Orientalist Carra de Vaux,
who has contributed many articles in the Encyclopaedia of Islam 1st
edition, passionately advocated for ‘segmenting the Muslim world’ and
weakened Islam by encouraging nationalism and heresies so that it
becomes incapable of great awakening. He wrote:
I believe that we should endeavour to split the Muslim world,
to break its moral unity, using to this effect the ethnic and political
divisions…… Let us therefore accentuate these differences, in order to
increase on the one hand sentiments of nationalism and to decrease on the
other that of religious consciousness of the ummah among the various
Muslim races. Let us take advantage of political conditions…in one word
let us disintegrate Islam, and make use, moreover, of Muslim heresies and
the ṣufī orders(15)
.
Although this was suggested eight decades ago, the echo of such
sermons can still be found in the treatment of Islam and the Muslim world
by many Orientalists, pseudo-Orientalists, policy makers and
administrators. It will not be out of interest to note that according to one
estimate, between 1800 and 1950 some 60,000 books on Islam have been
published from the West(16).
PROBLEMS OF ORIENTALISM:
The deficiencies of the Western scholars while delving into the
textual study of the Qur’ān and their views derived from two major
quandary aspects:
� Sources
� Methodology
Most of the scholars of Islam and its textual history depend on
manuscript sources, largely Arabic chronicles, even though they have not
subjected them to sophisticated criticism(17)
.Although they disdain
24
chronicle paraphrases like those of the pioneering scholar William Muir,
many recent scholars have in fact added only vigorous skepticism.
Because manuscript sources are relatively plentiful and deceptively
straightforward, they have been relied upon as the evidential core; because
they are largely literary and historical, they have been criticized by
philological and chronological methods. Consequently linguistic, not
theoretical, expertise has continued to be the sine qua-non for writing
Islamic history, even though the work of scholars without language skills,
often in fields other than history, has contained potential contributions(18).
Dependence on such sources has recently narrowed the range of topics
studied and has discouraged the use of other disciplines' methods, which
are also often relevant to non-political or chronological subjects. In short,
the limitations of the sources and of their handling by scholars have
produced a paucity of even the simplest use of the data and insights of
other disciplines. Often when they are used, they are used poorly--without
an understanding of the disciplines from which they come and with usual
characteristic of Orientalism.
Passing remarks of non-philological, non-historical, indeed non-
Islamic scholars have or could have cut away many of the myths which
have encrusted the field. Two examples, connected with Muhammad and
with the Qur'an, the former from Slater's recent sociological work and the
later from Frye's slightly older work on the theory of literary criticism,
will help illustrate this point(19)
.
MAJOR OBJECTS OF CRITICISM:
Most scholarship on the origins of Islam, except for a few
anthropologically oriented works, has centered on Muhammad and
Qur’ān. Of course, most primary sources focus on Muhammad's
experiences, and such a focus reflects the individualistic assumptions of
modern European and American culture(20)
. But Slater looks at prophecy
from the point of view of the group that "extrudes" the prophet and then
must make a place for him and incorporate his outre experiences. In so
doing, he suggests new lines of questions about the origins of Islam. He
also unintentionally begins to explain many issues unresolved by the
Muhammad-centered approach, such as the complexity of Meccan
reaction and the social significance of stories about prophets contemporary
25
with Muhammad(21)
.
It is ironic that Islamic studies seem to be returning to their
beginning a kind of "Orientalism", before they have run the gamut of
reaction to it. "Islamic history" as a discipline is relatively new, a product
of many individuals' disenchantment with what they felt to be the
undisciplined sloppiness of orientalists, most of whom were felt to have
begun with language study and never to have mastered the fields in which
they later dabbled. I hope that interdisciplinary Islamic studies will not be
the only topics of orientalism at large, but rather elaborating on subjects
like the Dār al-Islām or related culture which takes advantage of what each
of the specializations has to offer without sacrificing the dream of the
seamless web of knowledge(22).
APPROACHES TO ORIENTALISM:
Approaches can be determined through several means but the most
appropriate way is to define first, through this organ we may be in a best
position to explore aims and objectives. However, Orientalism can be
defined simply with just a meticulous study of its old historical status.
This historical study will assist us to identify its boundaries, limits and
characteristics without any obscurity.
THE CRUSADES ANTAGONISM:
It is without doubt that, with the various crusade's increased
antagonism against Islam, it at the same time played an important role in
the mis-understanding of Islam; more so, in the Western World. As
Maulana Abul Ḥasan ‘Alī Nadwī has rightly pointed out:
The Crusades in their wake, the clergy and the missionaries and
those European authors, who neither had a bent for research nor possessed
religious values, were mainly responsible for keeping Europe estranged
from and antagonistic to Islam i.e. the Qur’ān and its Prophet. They have
presented both the Prophet and his Message in shockingly hideous colors as a
result of which astonishingly false and baseless talks have gained currency
about them(23)
.
Although antagonism against Islam spread on one hand, Islam too
made inroads for deeper in the hearts of Eastern and Western Europe. When
26
the Crusades returned from the Muslim Lands, they brought with them the
happy memories of the advanced culture of Islam. This was especially so in
respect of art, architecture, the traditional garb, and other aspects of life
generally. This influenced the minds of Europeans so much that even the
architectural edifices of churches took on an Islamic character. Arabesque
and decorative motifs were developed closely resembling those of Mus-
lims. However, misinformation continued to be disseminated. This is evi-
dent from what Maulana Abul Ḥasan ‘Alī Nadwī says, "Even to-day many
a zealous western author refers to and repeats these accusations, though
with novel techniques and from new angles"(24)
.
Books written by non-Muslims or references to Islam made by them
are often derogatory to the personality of the Prophet (PBUH), the Revela-
tion, the Holy Qur’ān as well as the aḥādīth. They searched out offensive
remarks made by the munafiqūn [hypocrites], the pagan Quraishite chiefs,
the Jews and Christians of the Prophet's (S.A.W.) time and magnified them.
Some of these plots against Islam are mentioned in the Qur’ān itself which
they picked out and used out of context. It is also true to state that hypocrites
had fabricated false charges against the Prophet (S.A.W.) and the ummah in
its formative period with the object of bringing the spread of Islam to an end.
A Masjid Ḍirār, 'the mosque of mischief was built especially for this
purpose where false propaganda was dished out against the early Muslims
and Islam.
In the later period of Islamic history, the European writers saw Islam
and Muslims from a different perspective: that of the behavioral pattern of the
Turks, who were by then virtual rulers of certain parts of Europe. Abul
Ḥasan ‘Alī Nadwī has observed, "whenever there was occasion for Europe
to ponder over Islam, the Ottomans were before her as its [Islam’s accred-
ited and sole representatives on the Continent."(25). The misbehavior of the
Ottomans was seen as the erroneous practices of Islam. If they [the Otto-
mans] involved themselves in the aberrations of their time, then, Islam too,
was tainted.
Various innovations as well as other un-Islamic ideas were regarded
as a reflection of the tenets of Islam. Their perceptions were formed
primarily from the manner in which the Ottomans reflected what purported
27
to be Islamic behaviour. Consequently, their appraisal of Islam was
incorrect, if not, downright false(26).
However to Muslims, this appraisal is downright false and
suspicious descriptions and slander about Islam. According to Daniel,
suspicion and misunderstanding which had been shaped in that period,
basically, still remains in place for the majority of Europeans. He notes:
The earliest Christian reactions to Islam were much the same as
they have been until quite recently. The tradition has been continuous and it
is still alive. Naturally, there has been variety within the wider unity of
tradition, and the European (and American) West has long had its own
characteristic view, which was formed in the two centuries or so after 1100,
and which has been modified only slowly since(27)
.
Keeping in view the perspective of Orientalism, it can easily be
derived that their approach has been once again derailed in the field of
religious research.
28
References
1. For a detailed study on Orientalism (Istishrāq) following Urdu sources are
very important: Muhammad Yousaf Rāmpurī “Taḥrīk Istishrāq” Mujallah
Dārul ‘Ulūm Dewband, India, March 1988. Professor Dr Muhammad Akram
Chouhdry, “Istishrāq” Takmilah Urdū Dā’irah Ma‘ārif Islamiyah, University
of the Punjab, Lahore. “Islām Aur Mustashriqīn” (ed,) Syed Sabaḥ-ud-Dīn
Abdur Raḥmān & Others, Dār al Muṣannifīn, Shiblī Academy, A‘zam Garh,
India, New Edition, comprises on seven volumes, published in 2007.
Muhammad Feroz-ud-Din Shah Khagga, “Tahrīkh Istishrāq Aur Us kay Ahdāf
o Maqāṣid” Mujallh Al-Shariah, Gujranwala, 2005.
2. Edward W. Said, Orientalism,( London: Penguim, 1977), p 2; however, there
is an immense criticism on Said’s definition of Orientalism, as Fred Halliday
comments that the term 'Orientalism' itself is contestable: we should be
cautious about any critique which identifies such a widespread and pervasive
single error at the core of a range of literature. There is what, in philosophic
terms, can be termed the search for the expressive totality, or, in more mun-
dane language, the root of all evil. Over the last twenty years we have had a
long list of these-economism, humanism, eclecticism, historicism, empiricism
and so on. More recently we have Eurocentrism, ethnocentrism, foundation-
ism. 'Orientalism'-while it can be used in a precise way, as I have tried to do
above-may be open to such a promiscuous application. Orientalism in Said's
usage acquires an almost metaphysical power to pervade very different epochs
and genres of expression; in so doing it loses analytic or explanatory purchase.
See for detail Fred Halliday,'Orientalism' and Its Critics, British Journal of
Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1993, p.158.
3. Dr. Aḥmad ‘Abd al-Ḥamīd Ghorāb, Ru’yah Islāmiyyah Lil Istishrāq, Dār al-
Iṣlāh wal -Nashr, Riyaḍ, Sa‘ūdī ‘Arabia, 1988, pp. 7-8.
4. Edward W. Said, Orientalism, p. 4.
5. See Norman Daniel, Islam and the West: The Making of an Image,Edinburgh,
1962 and 1966.
6. Armando Salvatore, Beyond Orientalism, p 459.
7. Ashcroft, Bill & Ahluwalia, D. P. S., Edward Said, Taylor & Francis
Routledge, London and New York, 2001, p57.
8. Ibid, p. 63.
29
9. Ibid, p. 66.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid, pp 69-70.Bill Ashcroft teaches English at the University of New South
Wales. Pal Ahluwalia teaches Politics at the University of Adelaide. Both
have published widely in the field of post-colonial studies.
12. A number of books and articles have been written for and against the
Orientalist contribution to Islam. For a list of such writings see M.M. Ahsan,
Orientalism and the study of Islam in the West; a select Bibliography, Book
Review, The Muslim World, Vol.1, No.4.
13. Moeflich Hasbullah, Assessment on Orientalist Contributions to the Islamic
World, HARMONI, Jurnal Multikultural & Multireligius, Volume IV,
Nomor 13, Januari-Maret 2005, p. 1.
14. See Nadwī, Western Civilization-Islam and Muslims, p. 173; Tibawi, ‘On the
Orientalists again’, The Muslim World, 1930, p. 61; Hamid Algar ‘The
Problems of Orientalists’, Islamic Literature, 1971, p. 32; G. H. Hansen,
Militant Islam, pp. 76-77.
15. Questions Diplomatiques etc. Colonials, May 15, 1901, p. 588 as quoted by
Marwan R. Buheiry, Colonial Scholarship and Muslim Revivalism in 1990,
Arab studies Quarterly. Vol. 4, Nos. 1-2, spring 1982, p.5.
16. Cf. Time 16, April, 1979, p. 40.
17. Waldman, Untitled Review Article, Religious Studies Review, II, 1976,
pp.22-35.
18. Roger Owen, Studying Islamic History, Journal of Interdisciplinary History,
IV, I973, pp. 287-298.
19. Philip Slater, Earthwalk, Garden City, New York., 1974, pp. 69-IoI; Northrop
Frye, The Anatomy of Criticism, Princeton, I957, pp.55, 294. See also Mary
Douglas, Purity and Danger, London, 1966.
20. Marilyn Robinson Waldman, Review: Islamic Studies: A New Orientalism?,
Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 8, No. 3 ,Winter, 1978, p. 546.
21. Ibid., p. 547.
22. Ibid., p. 562.
23. Nadwī Abul Ḥasan ‘Alī, Speaking Plainly to the West, Lucknow, 1979, p.35
30
24. Ibid.
25. Nadwī, Op. Cit., p. 36.
26. For more detail please see Prof. Dr. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān I. Doi, The Sciences of
the Qur’ān: A Study in Methodology and Approach, Sterling Publishers,
New Delhi, 2000, pp. 290-312.
27. Norman Daniel, Islam and the West, the Making of an Image, Oneworld
Publications Ltd, 1993, p. 11.
I
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MA‘ARIF-E-ISLAMI Volume No.14 Issue No.1 January 2015 to June 2015
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Editor: Dr. Abdul Hameed Khan Abbasi, Dr. Khalil ur Rehman
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Youn’s town university,
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Islamic Research Institute,
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VI
CONTENTS
Urdu Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Shahbaz
Hasan
Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Israeel
Farooqi
Non Arabic Word in the Holy Qura’n
(A Research Overview)
1
Hafiz Muhammad Ishaq Methodology of Qazi Baizavi in His
Tafsir “ Anwar al Tanzil wa Asrar al
Tawil”
29
Dr. Mohsina Munir Research Review of the Contemporary
Authoring Styles on Khasais e
Nabavi(Prophet ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص’s Characteristisc)
45
Dr. Farooque Hasan Development of Principles of
Jurisprudence in Medieval Sub-Continent
59
Ghulam Haider Reality of Mohatra Contract & Its
Current Forms
75
Sumayyah Rafique Introduction of Qura’nic Orthography
(An Overview)
89
Dr. Zulfiqar Ali Rights and Duties of Non-Muslims in the
Islamic State (A Special Study in the
Light of Islamic Legal Maxims)
101
Dr. Memona Tabassum “Tafsir Ahsan ut Tafasir”, Its
Methodology & Characteristics
(Research & Analysis)
123
Arabic Tahir Siddique
bin Muhammad Siddique
Objectives of Prophetic Dialogue and the
Limit of Its Usage in the act of Da’wah
(Examples from the Selected Ahadith of
Sahihain[Sahih Bukhari & Sahih
Muslim])
143
Dr. Sami ul Haq
Hafiz Muhammad Tariq
Jurist’s Views on Conflict & Preference
amongst the Islamic Legal Evidences
(An Analytical Study)
173
Dr. Iftikhar Ahmad Khan Al-Taukeed in the Holy Qura’n 195
Dr. Hafiz Abdur Raheem
Sayyid Muqeel Hussain
Allegorical Exegesis and Its Important
Books
205
VII
Dr. Muhammad Iqbad Sameen Halbi’s Methodology in
Morphological and Syntactical Citation in
his Tafsir “Al-Durr Al-Masoon” (An
Analytical Study)
229
Jasim Ahmad Abdullah Al-
Jasim
Dr. Noorullah Kort
Muhammad Ashraf Ali
Farooqi
Calling Non-Muslims to Islam during the
Institutional work(Islam Presentation
Committee as an Example)
251
English Dr. Samia Maqbool Niazi The Contract of Guarantee and Islamic
Banking
1
Dr. Muhammad Feroz-ud-Din
Shah Khagga
Dr. Ghulam Hussain
Assessing The Perspective of Oriantalistic
Scholarship of Islam
17