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V Vickers 2005
APNEA, ALTE
, and SIDS
Valerie Vickers RNCApnea Program Coordinator UMC
V Vickers 2005
APNEA is a nonspecific indicator of distress
Failure of a systemEarly indicator of
deterioration
Many known causes of apnea can be diagnosed and treated.
V Vickers 2005
PERIODIC BREATHING
•Thought to be benign
•PB Apnea SIDS???
Definition of Periodic Breathing: 3 or more pauses for greater than 30 seconds duration with less than 20 seconds of respiration between pauses.
These should not be considered linear events. They overlap but one
is not causative to the next.
V Vickers 2005
APNEA Cessation of respiratory airflow
CENTRAL (40-45%)
No respiratory effort, no nasal airflow Developmental phenomenon
OBSTRUCTIVE (10-15%)
respiratory effort, no nasal airflow, HR Caused by aspiration, laryngospasm or
poor airway control
MIXED (40-45%)
Both obstructive and central
V Vickers 2005
Reflex Effects of APNEA
sinus bradycardia drop in blood pressure change in cerebral blood flow
Apnea and periodic breathing are common in premature infants after the first 24 to 48 hours of life.
Premature infants sleep 80% of the time, term infants 50%. Apnea only occurs with active sleep.
V Vickers 2005
Factors contributing to decreased inspiratory effort:
CNS immaturity - # of synaptic connections sensitivity to CO2
activity of protective respiratory reflexes (conserve, rather than breath)
minute ventilation diaphragmatic fatigue soft compliant chest
V Vickers 2005
THEREFORE:
Mixed apnea occurs frequently in premature infants due to:
increased CNS immaturity (central apnea)
softer chest, weaker diaphragms (obstructive apnea)
V Vickers 2005
PATHOLOGIC APNEA
Apnea > 20 seconds with cyanosis, abrupt, marked pallor or hypotonia, or bradycardia < 100 bpm
V Vickers 2005
APNEA OF PREMATURITY (AOP)
Developmental characteristics are the primary cause due to poor development of both CNS and airway control
Most common form of apnea in premies Diagnosis of exclusion Usually resolves by 37 weeks post conception
but occasionally persists for several weeks past term
AOP is probably caused by abnormality in the central control for breathing:
Decreased inspiratory effort and blunted response to CO2 and O2 plus prolonged brainstem conduction times result in hypoventilation and hypercarbia
V Vickers 2005
Apnea is Associated with Many Clinical Conditions:
Intraventricular bleedMay see hypoventilation, apnea or respiratory
arrest
Subtle seizuresAlong with fluttering eyelids, drooling or
sucking, tonic posturing
Sepsis Bacterial (GBS, staph. Proteus, Listeria,
Coliforms Viral (RSV, paraflu, herpes, CMV Chlamydial NEC
V Vickers 2005
Congestive Heart Failure PDA and CHD Due to decreased lung compliance Respiratory muscle fatigue Chest wall distortion Hypoxemia
Respiratory Distress Syndrome Due to atelectasis, work of breathing, fatigue May lead to chronic lung disease
Anemia oxygen carrying capacity of blood Arterial pressure perfusing CNS
Polycythemia blood viscosity and blood flow to CNS begins at 2-4 hours of age
V Vickers 2005
High temperature of environment Feeding problems
overdistention of stomach aspiration GER (gastroesphogeal reflux) with or without
aspirations• due to laryngospasm• stimulation of irritant receptors in lower esophagus
causing ‘reflux apnea’• some reflux is common (laundry issue only?)
Metabolic conditions Hypoglycemia Hypocalcemia Hypernatremia Alkalosis
Others Myelomeningocele Meningitis
V Vickers 2005
ALTE
“APPARENT LIFE THREATENING EVENT” Frightening event to the observer Combination of apnea Color change Marked change in muscle tone Over 37 weeks conceptual age
V Vickers 2005
Careful Evaluation of Episode Obtain accurate report including
feeding and sleeping history Physical exam, vital signs Temperature of isolette CBC, lytes, ABG’s, pulse ox Blood and viral cultures Chest xray Cranial ultrasound Echocardiogram pH probe, barium swallow Placement of feeding tubes (OG/NG) Computer monitor reports if available Sleep study
V Vickers 2005
TREATMENT OF APNEA OR ALTE
Dependent on Etiology Least invasive Treat underlying causes Non-pharmacologic vs
pharmacologic
V Vickers 2005
TREATMENT OF APNEA: NON-PHARMACOLOGIC
Tactile stimulation neutral ambient temperature Address feeding issues / GER Oxygen Mechanical CPAP / ventilation
• CPAP markedly reduces apneic episodes with an obstructive component
• Improves patency of upper airway by activation of dilator muscles or by passive splinting
V Vickers 2005
• May treat more severe AOP with methylxanthines.
• Methylxanthines effect neurotransmitters and increase the transmission of impulses across nerves and synapses.
TREATMENT OF APNEA: PHARMACOLOGIC
V Vickers 2005
METHYLXANTHINESCAFFEINE
2.5 - 5 mg /kg / day once per day (therapeutic range 8-15 mcg/ml)
THEOPHYLLINE 3-6 mg/kg/day divided in 2
doses per day (therapeutic range 6-12
mcg/ml)
V Vickers 2005
Caffeine is often preferable: More centrally active Not metabolized by the liver However - many pharmacies
do not carry it
METHYLYXANTHINES (cont.)
NOTE: Neither drug has had controlled study for efficacy
Methylxanthines can exacerbate GER - use the right drug for treatment
V Vickers 2005
GOAL FOR HOME
For AOP/Apnea: No apneic events for 5 days If discharge on methylxanthines,
standard in this community is also discharge with monitor
May discharge with monitor only if no other treatment indicated
For ALTE: May discharge sooner than 5 days
if work-up negative and no events
Goal is to discharge without methylxanthines or monitor
V Vickers 2005
HOME MONITORS
At Risk Group: Infants with BW less than 1000 grams Infants with continued apnea and
bradycardia Infants requiring methylxanthines to
control apnea Infants with severe gastroesophageal reflux Infants with tracheostomies Less risk but for family’s peace of mind
• Infants with severe BPD requiring oxygen• SIDS sibling or twin of SIDS• Infants with non-repeated ALTE, no cause found
V Vickers 2005
CRITERIA FOR SUCCESS OF HOME MONITORING
Training is crucial! Apnea class including CPR Caregivers have adequate time to
use equipment prior to discharge
Support is imperative! Support system includes: medical,
technical, psychosocial, community support
Choose the right monitor!
V Vickers 2005
TERMINATION OF MONITOR USE
Usually by 6 months of age No significant apnea or repeat of
ALTE event for 2 months If on methylxanthines, 1-2 weeks
after discontinuation of medications and not significant apnea
Resolution of primary problem
MONITORING CANNOT GUARANTEE
SURVIVAL
V Vickers 2005
MONITORS Monitors heart rate and respirations Common settings: Low HR 70 bpm for
premie, 60 for term; high HR off; apnea delay 20 seconds
Has a memory, can be printed/analyzed ON/OFF switch: child-proof, sometimes
nurse proof Belt must be tight – pad touches skin
always Clean pads with water onlyParents are the best monitor; use only when the baby is not observed.
V Vickers 2005
SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS)Sudden death of any infant or young
child which is unexplained by history and in which a thorough post mortem fails to demonstrate and adequate cause of death.*
*Definition taken from the NIH Consensus Development Conference on Infantile Apnea and Home Monitoring
V Vickers 2005
SIDS STATISTICSCurrently, 0.6 death per 1000
1-2 deaths per 1000 live births per year until the Back to Sleep campaign in the US - by 40%.
leading cause of death in infants older than one month
Most common age for SIDS is 2-4 months 99% of deaths before 6 months 1 % of deaths 6-12 months extremely rare in the 1st month of life infants have a change in response to hypoxia
around 6 months of age
V Vickers 2005
SIDS FACTS SIDS risk for an infant with AOP or who
has had an ALTE is at no greater risk than the general population
Premature infants have a slightly greater risk which increases as their gestational age decreases
Home monitoring of infants has NOT decreased the incidence of SIDS
The SIDS sibling is not at greater risk of SIDS than the general population
V Vickers 2005
SIDS RESEARCH
Research findings: Supine sleeping position most protective, side lying
better than prone but not protective as supine Overheating contributory Smoking contributory Any breastfeeding is protective Pacifier use is protective Sleeping in the same place every night is protective Research indicates SIDS is a malfunction in arousal CHIME study indicates that normal infants have
apnea, bradycardia and desaturations into the 70’s (question then is why they can recover and the infant who dies of SIDS does not)
V Vickers 2005
Research indicates that SIDS is more complex than a single abnormality in a single system.
SIDS PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARATERISTICS
tachycardia then bradycardia prior to fatal event – not necessarily proceeded by apneic event
diminished # of breathing pauses
heart rate variation related to respirations
profuse sweating
V Vickers 2005
SIDS PREVENTION
Failure of arousal mechanism
Ethnicity is a factor ( in blacks)
Back to Sleep campaign
AAP discourages the use of monitors