ziar - newspaper; paper; gazetteziar de reputaţie proastă - cheap ragziar de scandal - pulpziar local - local newspaperziarist - journalistziarist colaborator ext.indep - freelancerziaristică – journalismziar (news)paper;journal;public print (oficiaziar gazetteziar journalziar newspaperziar paper(news)ziar ;articol paperziar saptamanal weekly newspaperziar(cotidian) dailyziar, cotidian daily paperziar, jurnal, gazeta news paperziarele pressziarist journalistziarist journalist;newspaperman;pressman;newsmanziarist platit cu rindul space-writerziaristica journalismziaristica; jurnalism journalismziarul de dimineata este sub tipar the morning paper is in

Main Entry:1pulp

Pronunciation:\ˈpəlp\

Function:noun

Etymology:Middle English pulpe, from Latin pulpa flesh, pulp

Date:14th century

1 a (1): the soft, succulent part of a fruit usually composed of mesocarp (2): stem pith when soft and spongy b: a soft mass of vegetable matter (as of apples) from which most of the water has been extracted by pressure c: the soft sensitive tissue that fills the central cavity of a tooth — see tooth illustration d: a material prepared by chemical or mechanical means from various materials (as wood or rags) for use in making paper and cellulose products2: pulverized ore mixed with water3 a: pulpy condition or character b: something in such a condition or having such a character4: a magazine or book printed on cheap paper (as newsprint) and often dealing with sensational material; also : sensational or tabloid writing —often used attributively <pulp fiction>

Types of newspapers? 1 month ago

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Traditionally you have the 'redtops' or 'tabloids' such as The Sun, Star and Mirror which are aimed squarely at the majority working classes. This also encompasses papers such as The Daily Mail and Express which are a slight step up and aimed at a more serious reader.

The next step up is the 'berliner' which are basically Eurocentric versions of the broadsheets and are generally politically biased. This would include The Guardian.

At the top of the food chain are the 'broadsheets', the daddies of newspapers. These are considered the most intellectual of three and include newspapers such as The Daily Telegraph and The Times.

That's my summation anyway, but you can find more info here;

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaper#T...

A daily newspaper is issued every day, sometimes with the exception of Sundays and some national holidays. Saturday and, where they exist, Sunday editions of daily newspapers tend to be larger, include more specialized sections and advertising inserts, and cost more. Typically, the majority of these newspapers' staff work Monday to Friday, so the Sunday and Monday editions largely depend on content done in advance or content that is syndicated. Most daily newspapers are published in the morning. Afternoon or evening papers are aimed more at commuters and office workers.

Weekly newspapers are common and tend to be smaller than daily papers. In some cases, there also are newspapers that are published twice or three times a week. In the United States, such newspapers are generally still classified as weeklies.

Most nations have at least one newspaper that circulates throughout the whole country: a national newspaper, as contrasted with a local newspaper serving a city or region. In the United Kingdom, there are numerous national newspapers, including The Independent, The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian, The Observer, The Daily Mail, The Sun, The Daily Express and The Daily Mirror. In the United States and Canada, there are few truly national newspapers, with the notable exceptions The Wall Street Journal and USA Today in the US and The Globe and Mail and The National Post in Canada. Large metropolitan newspapers with expanded distribution networks such as The New York Times and The Washington Post can fill the role of de facto national newspapers.

As English has become the international language of business and technology, many newspapers formerly published only in non-English languages have also developed English-language editions. In places as varied as Jerusalem and Bombay (Mumbai), newspapers are printed to a local and international English-speaking public. The advent of the Internet has also allowed the non-English newspapers to put out a scaled-down English version to give their newspaper a global outreach.

There is also a small group of newspapers which may be characterised as international newspapers. Some, such as Christian Science Monitor and The International Herald Tribune, have always had that focus, while others are repackaged national newspapers or "international editions" of national-scale or large metropolitan newspapers. Often these international editions are scaled down to remove articles that might not interest the wider range of readers.

Job titles within the newspaper industry vary greatly. In the United States, the overall manager of the newspaper — sometimes also the owner — may be termed the publisher. This usage is less common outside the U.S., but throughout the English-speaking world the person responsible for content is usually referred to as the editor. Variations on this title such as editor-in-chief, executive editor, and so on, are common.

While most newspapers are aimed at a broad spectrum of readers, usually geographically defined, some focus on groups of readers defined more by their interests than their location: for example, there are daily and weekly business newspapers and sports newspapers. More specialist still are some weekly newspapers, usually free and distributed within limited areas; these may serve communities as specific as certain immigrant populations, or the local gay community.

Newspapers often refine distribution of ads and news through zoning and editioning. Zoning occurs when advertising and editorial content change to reflect the location to which the product is delivered. The editorial content often may change merely to reflect changes in advertising — the quantity and layout of which affects the space available for editorial — or may contain region-specific news. In rare instances, the advertising may not change from one zone to another, but there will be different region-specific editorial content. As the content can vary widely, zoned editions are

often produced in parallel.

Editioning occurs in the main sections as news is updated throughout the night. The advertising is usually the same in each edition (with the exception of zoned regionals, in which it is often the ‘B’ section of local news that undergoes advertising changes). As each edition represents the latest news available for the next press run, these editions are produced linearly, with one completed edition being copied and updated for the next edition. The previous edition is always copied to maintain a Newspaper of Record and to fall back on if a quick correction is needed for the press. For example, both the New York Times and Wall Street Journal offer a regional edition, printed through a local contractor, and featuring locale specific content. The Journal’s global advertising rate card provides a good example of editioning.

1 month ago

What will the newspaper look like in 2020? The World Association of Newspapers asked 22 futurists, academics, industry insiders, internet pioneers and other media experts to envision the newspaper of the future, and their responses say much about the present state of the newspaper business.

 

Some say newspapers will resemble glossy magazines. Some say they will be individually tailored to readers. Some envision networks of news generators and digital news hubs.

All these future scenarios share one thing in common -- they’re all based on current trends in the industry as newspapers evolve and grow as multimedia businesses.

"Envisioning the Newspaper 2020" will soon be published by the Shaping the Future of the Newspaper project, exclusively for members of WAN. But the report served as a centrepiece Thursday in a seminar on the future of newspapers at the World Digital Publishing conference, which drew 400 media executives from 74 countries to Amsterdam.

More on the conference, including summaries of presentations, can be found here.

The Shaping the Future of the Newspaper project identifies, analyses and publicises all important breakthroughs and opportunities that can benefit newspapers all over the world. SFN provides WAN members and subscribers with Strategy Reports on these developments, a library of case studies and business ideas, and a wealth of other vital information for all those who need to follow press industry trends. More on the project and on WAN membership can be found at www.futureofthenewspaper.com.

Here are some excerpts from "Envisioning the Newspaper 2020," the first of seven SFN Strategy Reports for WAN members to be published in 2007 and 2008:

"Regardless of the name of the service, the core competency of news and newspaper publishers of the future will consist of generating content from highly efficient networks, technically process and manage them via networks and continuously or at regular intervals disseminate these contents through a multitude of channels. The

recipients of the content will increasingly want to decide for themselves which channel they want to use at which time - letters and images on conventional or electronic paper, the Internet, mobile phones or a combination of various information carriers.”Gerd Finkbeiner, Chairman, Man Roland, Germany

"As digital media takes an increasing hold on the news industry, audiences, in turn, will demand news reporting in which they can place the trust and confidence once reserved primarily for newspapers. Collaborative filtering tools and trust metrics will help to achieve those ends." Craig Newmark, founder of Craiglist.org, USA

"A newspaper’s brand is its foundation and its greatest value. The newspaper is an institution with the greatest credibility on earth. A newspaper’s brand represents a reader’s trust, based on the supposed expertise of collaborators to understand the world, identify what is relevant, deeply investigate and report with faithfulness and impartiality, clearly distinguishing fact from opinion and publicity. This is what makes a newspaper different from other players in the market, even those equally capable of managing and distributing information.”Flavio Ferrari, CEO, IBOPE Media Information, Brazil

"Oh, printed products may well continue and in some countries still grow. But I wouldn’t mourn their deaths so long as we find ways for their journalism to live on and prosper. A newspaper mustn’t define itself by its medium. It isn’t just paper. Its strength and value do not come from controlling content or distribution. And protecting those dwindling advantages is not a viable strategy for growth - or survival."Jeff Jarvis, media consultant, blogger and head of the interactive journalism program at the City University of New York, USA

"Indeed, the more that life becomes globalised, digital and virtual, the more, I would argue, people will seek out products like newspapers that slow things down a little and tell us what’s important and what’s not, especially at a local level. And let’s also not forget that physical newspapers, like books, are superb examples of industrial design, which, if invented today, would be greeted as a miracle innovation. They don’t need power, there’s no screen glare, they don’t crash and when you’re finished with them they can be safety recycled."Richard Watson, futurist, Future Exploration Network, Australia

"By 2020 smart newspaper networks allow readers to receive best-of-breed material in all specialties. The un-bundling of the newspaper that began in the early 21st century has resulted in the un-bundling of the newsroom itself. Now readers sip from rich networks of content providers who excel in individual areas."Robert Cauthorn, CEO, CityTools, USA

"Newspaper companies will look very different in 2020. There are many reasons to be confident that our industry has the vision, the energy and the fundamental business strengths to emerge by 2020 as a multi-media communications business with a wider market to operate in than it had before 2007."

Chris Bisco, Managing Director, Publishing Division, CN Group, United Kingdom

"The future, it appears, will be one in which more information of more kinds becomes more easily available to more people. With or without printed newspapers themselves - the first near-universal information medium - it appears the purpose and the legacy of the newspaper will continue to be fulfilled."Stephen Gray, Managing Director, Newspaper Next Project, American Press Institute, USA

"It is all about people who see opportunities where others see threats, who are creative when others are not and who are eager to get training in subjects they need for the future. They all have to be passionate about the future of media. They should, because there have never been so many opportunities in the media market."Tomas Brunegård, CEO, Stampen Group, Sweden

"Newspapers are going to survive. Will we be doing things the way we’ve always done them? Absolutely not. In the United States, there are two types of newspaper publishers - those who think the most important part of the word newspaper is ’news’ and those who think the most important part of that word is ’paper.’ ...We can’t be afraid of reaching our audience in new ways. It will be one of the keys to our industry’s successful future."Rob Curly, Vice President for Product Development, Washington Post/Newsweek Interactive, USA

"Forget the Internet. It’s not the enemy. (Indeed the Internet will ultimately save the newspaper). Readers don’t read newspapers not just because they get their news online, but because they find them boring. There are major societal changes involved. Journalists are still working in a tradition that began with the young democracy."Roger Black, Design Consultant, USA

"In order to grow profits in a mature economy, the key is to be able to handle the rapidly changing consumer needs by making new products and leveraging development capabilities... Thinking of the shape of the newspaper in 2020, it is not about new media formats, but rather it is about newspapers having to determine what is the added value that is provided."Takashi Ishioka, Strategic Consultant, Dream Incubator, Japan

"The printed newspaper will get smaller and become mostly free. New technology and combination probably with mobile phones will make even the printed newspaper much more interactive than today. Low voltage e-paper or other paper-replacing foldable screens will be available to offer an alternative to the paper version, but very little interactive or cost efficient in regards to information retrieval."Moritz Wuttke, CEO, APAC Publicitas, China

"Innovation believes in the future of newspapers, but the newspapers of the future will be very different, better and more profitable than ever if they embrace change and innovation without losing the core and soul of our business: journalism."Juan Antonio Giner, Founding Partner, Innovation International Media Consulting Group, USA

"The most successful newspapers of the last decade launched Internet businesses that behaved as strategic options for the core newspaper franchises. Similarly, the most successful papers of the next decade are likely to be those that continue to launch new ventures not as replacements for the paper, or as catalysts for its imminent transformation, but instead as options on future shifts in strategy in response to changes that today can only be dimly imagined."Michael Raynor, Distinguished Research Fellow, Deloitte Consulting

"It takes tremendous time, effort and work to convince traditional print editors that they are now part of a 24/7 news gathering and storytelling process, and that the printed product is only one of the various platforms through which news and information are dispensed. Management plays a key role."Mario Garcia, Founder and CEO, Garcia Media

"The real disruptors of the next decade won’t be companies, but people - creative, entrepreneurial opportunists who are transforming the global economy - developers, designers, marketers, sales people, business analysts, project managers, accountants, lawyers and other professionals scattered around the globe, connecting and working from anywhere to build businesses and solve problems everywhere."Andrew Nachison, co-founder and CEO, iFOCOS, USA

"Technical innovations will change the future of newspapers. Computers and mobile handsets double their capacity every nine months. This allows media companies to continuously introduce new and improved services. New technical innovations and improvements also drive change in human behaviour. Today, teens must be connected to their friends at all times. Their technical devices become part of their personal identity. As a result, teens carry a potential distribution channel for news and entertainment with them at all times."Stig Eide Sivertsen, CEO Broadcasting Division, Telenor, Norway

"If newspaper companies are to survive and prosper in this new environment, managers of firms will need to engage in strategic planning and implementation that builds upon existing capabilities and uses existing skills, knowledge and capacity to improve existing papers and introduce new products that provide access to parts of the public not well served today.”Robert Picard, Director, Media Management and Transformation Centre, Jonköping University, Sweden

The Paris-based WAN, the global organisation for the newspaper industry represents 18,000 newspapers; its membership includes 76 national newspaper associations, newspaper companies and individual newspaper executives in 102 countries, 12 news agencies and 10 regional and world-wide press groups.

WAN conducts the SFN project with support from four international partners -- PubliGroupe, the Swiss-based international advertising and promotion group; MAN Roland, a leading company for newspaper production systems; UPM-Kymmene, one of the world’s leading printing paper producers; and Telenor, the leading Norwegian telecommunications, IT and media group.

Join WAN. Good for your company. Good for the industry. More at www.wan-press.org/membership.

Inquiries to: Larry Kilman, Director of Communications, WAN, 7 rue Geoffroy St Hilaire, 75005 Paris France. Tel: +33 1 47 42 85 00. Fax: +33 1 47 42 49 48. Mobile: +33 6 10 28 97 36. E-mail: lkilman@wan.asso.fr.

MEXICO Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers

BASIC DATA

Official Country Name: United Mexican StatesRegion (Map name): North & Central AmericaPopulation: 101,879,171Language(s): Spanish, various Mayan, NahuatlLiteracy rate: 89.6%

Area: 1,972,550 sq kmGDP: 574,512 (US$ millions)As % of All Ad Expenditures: 13.80Number of Television Stations: 236Number of Television Sets: 25,600,000Television Sets per 1,000: 251.3Number of Cable Subscribers: 2,263,800Cable Subscribers per 1,000: 23.1Number of Satellite Subscribers: 668,000Satellite Subscribers per 1,000: 6.6Number of Radio Stations: 1378Number of Radio Receivers: 31,000,000Radio Receivers per 1,000: 304.3Number of Individuals with Computers: 5,000,000Computers per 1,000: 49.1Number of Individuals with Internet Access: 2,712,000Internet Access per 1,000: 26.6

BACKGROUND & GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

General Description

Mexico is located in Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, with the United States to its north and Belize and Guatemala to the south. The climate varies from tropical to desert, and its terrain consists of high, rugged mountains, low coastal plains, and high plateaus (desert). The site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico was under Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independence early in the nineteenth century. The language across the country is Spanish.

Economically, the country was affected by a devaluation of the peso in late 1994, which triggered the worst recession in over half a century. As of the early 2000s, however, the nation was making an impressive recovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low wages, underemployment for a large segment of the population, and inequitable income distribution, with the top 20 percent of income earners accounting for 55 percent of income. Moreover, few advancement opportunities existed at the turn of the millennium for the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southern states, one of which, the Chiapas, had been in open rebellion since 1994.

The literacy rate in Mexico is high with about 92 percent of the population (as of the early 2000s) over the age of 15 able to read and write. The Mexican population speaks Spanish, with a small percent speaking various Mayan, Nahautl, and other regional indigenous languages. The ethnic breakdown was as follows: mestizo (Amerindian-Spanish) 60 percent, Amerindian or predominantly Amerindian 30 percent, white 9 percent, other 1 percent. About 89 percent were Roman Catholic, 6 percent Protestant, and 5 percent other.

In July, 2000, when Vicente Fox won the presidential election, a new federal political party, National Action Party (PAN), came into power after 71 years of another dominant party, Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). The government incorporates a mixture of U.S. constitutional theory and civil law system; it also has judicial review of legislative acts. Economically, the country is now a federal republic and favors a free market economy, with a mixture of modern and outmoded industry.

Quality of Journalism & its History

For most of the second half of the twentieth century, journalism was dominated by government officials and directives, often involving bribes. PRI routinely spied on journalists using the national intelligence agency, then the Center for Information and National Security. To make matters worse, journalists themselves had little professionalism and lacked higher education. The profession was a dangerous one, since police, the military, and drug lords routinely threatened and even assassinated journalists and their editors. Fortunately, the 2000 election gave the prospect of openness among the government departments and officials. In addition, attempts by privatized media outlets to engage in more objective journalism offered hope of journalism's evolution in the twenty-first century.

Before journalism existed as it does in the modern world, Spain ruled Mexico for three centuries with an autocratic system opposed to any type of free press. A small

elite class and a powerful Catholic clergy dominated Mexico. Nonetheless, printing presses existed in Mexico as early as 1536, and small circulation newspapers, such as the Gacetade in Mexico City, began to appear about 1660. These publications used political cartoons as a medium for attacking the authorities of both the state and church. General education was not available, and so illiteracy was high. In 1819, the Spanish were removed as colonial overlords, and Mexico declared its independence from Spain.

Throughout the nineteenth century, amid political instability, journalists pleaded for a free press and frequently cited U.S. newspapers and U.S. constitutional guarantees as models worth emulating. Yet the 1850s laws checked newspaper criticism of the government. Many Mexican presidents resorted to closing newspapers and imprisoning their employees. Prior to the Mexican Revolution of 1910, powerful individuals in the government and the church successfully bribed journalists. This practice of providing cash for coverage took hold quite easily throughout Mexico because journalists were so poorly paid. These bribes became known as embutes.

Following the revolution in 1910, a number of new papers started, particularly in Mexico City, for example, El Universal in 1916 and the Exelsior in 1917. During the 1920s and 1930s an alternative medium, radio, spread across Mexico. The ruling president awarded these licensed stations to his wealthy friends; therefore, criticism was non-existent. Then, too, the PRI party sustained its control for seven decades; it used broadcast media including television, particularly with Televisa, as a series of quasi-public relation stations. It makes sense then that Mexican electronic media did not confront official censorship: its owners were close friends of those who ruled. Extremely wealthy themselves, these owners had no reason to promote change that threatened to lead to a redistribution of wealth. To seal the arrangement, the Mexican media were characterized by gracetillas (advertisements paid for by the government), essentially propaganda pieces, which brought considerable revenue to radio and television stations.

Numbers of Newspapers

The most popular newspaper format seems to be daily, yet there are a number of weekly newspapers. Mexico's national English newspaper is The News. It is part of Novedades Editores which publishes two papers and 15 magazines and has an online publication, TheNewsMexico.com. Another paper, Express, is mainly distributed in hotels and resorts. The average price of these papers ranges from 4 to 10 pesos.

The largest newspaper by circulation in Mexico, the tabloid Esto, had at 2002 a circulation of 385,000. The second largest, a scandal driven newspaper with a circulation of 330,000, was La Prensa. Next was El Universal, a widely respected paper with growing influence, with a circulation of 170,000. The fourth was El Financiero, a tabloid with a circulation of 147,000. Some of the smaller papers were: Reform (125,000); El Norte (119,000); ElM (100,000); La Jornada (100,924).

The Most Influential Newspaper

The most influential paper, El Universal from Mexico City, began in 1916.

Felix Fulgencio Palavicini started this paper to promote the ideas of the Mexican Revolution. Through a sequence of owners, the newspaper grew steadily. It implemented the latest technology and led the fight between press and government. During the 1980s El Universal fought to end the governmental monopoly on newsprint. In 2001 it initiated El Universal Online. In addition to this paper, the second and third most influential ones are Reform and La Jornada. In 2002, the Milenio and the La Presena still had the largest circulation, but their contents are based upon yellow (sensational) press. The three most influential magazines in Mexico are the Proceso (Politics), theContenido, and the Siempre.

ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK

Mexico's free market economy with its mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture was throughout the last quarter of the twentieth century increasingly dominated by the private sector. The number of state-owned enterprises in Mexico fell from more than 1,000 in 1982 to fewer than 200 in 2000. The Zedillo administration (1994-2000) privatized and expanded competition in seaports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity, natural gas distribution, and airports.

A strong export sector helped to cushion the economy's decline in 1995 and led the recovery in 1996-2000. Private consumption became the leading driver of growth in 2000, accompanied by increased employment and higher real wages. Entering the twenty-first century, Mexico still needed to modernize its economy and raise living standards. Trade with the United States and Canada had tripled since NAFTA was implemented in 1994. Moreover, in 2000, Mexico completed free trade agreements with the European Union (EU), Israel, El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala, and it sought additional trade agreements with other countries in Latin America and Asia to lessen its dependence on the United States.

Types of Newspapers

As of the early 2000s, Mexico had about 340 dailies, most of which were morning editions. Most major cities had at least two competing dailies, with the exception of Mexico City, which had 25 to 30 dailies. Despite a population in Mexico City of about 2 million, the total circulation of all papers was only about 700,000 copies per day.

Newsprint Availability

Newsprint was in 1935 handled by the government owned Productora Y Importa-dora de Papel (PIPSA). Its monopoly was created to provide low cost newsprint material for the newspapers, but over time it became a political weapon to be used against newspapers that carried negative stories about the PRI ruling federal party. PIPSA would punish newspapers that did not totally support the government by delaying deliveries of newsprint or it would send inferior newsprint. However, the 62-year old paper company lost its monopoly in 1990, and the new free market created much competition. PIPSA in the 1990s had uneven productivity and then slow growth. With some internal changes and by expanding facilities and product lines, PIPSA was able

to claim 79 percent of the market. The average consumption of newsprint as of 2002 was about 378,000 metric tons, most of which supported daily newspaper production.

PRESS LAWS

Of the following press laws, some applied to newspapers and others to the electronic media. The application of these laws, however, has been inconsistent at best. In general, friends of the ruling national party were able to avoid close monitoring or prosecution whereas critics of the government inevitably faced legal difficulties. However, under President Fox this historical trend seemed less prevalent and less likely to continue.

Constitutional Guarantees for the Press

Article 6 of the 1917 Constitution stipulates that the expression of ideas shall not be subject to any judicial or administrative investigation, unless it offends good morals, infringes the rights of others, incites to crime, or disturbs the public order.

Article 7 of the Constitution stipulates that freedom of writing and publishing writings is inviolable. The law specifies that no law or authority may establish censorship, require bonds from authors or printers, or restrict the freedom of printing, which is limited only by the respect due to private life, morals, and public peace. The law protects the publishing company, printing press, and employees such as vendors, newsboys, and workmen.

Constitutional Guarantees for Radio and Television

Article 4 stipulates that radio and television are activities of public interest; therefore, the state should supervise their carrying out of their specific social function. Moreover, Article 5 specifies that radio and television must contribute to strengthening national integration and the improvement of forms of human co-existence. Through their transmissions they should affirm the principles of social morals, human dignity, and family connection; avoid vicious or disturbing influences on children and young adults; contribute to raising the cultural level; preserve national customs, correct language, and the Mexican nationality; and strengthen democratic convictions, national unity, and international friendship and cooperation.

CENSORSHIP

Senior governmental officials closely monitor daily newspaper coverage of the government. This scrutiny existed in the early 2000s despite the fact that the newspapers were mostly bought and read by educated urban people, the elite of whom tended to favor the government. Although the two major television-broadcasting outlets, Televisa and Aztec TV, are privately owned, they operate, as do newspapers, in accord with an unwritten rule that they do not criticize the president. However, in practice, media giants have little to fear because they are part of the ruling class that governs them. Journalists attend prestigious events including foreign trips with President Fox. Moreover, federal departments and agencies purchase considerable advertising.

Federal Radio and Television Law

Article 3 specifies that radio and television support mass education, disseminate knowledge, extend ideas that strengthen Mexican principles and traditions, and stimulate the capacity for progress, the creative faculty, and the objective analysis of the country's affairs. Then Article 4 assures that this activity be conducted truthfully, within a framework of respect for private life and morals, without affecting the rights of third persons or disturbing public peace and order. In Article 5 recreational programs are given the mission of providing healthy entertainment that affirms national values, does not go against good customs, avoids corruption of language and vulgarity, and serves the purpose of ennobling the tastes of the audience. Article 6 states that radio and TV programming should contribute to the country's economic growth, and Article 7 states that advertising should be responsible and in the national interest with an eye to balance in family spending.

In 2002 President Fox signed Mexico's first freedom of information bill, which allows government documents to be review by the press as well as members of the public. The new law calls for all federal agencies, the federal courts, as well as the Bank of Mexico, to post their public information on the Internet within a year. Certain information, such as that pertaining to national security or foreign relations, has a 12-year waiting period. Finally, officials who hide, destroy, or fail to provide information may be fined, dismissed, or face criminal charges.

STATE-PRESS RELATIONS

While the Mexican press purports to be free, it is a fact that dozens of journalists and editors were murdered in the 1980s and 1990s, among them Hector Felix Miranda (1988); coeditor of Tijuana Weekly (ZETA), Victor Manuel Oropeza (1991); and political columnist for Diario De Chihuahua, Jorge Martin Dorantes (1994). That this criminal activity continued was the result of corrupt officials, including police and military, and widespread failure to solve and successfully prosecute those responsible. With the Fox administration, hope increased that state-press relations in the early 2000s would substantially improve.

PRESS ASSOCIATIONS

One of the Foreign News Bureaus represented in Mexico is the World Association of Newspapers (WAN). Consisting of a group of 71 national newspaper associations, with individual newspaper executives in 100 nations, 13 national and international news agencies, a media foundation, and 7 affiliated regional and worldwide press organizations, WAN represents more than 18,000 publications on five continents. It has three goals: to defend and promote press freedom and the economic independence of newspapers; to contribute to the development of newspaper publishing by fostering communications and contacts between newspaper executives from different regions and cultures; and to promote cooperation between WAN's member organizations, whether national, regional or worldwide.

Also represented is the Inter American Press Association (IAPA), which includes all major papers and many smaller rural papers in the United States, Mexico, and Latin

America. A number of its executives are Mexican newspaper owners, publishers, or editors. The IAPA is dedicated toward promoting a free press. In addition, Grupo de Diarios-America (GDA), a consortium of the 12 most influential newspapers in Latin America, is present. In each country these newspapers are the public opinion leaders with maximum creditability. Each of the newspapers also has a dominant circulation and an upscale readership in its market. Members of GDA include: El Nacional and El Universal (Mexico City) and El Tiempo (Monclova).

NEWS AGENCIES

As of 2002, four news agencies were operating in Mexico. Association de Editores de los Estados (AEE), domestic news association, subscribed to the foreign news association WAN. Also represented were Multimedios Estrellas de Oro (MEO); the governmental organization, Agencia Mexicana de Noticias (Notimex); and Reuters Mexico, the worldwide leader in financial information and services.

BROADCAST MEDIA

Radio

In 1997 there were 31 million radios in Mexico receiving broadcast from 865 AM stations, about 500 FM stations, and about 13 short-wave stations. Grupo Radio Centro, Mexico's leading radio broadcaster, produced the most popular stations, most of which were located in Mexico City. Radio Centro had 20 production studios and produced virtually all of its own programming. A subsidiary, Organización Impulsora de Radio, served as a national sales representative and provided programming to more than 100 affiliate radio stations across Mexico.

Television

In 1997 there were almost 30 million television sets owned across Mexico receiving 236 television broadcasting stations. As of 2002, Grupo Televisa was the largest Spanish speaking communication conglomerate in the world. It began with radio under the leadership of Emilio Azcarraga. The company expanded into television in the 1970s, and afterward it became a multi-media corporation. In the early 2000s, it was Mexico's largest television network controlling over 300 stations across four networks. Almost 60 percent of the corporation's revenues came from television, particularly the successful export of Spanish soap operas, known as telenovelas. Moreover, with the expansion of the Spanish speaking population in the United States, the U.S. market for Grupo Televisa products of all types increased substantially. Televisa owned 17 radio stations along with music labels, mobile phones, satellite interests, and other businesses. On the print side, Televisa controlled Edivisa, S.A. de C.V, a publishing giant with over 40 Spanish magazines, including a weekly television guide and other popular products. Edivisa also published Spanish versions of Elle, Cosmopolitan, and Harper's Bazaar.

The television-broadcasting segment included the production of television programming and nationwide broadcasting of Channels 2, 4, 5, and 9 (television networks), and the production of television programming and broadcasting for local

television stations in Mexico and the United States. The broadcasting of television networks was performed by television repeater stations in Mexico that were as of 2002 wholly-owned, majority-owned, or minority-owned by the Group or otherwise affiliated with the Group's television network station broadcasts.

The programming for the pay television segment included programming services to cable and pay-per-view television companies in Mexico, other countries in Latin America, the United States, and Europe. The programming services consisted of both programming produced by the Group and programming produced by others. Programming for pay television revenues were derived from domestic and international programming services provided to the independent cable television systems in Mexico and the Group's DTH satellite businesses and formed the sale of advertising time on programs provided to pay television companies in Mexico.

The programming licensing segment consisted of the domestic and international licensing of television programming. Programming licensing revenues were derived from domestic and international program licensing fees. The cable television segment included the operation of a cable television system in the Mexico City metropolitan area and derived revenues principally from basic and premium service subscription and installation fees from cable subscribers, pay-per-view fees, and local and national advertising sales. The radio segment included the operation of six radio stations in Mexico City and eleven other domestic stations owned by the Group. Revenues were derived by advertising and by the distribution of programs to nonaffiliated radio stations. The other business segments included the Group's domestic operations in sports and show business promotion, soccer, nationwide paging, feature film production and distribution, Internet, and dubbing services for Mexican and multinational companies.

ELECTRONIC NEWS MEDIA

As of 2002, only 5 percent of Mexicans had web access, but places such as Internet Cafes were becoming popular after school destinations. Expanding access was a major government priority. The Internet growth rate in Mexico given its lower base is the second highest in Latin America, only exceeded by that of Brazil. Mexico is a newly industrialized country with a growing economy largely due to the success of NAFTA. But the economic development has not seen equally successful movement to Internet and e-commerce business. Across Mexico Internet access in the early 2000s was still not sufficient to supply the necessary critical mass to customers. In addition many Mexican customers simply lacked the money to purchase online. The Mexican federal government wanted to upgrade the country's telecommunication system so that Internet access would be available in rural as well as urban areas by 2010. Collectively a number of forces in Mexico were converging to promote electronic news, and information services.

The early 2000s saw a number of online newspaper websites in Spanish: from Mexico City, El Universal, El Financiero, ReformaLa JornadaMexico Hoy, andCrónica; in addition, 11 other newspaper websites in various regions across the country. Finally, two U.S. newspapers, San Antonio Express News and San Diego Union Tribune-Mexico, had special Mexican news sites.

Access Mexico Connect, popularly known as Mex-Connect, was in the early 2000s a very successful free monthly electronic magazine focusing on information about Mexico and promoting Mexico to the world. The electronic magazine was supported by a searchable database of over 10,000 Mexican related articles. It received over a half million hits per month, and 80 percent of its users were located in one of three countries, the United States, Mexico, and Canada. As of 2002 it was Mexico's most read English site and ranked in the top 5 percent of

all Internet sites in the world. In addition it offered a resource center with a variety of Mexican activities such as classified aids, tourism, employment, email, and other e-commerce activities. MexConnect sought to promote Mexican trade, advertising, and commerce around the world.

EDUCATION & TRAINING

In the early 2000s, the education and training of journalists was a joint effort. One international organization, Investigative Reporters and Editors (IRE), is headquartered at the Missouri School of Journalism in Columbia, Missouri. The not-for-profit institute, made up of 4,000 reporters, editors, and academics, intends to work with Mexican journalists to launch a Mexican Reporting Institute. The primary objectives of the institute are to train Mexican reporters, broadcasters, and editors in advanced reporting skills; to develop a cooperative network of journalists throughout Mexico; and to support efforts of Mexican journalists to improve public access to information.

Six institutions in Canada, the United States, and Mexico participate in a Journalism and Globalization Program (JAG) that provides selected students with journal experience in an international setting. Besides offering students the opportunity to expand their cultural and global perspectives, JAG challenges them to think about alternative methods of reporting. The participating schools in Canada are Mount Royal College in Calgary and Humber College in Toronto. In the United States the participating schools are the University of Iowa and University of Georgia, and in Mexico the participating institutions are Universidad de Colima and Universidad Autonoma de Guadalajara.

SUMMARY

Historically, the Mexican press has been compromised by violence and criminal activity. Yet press laws in the twentieth century and governmental changes in the early 2000s suggested reasons to hope for the continued evolution of an increasingly professional press. With the additional help of NAFTA, these changes bode well for the future of the Mexican media. The passage in 2002 of a freedom of information act indicated that journalists and others would in the early twenty-first century be able to obtain government documents denied to them for generations. Then, too, increasing numbers of well-educated, professional journalists entering the profession would improve it. As traditional print sources in Mexico migrate to electronic services along with new entrants such as MexConnect, media in Mexico are bound to find their place in the global market.

SIGNIFICANT DATES

1994: NAFTA agreement is signed by Mexico, the United States, and Canada. 1994: Chiapas revolt begins. 2000: President Fox is elected. 2002: Freedom of Information Act is signed into law.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adler, Ilya. "Press-Government Relations in Mexico: A Study of Freedom of the Mexican Press and Press Criticism of Government Institutions." Studies in Latin American Popular Culture, vol.12 (1993): 1-30.

Barrera, Vivian and Denise Bielby. "Places, Faces, and Other Familiar Things: The Cultural Experience of Telenovela Viewing Among Latinos in the United States." Journal of Popular Culture vol. 34, 4 (2001): 1-19.

McAnany, Emile and Antonio La Pastina. "Telenovela Audiences." Communication Research, vol. 21, 6 (Dec 1994): 828-847.

McPhail, Thomas. Global Communication: Theories, Stakeholders, and Trends. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2002.

Perkins, Michael. "Freedom(s) of the Press in Latin America." Gazette 64 (2002): 5-19.

Vargas, Jocelyn. "Expanding the Popular Culture Debates: Puertorriqueñas, Hollywood, and Cultural Identity." Studies in Latin American Popular Culture, 15 (1996): 155-174.

Thomas McPhail

Conservative columnists dominate America’s newspapers

September 15th, 2007 by Erich Vieth

According to this article in Media Matters, Editor and Publisher have painstakingly gathered data to determine what types of columnists are being published in what markets. The results demonstrate a strong conservative bias in most newspapers.  Here are some of the results from the Executive Summary of the study:

Sixty percent of the nation’s daily newspapers print more conservative syndicated columnists every week than progressive syndicated columnists. Only 20 percent run more progressives than conservatives, while the remaining 20 percent are evenly balanced.

In a given week, nationally syndicated progressive columnists are published in newspapers with a combined total circulation of 125 million. Conservative columnists, on the other hand, are published in newspapers with a combined total circulation of more than 152 million.2

The top 10 columnists as ranked by the number of papers in which they are carried include five conservatives, two centrists, and only three progressives.

The top 10 columnists as ranked by the total circulation of the papers in which they are published also include five conservatives, two centrists, and only three progressives.

In 38 states, the conservative voice is greater than the progressive voice — in other words, conservative columns reach more readers in total than progressive columns. In only 12 states is the progressive voice greater than the conservative voice.

     

Special Types of Journalism:Reference Resources

Selected Subject Headings for Searching Orbis Alternative press

Underground literature [use this heading for illegal, clandestine publications] Underground press [use this heading for legally-published serials] Underground press publications Press, Labor Religious newspapers and periodicals Afro-American periodicals Ethnic press Gay press Indian newspapers American newspapers--Foreign language press

See also Zines and E-Zines

Albaugh, Gaylord P. History and annotated bibliography of American religious periodicals and newspapers established from 1730 through 1830. With library locations and microform sources. Worcester: American Antiquarian Society, 1994.SML, Reference PN4888 R4 +A43 1994.DIVINITY, Reference PN4888 R4 A43 1994

Alternative press: a guide to the microform collection. Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI, 1990-SML, Microtexts Desk Z6951 +A35

Alternative Press Collection (University of Connecticut, Storrs)The APC contains more than 7000 newspaper and magazine titles with approximately 200 on subscription, 5000 books and pamphlets, 1800 files of ephemera from activist organizations throughout the country, plus miscellaneous posters, broadsides, buttons, calendars, and manuscripts.

Alternative Press IndexA full text database of the newspapers, magazines and journals of the alternative and independent press.

Alternative publications: a guide to directories, indexes, bibliographies, and other sources. Edited by Cathy Seitz Whitaker. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1990.SML, Reference Z1033 L73 A45 1990

Alternatives: a guide to the newspapers, magazines, and newsletters in the Alternative Press Collection in the Special Collections Department of the University of Connecticut Library. 2d ed., rev. and enl. by Joanne V. Akeroyd.SML, Reference Z6944 U5 C64 1976

Annotations. Baltimore, MD: Alternative Press Center, 1996-SML, Reference PN4784 U53 A56

Case, Patricia J. Field guide to alternative media: a directory to reference and selection tools useful in accessing small and alternative press publications and independently produced media. Chicago, IL: Task Force on Alternatives in Print, Social Responsibilities Round Table, American Library Association, 1984.

SML, Reference Z1033 L73 +C37 1984

Association of Alternative NewsweekliesThe AAN is a diverse group of 125 non-daily alternative free-circulation papers that are distributed in all of the major metropolitan areas of North America.

Cornish, G. P. Religious periodicals directory. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, c1986.SML, Reference Z7753 +C75 1986

Daniel, Walter C. Black journals of the United States: historical guides to the world's periodicals and newspapers. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982.SML, Reference PN4882.5 D36

The Ethnic press in the United States: a historical analysis and handbook. Edited by Sally M. Miller. New York: Greenwood Press, 1987.SML, Reference PN4882 E84 1987

Harris, Paul. The queer press guide 2000. New York: Painted Leaf Press, 1999.SML, Reference HQ76.9 H37X 1999

Hoerder, Dirk, and Christiane Harzig. The immigrant labor press in North America, 1840s-1970s: an annotated bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press, 1987.SML, Reference Z6953.5 A1 H63 1987

Independent Press AssociationThe Independent Press Association works to promote and support independent publications committed to social justice and a free press. In pursuit of this goal, the IPA provides technical assistance to its member publications and is a vigorous public advocate of the independent press.

Kick, Russell. Outposts. 1st ed. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1995.SML, Reference Z7165 U5 +K527X 1995

Kick, Russell. Psychotropedia: a guide to publications on the periphery. Manchester: Critical Vision, 1998.SML, Reference Z6944 U5 K54 1998

Lippy, Charles H. Religious periodicals of the United States: academic and scholarly journals. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1986.SML, Reference PN4888 R4 L5 1986

Littlefield, Daniel F., and James W. Parins. American Indian and Alaska native newspapers and periodicals. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1984-SML, Reference PN4883 L57 1984

The progressive guide to alternative media and activism. Project Censored. New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999.SML, Stacks, P88.8 P76X 1999 (LC)

Progressive periodicals directory. 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: Progressive Education, c1989.SML, Reference Z1033 U58 +P76 1989

Wynar, Lubomyr Roman, and Anna T. Wynar. Encyclopedic directory of ethnic newspapers and periodicals in the United States. 2d ed. Littleton, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, 1976.SML, Reference Z6944 E8 W85 1976

Boczkowski Pablo J. Digitizing the news: innovation in online newspapers. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2004. xi, 243 p. ISBN 0-262-02559-0. £19.95.

The number of electronic periodicals, including various types of newspapers, is growing daily. Electronic news appears on the Websites of news agencies, newspapers, governmental and business agencies, local municipalities, and other organisations. The number of interpretative studies of the digital environment and related human behaviour is also proliferating (one can only indicate the bigger projects headed by Voolgar or Fornas). In the reviewed book, Boczkowski has applied an organizational approach to the investigation of how the US newspapers use the emerging technological instruments to produce innovative products for their consumers. He is also interested in a reverse effect: how the adoption of the innovation transforms organizational practices and cultures. He explores these phenomena taking into account previous research within related areas and conducted in various countries, studying huge archival resources and reproducing an historical picture of the attempts to produce computerised news and, finally, focusing on the three cases of online news production by newspapers in the USA. The ethnographic method used for the case studies allows the author to evaluate the impact of different actors, artefacts and processes within the organisation on each other as well as their interactions.

The book includes seven chapters. The first (Emerging media) is an introduction discussing the rationale of the study, theoretical and methodological issues, and structure of the book. The second and the third chapters trace the attempts to introduce alternatives to printed news production in 1980s (like videotex or teletext) and 1990s (usage of the WWW opportunities). Three cases are presented in the chapters 4-6. The last chapter provides the summary of the findings. There is also an annex introducing the research design and methods, an extended part that includes notes to the chapters, bibliography, and index. The style is fluent and transparent. The author uses the names of the interviewees and actors of the case studies, provides the description of their competence and career. That makes the text more personal and intimate. However, it does not lose its scholarly character and is not an easy reading for a mass audience. On the contrary, it requires quite a high degree of concentration and serious background knowledge in the social sciences. In places, the abundance and meticulous description of details, names, and events even turns the text into a monotonous flow of words and drowns the essential ideas. Some technological details are provided in the notes and within the main text, but they are just sufficient to highlight the main research issues.

The author has successfully chosen three different case studies (New York Times Web's Technology section, Virtual Voyager of HoustonChronicle.com, and Community Connection of New Jersey Online), which highlight different approaches to the use of the innovative technology for the same purpose and subsequent different outcomes. Boczkowski shows how differently the organizational relations (between print and online newsrooms, between different categories of professionals - editors, journalists, technicians), and different images of users shape the application of technology and the online environment. The differences depended on the understanding of the process of gatekeeping and editing, the image of the more or less technologically-capable user, and the overall technical possibilities of the audience to access the content.

For me the most appealing aspect was the treatment of users and their involvement as co-authors and producers of the news. It would be most interesting to conduct similar studies in other information mediating agencies, like book publishers and vendors, libraries, magazine producers, and scholarly journals. On the other hand, it would also be fascinating to investigate if the same tendencies can be detected in other countries with different technology levels and media traditions.

Dr. Elena MacevičiūtėVilnius University and Högskolan i BoråsJune, 2004

Types of Materials:  Newspapers and Other Periodicals

Considering its geographic size, Hawai'i has produced a remarkable number of newspapers, magazines, and other periodicals. Within a generation or two of western contact, many Hawaiians were literate in the missionary version of their written language, and many in English as well. The result was a number of Hawaiian language newspapers, many of which took an oppositional stance to the dominant Euroamerican narrative. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin (1882) and Honolulu Advertiser (1856) are the newspapers of record for Hawai'i and are indexed starting in 1929. However, they are not by any means the only periodical sources. Helen Geracimos Chapin has chronicled the history of newspapers in Shaping History: The Role of Newspapers in Hawai'i. She presents a detailed survey of the newspaper industry in Hawai'i and describes dozens of small and large local periodicals, many of which survive today on microfilm. The neighbor island papers are also available on microfilm and partially indexed. Hamilton Library has a clippings morgue of articles organized by name and by subject from the Star-Bulletin and Advertiser.

Rubellite Johnson and Esther Mo'okini have chronicled Hawaiian language newspapers. Johnson's Ku kui 'A ha'ilono Carry on the News (1976) provides translations of articles from a variety of Hawaiian language newspapers between 1834-1948 as well as a brief survey of the history of Hawaiian newspapers. Esther Mo'okini's The Hawaiian Newspapers is a comprehensive listing of Hawaiian language newspapers during the same period.

Students with facility in languages other than English should be cognizant of the fact that every ethnic community produced newspapers in their native language. For example, Hawai'i Hochi and Nippu Jiji, two of the larger Japanese language newspapers in Honolulu are rich sources of information and commentary about the Japanese American community. Both papers also had English editions, usually a two to three page insert that featured editorials and the most important local news stories. The newspapers competed with one another in circulation on O'ahu. Fred Makino at the Hochi and Yasutaro Soga at the Nippu Jiji had been comrades during the failed 1909 labor strike, but they subsequently became rivals, even enemies. (See Tom Brislin's "Weep into Silence/Cries of Rage: Bitter Divisions in Hawai'is Japanese Press.")

Two other periodicals are noteworthy: Paradise of the Pacific and Mid-Pacific Magazine. These glossy periodicals were produced locally but enjoyed a substantial readership in North America and internationally. Both were in the business of promoting Hawai'i as a tourist destination and a place for business investment. Paradise of the Pacific, which survives today as Honolulu Magazine, is the oldest

continuing periodical published west of the Mississippi (1888). Mid-Pacific Magazine was the brain-child of Alexander Hume Ford, one of the more notorious of Hawai'i promoters. He founded the magazine in 1911 as a means of promoting international peace through tourism and trade. A life-long advocate of Pacific relations, Mid-Pacific reflected Ford's fascination with the white man's burden in the Pacific.

Thrum's Annual is part Farmer's Almanac, part academic journal, part tourist promotion magazine and was compiled yearly beginning in 1875. (It was later known as the Hawaiian Annual.) Besides providing a yearly chronicle of rainfall, average temperatures and population statistics, it also featured articles regarding Hawaiian history, geology, climatology, and social life and customs. (For a biographical sketch of Thomas Thrum, see Ralph Kuykendall, "Thomas George Thrum, A Sketch of His Life." Hawaiian Annual , 1933.) Other periodical sources are academic journals produced at the University of Hawai'i.

Social Process in Hawai'i is possibly the most important source of primary sociological interpretation during the early Territorial period. Begun by Romanzo Adams, the founding member of the Sociology department at UH, Social Process was a student/faculty venture for years. Undergraduate and graduate researchers used the raw materials of their term papers to help build Adams' collection of data on ethnic diversity in Hawai'i. Although the articles are not all polished academic prose, they reveal a fresh and unmediated view of Hawai'i from the perspective of local students.

Important English Language Newspapers:Hawai'i Newspapers: Union List, Honolulu: Hawai'i Newspaper Project, 1987The Daily Bulletin/The Hawaiian Star/Honolulu Star BulletinPacific Commercial Advertiser/Honolulu AdvertiserThe PolynesianThe FriendKa Leo O Hawai'iHonolulu Record

Sources on Hawai'i's Newspapers:A comprehensive list is contained in Hawaii Newspapers from the Hawai'i Newspaper Project.

Ballou, Howard Malcolm and George R. Carter. "The History of the Hawaiian

Mission Press" in Fourteenth Annual Report of the Hawaiian Historical Society, Honolulu, n.d.

Chapin, Helen Geracimos. "From Makaweli to Kohala: The Plantation Newspapers of Hawai'i." The Hawaiian Journal of History. 23 (1989): 170-195.

Chapin, Helen Geracimos. "Newspapers of Hawai'i 1834 to 1903: From He Liona to the Pacific Cable." The Hawaiian Journal of History 18 (1984): 47-86.

Lai, Him Mark. "The Chinese Community Press in Hawai'i." In The Ethnic Press in the United States: An Analysis and Handbook. Sally Miller, Ed. New York: Greenwood Press, 1987.

Yzendorn, Father Reginald. "Establishment of the First English Newspaper in the Hawaiian islands." In Twenty-second Annual Report of the Hawaiian Historical Society, 1913. Honolulu: Paradise of the Pacific, 1914.

Academic periodicals include:Hawaiian Journal of HistoryBishop Museum Occasional PapersHawai'i Historical ReviewJournal of Pacific HistorySocial Process in Hawai'iContemporary PacificHawai'i Bar Journal

Pulp magazineFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

Flynn's Detective Fiction from 1941.

Pulp magazines (or pulp fiction; often referred to as "the pulps") were inexpensive fiction magazines. They were widely published from the 1920s through the 1950s. The term pulp fiction can also refer to mass market paperbacks since the 1950s.

Contents

[hide] 1 Terminology and history 2 Genres 3 Famous and infamous characters of pulp fiction 4 Pulps and authors 5 Authors featured in pulp 6 Pulp publishers 7 Pulp fiction today 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links

o 10.1 Cover art scans, indices, character summaries o 10.2 Fiction o 10.3 Other

11 See also

[edit] Terminology and history

The name "pulp" comes from the cheap wood pulp paper on which such magazines were printed. Magazines printed on better paper and usually offering family-oriented content were often called "glossies" or "slicks". Pulps were the successor to the "penny dreadfuls", "dime novels", and short fiction magazines of the nineteenth century. Although many respected writers wrote for pulps, the magazines are perhaps best remembered for their lurid and exploitative stories, and for their similarly sensational cover art. Modern superhero comic books are sometimes considered descendants of "hero pulps"; pulp magazines often featured illustrated novel-length stories of heroic characters such as the Shadow, Doc Savage, and the Phantom Detective. However the pulps were aimed more at adult readers whereas comic books were traditionally written for children and adolescents.

Pulp covers, printed in color on higher-quality (slick) paper, were famous for their half-dressed damsels in distress, usually awaiting a rescuing hero. Cover art played a major part in the marketing of pulp magazines, and a number of the most successful cover artists became as popular as the authors featured on the interior pages. Among the most famous pulp artists were Frank R. Paul, Virgil Finlay, Edd Cartier, Margaret Brundage and Norman Saunders. Covers were important enough to sales that sometimes they would be designed first; authors would then be shown the cover art and asked to write a story to match.

Later pulps began to feature a few interior illustrations, depicting elements of the stories. The drawings were printed in black ink on the same cream-colored paper used for the text, and had to use specific techniques to avoid blotting on the coarse texture

of the cheap pulp. Thus, fine lines and heavy detail were usually not an option. Shading was by crosshatching or pointillism, and even that had to be limited and coarse. Usually the art was black lines on the paper's background, but Finlay and a few others did some work that was primarily white lines against large dark areas.

Pulps were typically seven inches wide by ten inches high, about half an inch thick, having around 128 pages. In their first decades, they were most often priced at ten cents, while competing slicks were twenty-five cents.

The first "pulp" is considered to be Frank Munsey's revamped Argosy Magazine of 1896, about 135,000 words (192 pages) per issue on pulp paper with untrimmed edges and no illustrations, not even on the cover. While the steam powered printing press had been in widespread use for some time, enabling the boom in dime novels, prior to Munsey, no-one had combined cheap printing, cheap paper and cheap authors in a package that provided affordable entertainment to working-class people. In six years Argosy went from a few thousand copies per month to over half a million.

Street & Smith were next on the market. A dime novel and boys weekly publisher, they saw Argosy's success, and in 1903 launched The Popular Magazine, which was billed as the "biggest magazine in the world" by virtue of being two pages longer than Argosy. It should be noted that due to differences in page layout, the magazine had substantially less text than Argosy. The Popular Magazine introduced the use of color covers to the pulp world. The magazine began to take off when, in 1905, the publishers acquired the rights to serialize a new work, Ayesha, by H. Rider Haggard, a sequel to his very successful novel She. In 1907, they raised the cover price to fifteen cents and added thirty pages per issue; this, along with a solid stable of authors, proved a successful formula and circulation began to approach that of Argosy. This demonstrated that the market could support multiple competitors. Street and Smith's next key innovation was the introduction of specialized genre pulps, each magazine focusing on one genre such as detective stories, romance, etc.

At their peak of popularity in the 1920s and 1930s, the most successful pulps could sell up to one million copies per issue. Among the best-known titles of this period were Adventure, Amazing Stories, Black Mask, Dime Detective, Flying Aces, Horror Stories, Marvel Tales, Oriental Stories, Planet Stories, Spicy Detective, Startling Stories, Thrilling Wonder Stories, Unknown and Weird Tales.[1]

The Second World War paper shortages had a serious impact on pulp production, starting a steady rise in costs and the decline of the pulps. Beginning with Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine in 1941, pulp magazines began to switch to digest size; smaller, thicker magazines. In 1949, Street & Smith closed most of their pulp magazines in order to move upmarket and produce slicks. The pulp format declined from rising expenses, but even more due to the heavy competition from comic books, television, and the paperback novel. In a more affluent post-war America, the price gap compared to slick magazines was far less significant. In the 1950's Men's adventure magazines began to replace the pulp.

The 1957 bankruptcy of the American News Company, then the primary distributor of pulp magazines, has sometimes been taken as marking the end of the "pulp era;" by that date, many of the famous pulps of the previous generation, including Black Mask,

The Shadow, Doc Savage, and Weird Tales, were defunct. Most all of the few remaining pulp magazines are science fiction or mystery magazines now in formats similar to "digest size", such as Analog Science Fiction and Fact and Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine. The format is still in use for some lengthy serials, like the German science fiction weekly Perry Rhodan (over 2300 issues as of 2005).

Over the course of their evolution, there were a huge number of pulp magazine titles; Harry Steeger of Popular Publications claimed that his company alone had published over 300, and at their peak they were publishing 42 titles per month[2]. Many titles of course survived only briefly. While the most popular titles were monthly, many were bimonthly and some were quarterly.

The collapse of the pulp industry has changed the landscape of publishing in that pulps were the single largest sales outlet for short stories; combined with the decrease in slick magazine fiction markets, people attempting to support themselves by writing fiction must now generally write novels or book-length anthologies of shorter pieces.

[edit] Genres

Pulp magazines often contained a wide variety of genre fiction, including, but not limited to, fantasy/sword and sorcery, detective/mystery, science fiction, adventure, westerns (also see Dime Western), war, sports, railroad, men's adventure ("the sweats"), romance, horror/occult (including "weird menace"), and Série Noire (French crime mystery). The American Old West was a mainstay genre of early turn of the century novels as well as later pulp magazines, and lasted longest of all the traditional pulps.

Many classic science fiction and crime novels were originally serialized in pulp magazines such as Weird Tales, Amazing Stories, and Black Mask.

[edit] Famous and infamous characters of pulp fiction

While the majority of pulp magazines were anthology titles featuring many different authors, characters and settings, some of the most enduringly popular magazines were those that featured a single recurring character (these were often referred to as "hero pulps", because the recurring character was almost always a larger-than-life hero in the mold of Doc Savage or the Shadow).[3]

1936 May issue of Phantom Detective

Popular regular pulp fiction characters included:

Biggles Bran Mak Morn Buck Rogers Captain Future Conan the Barbarian Dan Turner, Hollywood Detective Doc Savage Doctor Death Dr. Yen Sin Domino Lady Flash Gordon Fu Manchu G-8 Green Lama Hopalong Cassidy John Carter of Mars Jules de Grandin Ka-Zar

Kull Lord Lister AKA Raffles Nick Carter Operator No. 5 Secret Agent X Sexton Blake Solomon Kane Tarzan The Avenger The Black Bat The Continental Op The Eel The Phantom Detective The Shadow The Spider Zorro

Kilgore Trout, the perennial character in the work of Kurt Vonnegut, is a fictional pulp fiction writer.

[edit] Pulps and authors

Another way pulps kept costs down was by paying authors less than other markets; thus many eminent authors started out in the pulps before they were successful enough to sell to better-paying markets, and similarly, well-known authors whose careers were slumping or who wanted a few quick dollars could bolster their income with sales to pulps. Additionally, some of the earlier pulps solicited stories from amateurs who were quite happy to see their words in print and could thus be paid token amounts.

There were also career pulp writers, capable of turning out huge amounts of prose on a steady basis, often with the aid of dictation, either to stenographers or machines, and typists. Before he became a novelist, Upton Sinclair was turning out at least eight thousand words per day seven days a week for the pulps, keeping two stenographers fully employed. Pulps would often have their authors use multiple pen names so that they could use multiple stories by the same person in one issue, or use a given author's stories in three or more successive issues, while still appearing to have varied content.

One advantage pulps provided to authors was that they paid upon acceptance for material instead of on publication; since a story might be accepted months or even years before publication, to a working writer this was a crucial difference in cash flow.

[edit] Authors featured in pulp

Well-known authors who wrote for pulps include:

Poul Anderson Isaac Asimov

C. M. Eddy, Jr. C. S. Forester

John D. MacDonald Horace McCoy

Henry Bedford- Jones

Robert Leslie Bellem

Alfred Bester Robert Bloch Leigh Brackett Ray Bradbury Max Brand Fredric Brown Edgar Rice

Burroughs William S.

Burroughs Ellis Parker Butler Hugh B. Cave Paul Chadwick Raymond Chandler Arthur C. Clarke Joseph Conrad William Wallace

Cook Stephen Crane Ray Cummings Jason Dark Lester Dent August Derleth Philip K. Dick

Arthur Conan Doyle

Arthur O. Friel Erle Stanley Gardner Walter B. Gibson David Goodis Zane Grey Edmond Hamilton Dashiell Hammett Robert A. Heinlein O. Henry Frank Herbert Robert E. Howard L. Ron Hubbard Donald Keyhoe Rudyard Kipling Henry Kuttner Harold Lamb Louis L'Amour Emerson LaSalle Fritz Leiber Murray Leinster Elmore John

Leonard Jack London H. P. Lovecraft

Giles A. Lutz

Johnston McCulley Merriam Modell Walt Morey Talbot Mundy Philip Francis

Nowlan Emil Petaja E. Hoffmann Price Seabury Quinn Sax Rohmer Rafael Sabatini Richard S. Shaver Robert Silverberg Upton Sinclair Clark Ashton Smith E. E. Smith Guy N. Smith Jim Thompson Thomas Thursday Mark Twain Jack Vance H. G. Wells Tennessee Williams

Cornell Woolrich

Sinclair Lewis, first American winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature, worked as an editor for Adventure (magazine), writing filler paragraphs (brief facts or amusing anecdotes designed to fill small gaps in page layout), advertising copy, and a few stories.

[edit] Pulp publishers

Frank A. Munsey Co. Popular Publications Better/Standard/Thrilling Street & Smith Hugo Gernsback Culture Publications , originators of the Spicy line of titles, such as Spicy

Detective Stories

[edit] Pulp fiction today

In 1994, Quentin Tarantino directed a critically-acclaimed film titled Pulp Fiction. The working title of the film was Black Mask,[4] in homage to the pulp magazine of that name, and embodied the seedy, violent, often crime-related spirit found in pulp magazines. The film helped to add the term pulp fiction to the vocabulary of many Americans who grew up in the decades after pulp magazines fell out of fashion.

After the year 2000, several small independent publishers released magazines which published short fiction, either short stories or novel-length presentations, in the tradition of the pulp magazines of the early twentieth century. These included Blood 'N Thunder and High Adventure. There was also a short lived magazine which revived the title Argosy. These were specialist publications printed in limited press runs. These were pointedly not printed on the brittle, high-acid wood pulp paper of the old publications, and were not mass market publications targeted at a wide audience. In 2004, Lost Continent Library published "Secret of the Amazon Queen" by E.A.Guest, their first contribution to a "New Pulp Era", featuring the hallmarks of pulp fiction for contemporary mature readers: violence, horror and sex. E.A.Guest was likened to a blend of pulp era icon Talbot Mundy and Stephen King by real-life explorer David Hatcher Childress.

In 2002, issue 10 of McSweeney's Quarterly was guest edited by Michael Chabon. Published as McSweeney's Mammoth Treasury of Thrilling Tales, it is a collection of "pulp fiction" stories written by some recent well-known authors such as Stephen King, Nick Hornby, Aimee Bender, and Dave Eggers. Chabon, in explaining the impetus of his vision for the project, writes in the Treasury's introduction, "I think that we have forgotten how much fun reading a short story can be, and I hope that if nothing else, this treasury goes some small distance toward reminding us of that lost but fundamental truth."

History of newspapers and magazinesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

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Contents

[hide] 1 Early news publications

o 1.1 Content o 1.2 Sixteenth century

2 Newspapers o 2.1 Corantos o 2.2 US newspaper o 2.3 British newspaper o 2.4 English Newspapers in Indo.& Pak. Subcontinent

3 Magazines

o 3.1 England

o 3.2 USA

[edit] Early news publications

Before the advent of the newspaper per se, there were two major kinds of periodical news publications: the handwritten news sheet, and single item news publications. These existed simultaneously.

The Roman Empire published Actas around 59 BC. Early publications played into the development of what would today be recognized as the newspaper, which came about around 1600. This was a time in which, in order to be successful, publishers had to be up to date on news. Around the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in England and France, long news accounts called "relations" were published, in Spain they were called "relaciones."

Single event news publications were printed in the broadside format, which was often posted. These publications also appeared as pamphlets and small booklets (for longer narratives, often written in a letter format), often containing woodcut illustrations. Literacy rates were low in comparison today, and these news publications were often read aloud (literacy and oral culture were, in a sense, existing side by side in this scenario).

[edit] Content

News was frequently highly selective: rulers would often use them as ways to publish accounts of battles or events that made those rulers look good to the public. Sensationalist material was also printed, such as accounts of magic or of natural disasters; this material did not pose a threat to the state, because it did not pose criticism of the state. Printers readily printed sensationalist material, because they faced a ready market, which proved lucrative for them. Material was selective, as stated above, however printers found that there was a market for news about rulers that did not cast those rulers in a favorable light, and printed this material. Printers could get away with doing so, because they would print the publication overnight, and sell it quickly. This quick publication pace also resulted in quick returns on investments for printers.

Private uses of early news publications: rulers and merchants both established networks of people who were employed to provide them news from other lands, and here is an early manifestation of correspondence in news writing. Rulers found out political information from these networks, and merchants found out business information, and also political information that directly affected their trade.

[edit] Sixteenth century

One example of this type of merchant was the sixteenth century German financialist, Fugger. He not only received business news from his correspondents, but also sensationalist and gossip news as well. It is evident in the correspondence of Fugger

with his network that fiction and fact were both significant parts of early news publications.

Sixteenth century Germany also saw subscription-based, handwritten news. Those who subscribed to these publications were generally low-level government officials and also merchants. They could not afford other types of news publications, but had enough money to pay for a subscription, which was still expensive for the time.

Avisis, or Gazzettes (not gazettes), were a mid-sixteenth century Venice phenomenon. They were issued on single sheets, folded to form four pages, and issued on a weekly schedule. These publications reached a larger audience than handwritten news had in early Rome. Their format and appearance at regular intervals were two major influences on the newspaper as we know it today. The idea of a weekly, handwritten newssheet went from Italy to Germany, and then to Holland.

[edit] Newspapers

The term newspaper became common in the seventeenth century, however in Germany, publications that we would today consider to be newspaper publications, were appearing as early as the sixteenth century. They were discernibly newspapers for the following reasons: they were printed, dated, appeared at regular and frequent publication intervals, and included a variety of news items (unlike single item news mentioned above). The first newspaper however was said to be the Strasbourg Relation, in the early seventeenth century. German newspapers, like avisis, were organized by the location from which they came, and by date. They differed from avisis in the following manners: they employed a distinct and highly illustrated title page, and they applied an overall date to each issue.

[edit] Corantos

Newspaper publications, under the name of corantos, came to the Dutch Republic in the seventeenth century, first to Amsterdam, which was a centre of trade and travellers, an obvious locale for news publication. The term coranto was adopted by other countries for a time as well. The coranto differed from the German newspapers before it in format. The coranto dropped the highly-illustrated German title page, instead including a title on the upper first page of the publication – the masthead common in today's periodicals. Corantos also adopted a two-column format, unlike the previous single-column format, and were issued on halfsheets.

[edit] US newspaper

The first US newspaper was entitled Public Occurrences, and came out in 1690. It only printed one issue however, as it was shut down by colonial officials, possibly due to censorship and control issues. It followed the two column format, and was a single sheet, printed on both sides.

[edit] British newspaper

The coranto form went on to prove influential in London, and in 1660, The London Gazette (first called The Oxford Gazette) began publication. It is considered to be the newspaper that decisively changed the look of English news printing, echoing the coranto format of two columns, a clear title, and a clear date. It was issued on a biweekly basis. Other English papers began issuance on a triweekly basis, and eventually dailies began, partially because of a change in the postal system between Dover and London.

In the eighteenth century, British newspapers were issued on a biweekly and triweekly basis. Newspapers in general included short articles, ephemeral topics, some illustrations, service articles (classifieds), dates, they were printed, were unbound, were often written by multiple authors (although the authors' identities were often obscured), they began to contain some advertisements, and they did not yet include sections. Mass market papers emerged, including Sunday papers for workers to read in their leisure time. The Times adopted new technologies, and set the standards for other newspapers. This newspaper covered major wars, among other major events.

[edit] English Newspapers in Indo.& Pak. Subcontinent

A British man William Bolts in 1766 offered his country fellows in Calcutta to help them for establishing printing press because there was no press before He was against the East India Company's Government so after two years he was send to England back by Company. He published a book of 400 to 500 pages which was full with facts about corruption of East India Company and hardships of Indian people due to corruption.

After that in 1780 a man James Augustus Hickey published a newspaper with the name of Bengal Gazette/General Calcutta Adviser. Size of that paper was 12"x8" only with 4 pages. Hickey was against the Government, he published internal news of the employee of company. so sooner Government snatched the facility of post for that paper as a consequence of news against them. Then he appointed 20 man for delivering that papers. Once he published a news against the chief Missionary of Main church Jan Zakriya. Jan complained to Government for that faked news. He also suited a defamation petition against Hickey. So Hickey was fined 500 Rupees and 4 months of jail. After that he was fined again which result into the end of that paper so we can say that it was the first ever printed English newspaper of subcontinent. In November 1781 a news paper with name of “India Gazette” was also introduced which was pro Government and against the Hickey.

Newspaper of that time was in English language and they used to publish news only related to British and the reader was also British men so local opulation was not the target of newspaper of that era. Company was feared to reach those papers to England which would cause defamation of company in England. Newspaper of England had reached to India after 9 months or more.

[edit] Magazines

Newspapers and magazines were (and still are) connected in the circumstance of periodicity, and three types of early magazines: miscellanies, single item magazines, and book review journals. The Journal des Scavans came out in France in the mid seventeenth century. Features that were noteworthy included its inclusion of book reviews, as well as its inclusion of the reader as contributor. The Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres was another French periodical that came out in the late seventeenth century. This periodical was said to have spread the the Enlightenment, and to have censored certain ideas. French periodical censorship was a large issue (as it was in other countries as well).

[edit] England

The Spectator was issued in the early eighteenth century. It employed a conversational and humorous format. It was produced in large print runs, and circulated in social settings, such as coffee houses and clubs.

Magazines were tied to a shift in reading practices in England. Reading for pleasure was emerging. People had more leisure time, and literacy was increasing in scope. There was also a social acceptability tied to being informed in literary terms, and being educated in general. A shift was emerging from intensive to extensive reading. People could more easily be caught up on various subjects through the practice of extensive reading, that is, finding out as many information items as possible.

The Gentlemen's Magazine was significant in the eighteenth century. It was the first magazine to use the term "magazine" in self-reference. It was also the first magazine to command a large and "truly" national circulation in England. By the mid-eighteenth century, it had reached a circulation of three thousand, and issues were generally read by multiple people. It actively encouraged a readership among the gentry and the educated tradesmen of provincial England. The magazine included book reviews, which served to inform potential customers about books that they may wish to purchase. It also marketed itself as the antidote to the age's problem for many: how to sift through all the reading that had to be done (partially for social acceptability). It claimed to gather together all the "best" material from other publications, and repackage it, saving readers the hassle and time of reading various publications. The magazine was approximately forty pages long (and this can be compared to The Spectator, which was not more than a few pages long).

The demand for reading was increasing among the population, and as a result, magazines were becoming more specialized. The number of women who were able to read was increasing, and miscellanies found a ready market in these women. Periodicals which were targeted specifically to women began around the mid-eighteenth century. The Female Spectator was a leading woman's miscellany, and was said to be produced by and for women.

The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge encouraged a middle class reform audience for mass market reform magazines (as well as for books). The Society launched The Penny Magazine in 1832.

[edit] USA

The USA developed a significant mass market magazine audience in the mid-nineteenth century; Godey's Ladies Book began in 1850, and sold 40,000 copies. Another publication, Harper's Monthly achieved a circulation of twenty thousand by the mid-nineteenth century, and wiped out The Literary Garland, a popular Canadian literary magazine.

National advertisers began to seek out American magazines, and this shift in revenue model became the one that continues to a great extent in present-day North American magazines. It also contributed to the commencement of the commercial magazine.

Use of Newspapers in Genealogy ResearchBy Judith Florian

 Newcomers to genealogy research may be overwhelmed at the prospect of searching microfilmed newspapers. Most newspaper collections have never been indexed, and searches can be tedious. However, old newspapers are full of interesting bits of family information.

Most searchers focus on one goal with newspapers: to locate the obituary of an ancestor. Some obituaries are gold mines, giving place of birth, parents’ names, marriage information, children’s names, church affiliation, and cemetery name. Yet, many other obituaries are very lacking in details, possibly not even giving the exact date of death and no family details. My ancestor’s obituary said only that he awoke and before the morning was done he was "a corpse." After high hopes to find information, his write-up was certainly a disappointment! These short write ups were common in older papers until approximately the 1930s when more standardized obituaries were used. Unless your ancestor was considered a pioneer family, a long-time citizen of that area, or was a very prominent person, the details of their family relationships and details of their life were not included. By the early 1900s, more information was given, and burial place was included in at least 80% of obituaries. With the cemetery name, you may be able to track down cemetery or church records, if these exist. 

If your obituary search ends as mine did, what are other ways newspapers can be useful to your genealogy pursuit? The first thing I recommend to those using old newspapers for the first time is to put a microfilm roll on a machine and just look over the issues. Look to see how the newspaper is set up; each newspaper develops its own style, which changes from early 1800s through the lifetime of the paper. Generally though, the front page contains national and local political news, and high-interest local news such as accidents, murders, or stories affecting local employment and economy. Page two continues with these stories, but may also include columns of specific regional news. Most old papers had "correspondence from" small communities and townships of the county. These columns usually were named things like "Local Briefs," "Local Glances," or other such titles. These local glances columns are one of the first areas I check after looking for obituaries. Local Glances are one to two sentences about local citizens, mostly dealing with who traveled where or visited

whom, who moved where, and other local tid-bits. These may not seem important, but they help in two ways. First, it gives an added insight into an ancestor’s daily life, and more importantly, it may give relationship information that is new or verifies what you have. Here is one fictional example: "Charles Algire and daughter, Mrs. Ann Curry, were Sunday visitors at the home of Mr. Algire’s aunt, Mrs. Abbey Smith." I just found a piece tonight that mentions my great-great- grandfather and great-grandfather ("and children") visiting the home of my great-great-great grandfather, the father of Mrs. Lane: "Mr. and Mrs. Frank Lane and children and Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Gladfeller [sic] and children of the Wylandville section, have returned home after spending a few days at the home of Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Waller." This gem was buried on page 4, which is where Editors used additional "Local Glances" as fillers in between advertisements which appear on pages 3 and 4 generally.   

Pages 3 and 4 of old newspapers mostly contain advertisements, want ads, and legal notes. Before you skip those pages, reconsider. Advertisements first give you impressions about life when your ancestor was living, and one of the store owners may just be related to you! Want Ads, unlike today, often mention a name of the subscriber. Legal notices, while difficult to read, are usually about Estate Notices or Land Sales. 

Estate Notices will give name of deceased, and the paper’s date will give you an idea of death date, if you didn’t know date before. These notices also are "signed" by the executor of the estate; executors are often relatives. Land Sales give you basic information found in deeds, but usually in less detail. It gives the name of the land tract, location, neighbor’s names sometimes, total acreage, and date set for the sale.  

Deed Indexes will point you to the Deed, but these newspaper land sale notices are a nice compliment to the actual Deed. Remember also in looking at Deed Index Books that many early deeds were never recorded at the time of the actual sale. 

A Deed Transfer often was not filed in sales between family members until the land was sold the next time, which could be 20 even 40 years later. Documents out of the correct time period can be confusing and lead a researcher astray especially if there were many same-name persons living in a small area. Land in one of my early families transferred at the marriage of the second son in the 1830s, but a deed was not recorded for it until the 1860s. As an early researcher, I skipped reading the 1860s deed because it was "too late" for the Joseph I was seeking. Wrong! It was the same property, and I lost months of research time, simply because I didn’t look at that 1860s deed. In the 1860s, 2 Deeds appeared, one documenting the 1830s transfer, and one for the newest sale. So, while actual deeds are the most important document, newspaper Legal Notices may be the only real-time information of earlier land sales.  

After looking for obituaries (and in later years separate funeral notices), Local Glances type columns, and Legal Notices/advertisement pages, I use my eyes to scan articles on all the pages. Titles may be deceiving but the articles may mention employee names, such as at a mill, mine or factory, or may name local political

candidates. One of these employees, candidates or elected officials may be a member of the family you are seeking.

While some researchers choose to focus only on primary persons in a family, like research of a direct line, it can be helpful to at least note the newspaper date where you see others of the same surname. You might not know a connection, yet, to that individual, but if you find a connection later, you will know what newspaper date to re-check. 

If an article is of particular interest, or an obituary, you will want to make a full copy by machine or hand-written. If you write it, take care to do so exactly as it appears which qualifies as a "transcript" of the item. If the article contains a lot of unnecessary writing, or if you are not sure a person is part of your family, you may choose to just do an "abstract," which contains only pertinent information along with the citation. An abstract of basic information contained in an article might look like this: (abstract) Charles Smith, W. Pike Run Twp., wife Martha...visited Martha’s Aunt, Mrs. Hurn, Amity. Include the word abstract so you won’t get confused later, and it will be clear to another person if you share your research with someone else in the future. Note: Since you are not quoting from the source, you do NOT use quotes on abstracted lines. 

Finally, I have some advice about the citation of newspapers which I guarantee will save you time, aggravation and frustration later. The best newspaper citations contain as much information as you can find. The front page of every issue contains the mast head where a newspaper name appears. 

There are several things to look for on the front page: 

Title of Newspaper, Issue or Volume (Vol.) and Number (No.).   Some papers contain "The" on the mast head; others do not contain the word "The." If a mast head does not contain "The" it is officially not part of the newspaper’s name, but if it is, then it should be written as such. As examples: the Washington Reporter, Vol. 4, No. 11 or The Herald, Vol. 1, No. 4. Use underline for a newspaper title, because you will need to put the title of articles in quotation marks: for example, the Washington Reporter, Vol. 4, No. 11, "Death Takes Civil War Veteran," p. 2. Of note, sometimes the same newspaper had name changes over the decades so it is always best to check the masthead on every issue and not assume it is the same title. 

Next, you need to write the article name, exactly as it appears, with capital letters or small-case as it is shown; this is called "transcribed as is." Put the article name in quotation marks after the newspaper title. 

Then find the page number. You may not find a page number typed on each page of very old papers, but you can easily count them. As well, the oldest papers contain the same number of pages in each issue, often around 4 pages, so once you are familiar with the layout, it is easy to figure out, or run the microfilm back to page one and count as you move forward.  If you are working with sectioned papers, include the section with page number, as in: Article from the Washington Reporter, Vol. 4, No. 11, "Estate Sales," page D-4, for Charles Smith.  For an obituary or funeral notice, I

write it the citation like this: The transcript of the obituary of Charles Smith from the Washington Reporter, Vol. 4, No. 11, page D-4 (followed by a colon, and then I type the full obituary). 

Old newspapers are gold mines for genealogy researchers! While it takes time to search them, it can certainly be very worthwhile to both new and experienced genealogists. You can make newspaper searches easier by becoming familiar with how a certain newspaper is set up and the types of content you might find. 

MagazineFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, searchThis article is about the magazine as a published medium. For other uses, see Magazine (disambiguation).

Magazines, periodicals or serials are publications, generally published on a regular schedule, containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising, by a purchase price, or both.

Contents

[hide] 1 Publication 2 Categories 3 Other publications 4 History 5 See also

6 External links

[edit] Publication

Topics in journalismProfessional issues

News • Reportage • Writing • Ethics • Objectivity • Values • Attribution •

Defamation • Editorial independence • Education • Other topics

FieldsArts • Business • Entertainment • Environment • Fashion • Politics • Science • Sports • Trade • Traffic •

WeatherGenres

Advocacy journalismCitizen journalismCivic journalism

Community journalismGonzo journalism

Investigative journalismLiterary journalism

Narrative journalismNew Journalism

Opinion journalismVisual journalism

Watchdog journalismSocial impact

Fourth EstateFreedom of the press

InfotainmentMedia bias

News propagandaPublic relations

Yellow journalismNews media

NewspapersMagazines

News agenciesBroadcast journalism

Online journalismPhotojournalism

Alternative mediaRoles

Journalist • Reporter • Editor • Columnist • Commentator •

Photographer • News presenter • Meteorologist

 This box: view • talk • edit 

Magazines

The various elements that contribute to the production of magazines can vary wildly. Core elements such as publishing schedules, formats and target audiences are seemingly infinitely variable. Typically, magazines which focus primarily on current events, such as Newsweek or Entertainment Weekly, are published weekly or biweekly. Magazines with a focus on specific interests, such as Life Positive and Cat Fancy, may be published less frequently, such as monthly, bimonthly or quarterly. A magazine will usually have a date on the cover which often is later than the date it is actually published. Current magazines are generally available at bookstores and newsstands, while subscribers can receive them in the mail. Many magazines also offer a 'back issue' service for previously published editions.

Most magazines produced on a commercial scale are printed using a web offset process. The magazine is printed in sections, typically of 16 pages, which may be black-and-white, be in full colour, or use spot colour. These sections are then bound, either by stapling them within a soft cover in a process sometimes referred to as 'saddle-stitching', or by gluing them together to form a spine, a process often called 'perfect-binding'

Magazines are also published on the internet. Many magazines are available both on the internet and in hard copy, usually in different versions, though some are only available in hard copy or only via the internet: the latter are known as online magazines

Most magazines are available in the whole of the country in which they are published, although some are distributed only in specific regions or cities. Others are available internationally, often in different editions for each country or area of the world, varying to some degree in editorial and advertising content but not entirely dissimilar

[edit] Categories

Magazines fall into two broad categories: consumer magazines and business magazines. In practice, magazines are a subset of periodicals, distinct from those periodicals produced by scientific, artistic, academic or special interest publishers which are subscription-only, more expensive, narrowly limited in circulation, and often have little or no advertising. Many business magazines are available only, or predominantly, on subscription. In some cases these subscriptions are available to any person prepared to pay; in others, free subscriptions are available to readers who meet a set of criteria established by the publisher. This practice, known as controlled circulation, is intended to guarantee to advertisers that the readership is relevant to

their needs: they can assure their advertisers that most or all of their subscribers are in a position to buy the goods or services advertised. Very often the two models, of paid-for subscriptions and controlled circulation, are mixed. Advertising is also an important source of revenue for business magazines.

[edit] Other publications

Although similar to a magazine in some respects, an academic periodical featuring scholarly articles written in a more specialist register is usually called an "academic journal". Such publications typically carry little or no advertising. Articles are vetted by referees or a board of esteemed academics in the subject area.

[edit] History

Front page of The Gentleman's Magazine, May 1759

The Gentleman's Magazine, first published in 1731, is considered to have been the first general-interest magazine. Edward Cave, who edited The Gentleman's Magazine under the pen name "Sylvanus Urban", was the first to use the term "magazine" (meaning "storehouse") for a periodical.

The oldest consumer magazine still in print is The Scots Magazine, which was first published in 1739, though multiple changes in ownership and gaps in publication totaling over 90 years weaken that claim. Lloyd’s List was founded in Edward Lloyd’s London coffee shop in 1734; it is still published as a daily business newspaper.

[edit] See also

List of eighteenth-century British periodicals List of nineteenth-century British periodicals

Column (newspaper) Types of magazines:

o Academic journals o Architecture magazines o Art magazines o Boating magazines o Car magazines o Computer magazines o Fantasy fiction magazines o Health and fitness magazines o History magazines o Horror fiction magazines o Humor magazines o Literary magazines o Luxury magazines o Men's magazines o Music magazines o News magazines o OSHA (magazine)s o Online magazines o Partworks o Pornographic magazines o Pulp magazines o Railroad magazines o Regional magazines o Revolution magazines o Satirical magazines o Science magazines and scientific journalso Science fiction magazines o Teen magazines o Trade journals o Wildlife magazines o Women's magazines

Serials, periodicals and journals

[edit] External links

Look up magazine, periodical, journal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Periodicals Bookshelf at Project Gutenberg A PDF on The History of American magazines to 1860 by Heather A.

Haveman (2004) The Bivings Report on The Presence of Magazines on the Internet Galactic Central — An Index of Various Magazines NMCA — A Magazine Cover Archive Quiosc — Press. Newspapers and magazines

We Love Mags / Colophon — International Magazine Symposium and online Magazine Directory

Designing Magazines — A look at magazines and magazine design

The History of Media Librarianship: A Chronology

Amy R. Loucks-DiMatteo

 

Before media centers could be established, non-print technological instructional aids had to be developed. Before libraries could be established, "books" had to be written. But before books could be written man had to learn how to write. Thus the beginnings of today's library media centers must be traced back to the earliest beginnings of writing more than 5,000 years ago.'

 

THE following is a chronology of the history of media librarianship. Although the term "media" includes both print and non-print materials, this history primarily explores the development of non-print materials.

The information is arranged chronologically. The symbol (c.) preceding a date indicates that the date has been approximated. The symbol(_____) indicates that a date has not been determined, but an effort has been made to fit the information in the proper place in the chronology. The dates and information listed have been taken directly from the sources cited; therefore, it is likely that the reader will find some conflicting dates and information.

Non-print media probably originated in the Orient, where shadow shows entertained the people for over two thousand years.2 A reliance upon visuals has been demonstrated since early history through cave wall drawings, Egyptian pictographs, Babylonian maps, clay tablets, medieval art works, Renaissance woodcuts, and early illustrated books.3

Mesopotamia, the country between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, introduced writing to the world. The Sumerian people who inhabited Mesopotamia used the cylinder seal to mark and identify their property.4 Other cultures developed early forms of writing which were of two basic types: cuneiform and hieroglyphics. Cuneiform writing resembled wedge shaped characters and was used by the Sumerians, Akhadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and the Persians. Egyptian hieroglyphics used figures or objects to represent sounds or words.5

Over a thousand years passed from the development of syllabic writing until alphabetic writing was developed. Although a contribution of the Near East alphabetic writing was adapted as an instrument of communication by the Greeks. The twenty-six character alphabet used today in Western cultures was developed by the Romans.6

 

1700 B.C. The Babylonians were the first to establish libraries. (Cushing)

 

1100 B.C. The first libraries of historic times were found in the temples of Ancient Egypt. (Thompson)

 

1100 B.C. Royal libraries were in existence in Phoenicia. The most famous royal library was Assurbanipal at Ninevah. (Thompson: Parsons)

 

(______) The first of the great private libraries were supposed to have been as early as Pisistratus of Athens, and Polycrates, tyrant of Samas. (Parsons)

 

900-700 B.C. The kings of Assyria maintained a collection of thousands of clay tablets written in cuneiform. (Hostrop)

 

400 B.C. The private libraries of Euripides, Aristotle, and Plato were in existence. (Hessel)

 

300 B.C. Schools with libraries were in existence in Athens. (Hostrop)

 

300 B.C. The first known books were the clay tablets of Mesopotamia and the papyrus rolls of Egypt. (Hostrop)

 

(_____) The first integration of print and non-print was found in the first picture book: Orbis Pictus (Comenius)

 

384-322 B.C. Aristotle was the first known systematic collector and classifier of books. He developed the concept of a classification hierarchy and was given the title of first librarian. (Hostrop; Grove)

 

80 B.C. Tyrannion, a grammarian, reclassified and recataloged Aristotle's library. (Strabo)

 

300 A.D. One library in Rome contained 62,000 volumes. (Hostrop)

 

400 Twenty-eight public libraries were in existence in Rome. (Hostrop)

 

400 The codex, constructed from folded leaves which were bound together on one side, took the place of papyrus rolls. (Hostrop)

 

600 The Rule of St. Benedict gave monasteries the responsibility for making books and creating libraries. (Hostrop)

 

(_____)The first public library was established in Athens five hundred years before the Christian Era by the tyrant Pisistratus. (Parsons)

 

(_____)The first public library was established in Rome during the close of the Pre-Christian Era by Asinius Apollo. (Parsons)

 

(_____) The Library of Alexandria in Egypt was known as the first research library with its "...incomparable resources of the first real and greatest collection of intellectual materials or data ever assembled in antiquity..." (Parsons)

 

mid 1400s Johann Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany, invented the printing press. (Hostrop)

 

1583 The first use of a decimal classification system was by Lacroix du Maine, who classified Henry III's library. (Dewey)

 

1600 Libraries began to resemble present day libraries with books on open shelves and tables for readers. (World Book Encyclopedia)

 

1683 The first academic library in the United States was the Harvard College Library. It was begun by a small collection of books donated by Reverend John Harvard, and it was the largest library in the country for 200 years. (Bowker, 1964; Fay; Hostrop)

 

1700s Six college libraries were founded: Yale University in 1700; Princeton University in 1746; University of Pennsylvania in 1755: Columbia University in 1757; Brown University in 1767; Dartmouth College in 1770. (Fay)

 

1731 Benjamin Franklin founded the first subscription library in the American colonies, "The Library Company of Phila delphia." (Bowker; Hostrop)

 

1976 New Jersey established the first state library. In the 1800s other state libraries were established: South Carolina in 1814; Pennsylvania in 1816; New Hampshire and New York in 1818. (Fay)

 

1800 The United States Library of Congress was established, the largest library in the U.S. (Hostrop)

 

1817 The large map collection of Christoph Daniel Ebling, a German scholar, was purchased after his death by Israel Thorndike and donated to the Harvard College Library. (Mullins)

 

1822 The first free public library was the Juvenile Library of Dublin, New Hampshire. (Kane)

 

1854 The first large public library to be established was the Boston Public Library. (Chamber's Encyclopedia)

 

c. 1866 The United States Library of Congress map collection was established. (Grove)

 

1871 Jacob Schwartz created the Cutter number system which preserved the alphabetical order of authors in classification systems. (Grove)

 

1876 Melvil Dewey's classification system was first issued. (Grove)

 

1880s The first academic slide libraries were established at Bryn Mawr College, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, the University of Illinois, Princeton University, and the University of Michigan. Prior to 1884, these collections consisted of lanterns slides (31/4" x 4" slides with the image printed on glass). (Grove)

 

1882 The first music library was established: Brooklyn (New York) Public Library. (Bowker, 1964)

 

1884 Henry C. Badger was appointed as the first map curator at the Harvard College Library, which contained about 14,000 sheets. (Grove)

 

1887 The first library school was established at Columbia University, New York City, by Melvil Dewey. (Bowker; Encyclopedia Americana, 1980)

 

1891 The first circulating picture collection was established at the Denver (Colorado) Public Library, by John Cotton Dana. (Bowker; Smith)

 

1894 Paper or contact prints of motion pictures were deposited at the Library of Congress for copyright purposes. (Grove)

 

1894 A motion picture deposit was begun at the Library of Congress. (Information)

 

c.1897 The Library of Congress Division of Music was organized. (Thompson)

 

1902 The first graduate library school was the New York State Library School. (Bowker, 1964)

 

1903 A phonorecord collection was established at the Library of Congress. (Grove)

 

1903 The Lowe Theatrical Library, the first theatrical library in the United States, opened at Harvard University. (Encyclopedia Americana, 1957)

 

1904 The photo-offset press was developed. (Hostrop)

 

1904 The first circulating print and framed paintings collection was established at the Newark (New Jersey) Public Library by John Cotton Dana. (Bowker, 1964)

 

1906 The New York State Library had 60,000 prints. (Grove)

 

1906 Lantern slides became widely used as teaching aids in universities. (Grove)

 

1906 Melvil Dewey recognized the importance of non-print materials to libraries when he wrote: "Libraries are rapidly accepting the doctrine for which we have contended for many

years, that what we call books have no exclusive rights in a library. The 'library' has lost its etymologic meaning and means not a collection of books, but the central agency for disseminating information, innocent recreation, or, best of all, inspiration among the people. Whenever this can be done better, more quickly, or cheaply by a picture than a book, the picture is entitled to a place on the shelves and in the catalog." (Grove)

 

1910 Henry Evelyn Bliss constructed his subject classification system which eventually included non-print media. (Bliss)

 

c.1910 The Bell & Howell Film Company had a film library of over a thousand silent and two hundred sound 16mm motion pictures. (Saettler)

 

1911 The Edison Film Library was established. (Saettler)

 

1913 A gift from a local citizen established the first phonorecord collection outside the Library of Congress, at the St. Paul (Minnesota) Public Library. (Bowker, 1971)

 

1914 Librarians began to review and evaluate the mass media. Public demand, plus the evaluation involvement stimu lated the collection of non-print formats in libraries. Public libraries in large cities developed large collections of photographs, pictures, postcards, clippings, and other formats in an effort to provide the public with non-print. (Grove)

 

1914 The first phonorecord collection was established at the St. Paul Public Library in Minnesota. (Bowker 1964)

 

1914 The Kansas City (Missouri) Public Library circulated music rolls for the player piano.. (Clement)

 

1914 The Public Librarian, a library journal, advocated the acceptance of phonorecords in libraries. (Edison)

 

1914-15 The American Library Annual reported that a public library in St. Joseph, Missouri, used the Edison Home and School Kinetoscope to illustrate stories narrated for children (Pringle)

 

1915 A statewide film exchange was proposed by James Gillis, a California state librarian. (Grove)

 

1915 The St. Paul (Minnesota) Public Library record collection had ninty-three recordings for limited use only. (Johnston)

 

1915 The August issue of Library Journal was devoted entirely to the music collections of the public libraries in the United States. (Bowker)

 

1915 Many public libraries maintained picture collections. (Parker)

 

19l6 The first photographic department in university library was established at Harvard University. (Bowker. 1957)

 

1917 The Chicago Bureau of Visual Instruction established the first instructional film library in a city school system. (Saettler)

 

1919 The Kern County Library, California, had a lantern slide and stereographic (three-dimensional slide) collection and established a phonorecord collection. (Clement)

 

1920 Audiovisual materials began to be handled as a normal part of library service. (Quinly)

 

1920 More than twenty-four state universities had film services.(Nolan)

 

1923 The first collection of circulating phonorecords was established in the Springfield (Massachusetts) Public Library. (Grove; Bowker, 1964)

 

1924 Audiovisual librarianship was introduced into the organizational framework of the American Library Association. The proposal that marked the beginning of ALA's formal audiovisual activity came from outside the Association. Ben Howe, a representative of the motion picture industry, suggested to the Council of the ALA that libraries should be the principal institutions for the distribution of educational films and should serve as information centers concerning entertainment and industrial films. Ben Howe's suggestion sparked ALA to create a Visual Methods Committee. (Clement)

 

1924 The American Library Association formally recognized the importance of films to library service and appointed a committee on Relations Between Libraries and Moving Pictures. (Cocks)

 

1926 The Graduate Library School was established at the University of Chicago to provide education beyond the first professional degree and offered a Ph.D. in library science. (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

 

1927 The Carnegie Corporation of New York authorized the distribution of "College Music Sets" for music study in college libraries. (Grove)

 

1928 The first PhD. in library education was granted at the University of Chicago Library School. (Encyclopedia AAmericana, 1962)

 

1928 The Carnegie Corporation assisted college libraries in the purchase of phonorecords, which were later identified by audiovisualists as "disks." (Shores)

 

1928 Fifty-three academic institutions had libraries with music collections, but only twelve of the collections held sound recordings. (Pierre)

 

1929 The first library to circulate educational films was the Kalamazoo (Michigan) Public Library. (Bowker, 1964)

 

1930s Public libraries began to develop extensive film services. (Pringle)

 

1930s Libraries began to put journals and newspapers on micro film. (Encyclopedia Americana)

 

1931 The Music Library Association was organized. (Bowker, 1958)

 

1933 Louis Shores determined that the library must have a range of subjects, levels, and formats in its collection to match the interests of individuals. (Shores)

 

1934 The Department of Geography at the University of Chicago planned to develop a map library of 400,000 sheets. (Development. . .) In 1968, the size of the collection was approximately 210,000 sheets. (Special Libraries Association)

 

1934 A resolution was sent to the American Library Association Committee on National Planning by the Visual Methods Committee, which recommended the establishment of regional demonstration centers for audiovisual aids. The proposal was not implemented. (Clement)

 

1934 The talking book was added to library service for the blind(Encyclopedia Americana, 1957)

 

1935 Louis Shores introduced the first audiovisual course at the library school of Peabody College in the South. The course was taught by Milton Lanning Shane from 1936 to 1940. (Shores)

 

1935 The United States National Archives set up a division of motion pictures and sound recordings. (Grove)

 

1935 The Museum of Modern Art Film Library was established in New York City by a Rockefeller Foundation Grant for the preservation, distribution, study, and development of films. (Grove)

 

1936 The American Library Association set a standard for 35mm film as best suited for research and library work. This decision was made at the Richmond Conference. (Doss)

 

1936 Visual aids were distributed through the city libraries of Kalamazoo, Michigan, and Pasadena and Long Beach, California. (Dunn)

 

1938 The first Cooperative Microfilm Project was established at Harvard University. (Bowker, 1964)

 

1939 A $5,500 grant from the Rockefeller Foundation funded a Joint Committee on Educational Films representing the American Library Association, the American Film Center, The Association of School Librarians, and the Motion Picture Project of the American Council on Education. The purpose was to "encourage library experimentation in the handling of

educational films . . . to cooperate with such libraries and to facilitate the exchange of information between them, to devise uniform methods for recording experiences and to encourage their use, and to report from time to time on the experiments." (Williams)

 

1940s Maps began to be accepted as legitimate materials for libraries. (Wood)

 

1940s-1964 Major phonorecord collections established. Late 1940s Sibley Music Library, Eastman School of Music; 1958 Stanford University Archives of Recorded Sound; 1958 Archives of New Orleans Jazz at Tulane University; 1961 Historical Sound Recordings Program of Yale University; 1964-The Syracuse University Audio Archives. (Grove)

 

1940 Hundreds of universities and school systems had estab lished audiovisual libraries. (Grove)

 

1940 At the suggestion of Carl Milam, the former Visual Methods Committee was merged with the former Radio Broadcasting Committee to form the Audiovisual Committee of the American Library Association. (Clement)

 

1941 Gerald D. McDonald surveyed literature and visited libraries and submitted a report to the American Library Association concluding, "Thus far librarians have done virtually nothing in the handling of films and very little even in providing information which would further their use." (McDonald)

 

c.1942 The first major public library film collection began inCleveland, Ohio. (Palmer)

 

1942 Film lending became a routine part of library service. (Quinly)

 

1943 The term "media" appeared in the Post War Standards for Public Libraries, published by the American Library Association, defined as: "... books, periodicals, news papers, pamphlets, maps, film, pictures, recordings, music scores, and similar material." (Post War . . . )

 

1944 Fremont Rider, Librarian at Wesleyan University, pro posed that microcards be used in libraries, "both to reduce the space required for the catalogs of their growing collections and to produce more responsive catalogs." (Encyclopedia Americana, 1980)

 

1945 A Motion Picture Project was formed at the Library of Congress (Grove)

 

1947 The Carnegie Corporation awarded a grant to the American Library Association for building lending collections of films. (Encyclopedia Americana, 1957)

 

1947 The Carnegie Corporation awarded a grant to support a Film Advisory Service at the American Library Assoc iation. The purpose was to demonstrate that public libraries could serve as distribution centers for audiovisual materials, in addition to books. (Saettler)

 

1947 The American Library Association obtained a grant of $27,000 from the Carnegie Corporation for a "two year program to provide for film advisory service to help libraries establish film lending service." (Clement)

 

1947 Librarians and audiovisualists were two separate entities. Many schools had a separation of library and audiovisual facilities. At this time, the separation of the two was strongly backed by school administrators, teachers, li brarians, and audiovisualists. (Shores)

 

1947 The Worcester Free Public Library had one thousand circulating phonorecords. (Grove)

 

1947 The Florida State University Graduate School of Library Service and Training was established. The school was committed to the audiovisual education of librarians and teachers. The school also advocated the unification of audiovisual departments with the library instead of keeping them as separate entities. (Shores)

 

1947 "Listening posts" were introduced into the reading room at the Florida State University Materials Center. The listening post consisted of a jack and eight headsets. (Shores)

 

1947 Dr. Charles Hoban was the first full-time professor ap pointed to a library school faculty at the Florida State University Graduate School of Library Training and Service. He was a strong force in the audiovisual movement and co-wrote, with his father and Zisman, the first textbook in the audiovisual field. (Shores)

 

1948 Phonorecords became a routine part of library service. (Quinly)

 

1948 The Audiovisual Committee of the American Library Association was made a board which allowed for a subcommittee structure. The various committees were not wholly successful in their efforts to establish cooperation and communication with other national associations. (Clement)

 

1948 A mimeographed manual entitled Processing Audio Visual Materials was put into use at Indiana University for library science courses. (Processing. . .)

 

1948 The first manual on integrated cataloging was published by the Materials Center at Florida State University. (Shores)

 

1949 The American Association of School Librarians sponsored the publication Audiovisual School Library Service, by Margaret Rufsvold. The book gave detailed information to guide the traditional book-oriented librarian in establishing an instructional materials center. (Rufsvold)

 

1950 The "Statement of Guiding Principles" in the Evaluative Criteria 1950 Edition, suggests that " . . . schools should have available, organized in the library or as a separate department, audiovisual materials for use in the educational program." (Evaluative Criteria. . .)

 

1950s Major film collections in academic libraries were not established until this period. (Grove)

 

1950s The "Rapid Selector," developed under the guidance of Ralph R. Shaw, the librarian of the United States Depart ment of Agriculture, was the first machine specifically designed for searching the literature of a subject. It combined document images with binary coded identification, both stored photographically on roll film.Encyclopedia Americana. 1980)

 

1950s Louis Shores developed the concept of the generic book which is "... the sum total of man's communication possibilities . . . the evidence of life." The generic book recognizes that subject, level, and format may affect communication. "In the concept of the generic book there is no such thing as non-book material." The generic book has six format classes: print, graphics, projections, transmissions, community resources, and programmed media.(Shores)

 

1950s The 35mm color slide was established as a necessary andintegral part of a slide library. (Grove)

 

1950-60 Phonorecord archives were established in the Music Division of the Library of Congress, Indiana and Stanford University Libraries, and the New York Public Library. (Nolan)

 

1952 A survey was undertaken by the Association of College and Research Libraries to examine the extent to which audio visual services had developed in the United States universities and colleges and to examine the patterns of service. The findings of the research implied that the development of audiovisual collections was still at an early stage.(Bennett)

 

1953 Edgar Dale, a theorist, viewed libraries as experiencing a transitional phase, " . . . shifting from being a repository of ideas in print to a repository of ideas on film, on tape." His "cone of experience," and other ideas have contributed to the development of a learning resource concept. (Dale)

 

1954 C. Walter Stone, a strong proponent of the unification of print and non-print, insisted that libraries utilize a "cross media" approach for the benefit of students , teachers and administration.

 

1954 The Library of Congress printed catalog issued two new sections: one for music and phonorecords and another for filmstrips and motion pictures. (Schmeckebier)

 

1954-55 The San Jose (California) State College began the first program for curriculum materials specialists. (Saettler)

 

1955 Over 250 libraries were lending film, 192 through member ship in a cooperative film service, with the remainder owning individual film collections. (Bowker, 1957)

 

1955 Irving Lieberman conducted a study of audiovisual in struction in library education. He reported a need for a graduate program for audiovisual specialists. (Lieberman)

 

1955-57 The American Library Association Special Committee on the Bibliographic Control of Audiovisual Materials sur veyed libraries in an attempt to assess their non-book holdings and found the following holdings of non-book media. 115 libraries had motion picture collections (31 academic, 46 public, and 50 school) and 176 libraries had phonorecord collections (56 academic, 72 public, and 48 school). (Hamman)

 

1956 The Southern Illinois University unified their audiovisual department and library, as did Purdue, San Jose State, St. Cloud (Minnesota), and the University of Colorado. (Shores)

 

1960 Instructional Materials, by Louis Shore, was the first book devoted to the concept of unifying library science and audiovisual education. (Shores) mid 1960s The crusade for the unification of audiovisual departments and libraries was moving toward acceptance. (Shores)

 

1965 MEDLARS (Medical Literature Analysis Retrieval System) files were made available by the National Library of Medicine for use by other libraries. (Lancaster, p. 78)

 

1967 The New York Public Library was the largest public libraryin the United States. (Hostrop)

 

1968 Trevor N. Duprey conducted a study of college libraries and identified unnecessary competition between audiovisualists and librarians. (Duprey; Modern . . .)

 

1968 Trevor N. Duprey conducted a study of problem areas inadopting a learning resource center approach. (Duprey; Ferment . . .)

 

1968 Sidney Forman conducted a survey of 1,193 college libraries which indicated that 10 percent of the libraries were involved in implementing some aspect of the learning resource concept, and 37 percent were planning to introduce part of the concept in the future. (Forman)

 

1969 The crusade for the unification of audiovisual departments and libraries was successful. Standards for School Media Programs was jointly published by the American Library Association's American Association of School Librarians and the National Education Association's (NEA) Department of Audiovisual Instruction. (Shores)

 

1970 The number of libraries in the United States was broken down as follows (statistics from the U.S. Office of Education): 7,000 public libraries, 1,500 academic libraries, 1,200 two-year college libraries, 3,500 special libraries, 450 law libraries, 800 medical libraries, 475 military libraries, 125 institutional libraries, and 50,000 elementary and secondary school libraries. (Hostrop)

 

1970 The Bureau of Libraries and Educational Technology was established by the U.S. Office of Education. (Hostrop)

 

1970 The American Library Association published the Guidelines for Audiovisual Materials and Services for Public Libraries. Included were definitions, standards for service, materials, space, equipment, and personnel. It stressed the importance of non-print media in all formats. (Audiovisual Committee . . .)

 

1970 Robert Brundin surveyed the development of learning resource centers on junior college campuses. He concluded that the development of learning resource centers in junior colleges was an attempt to make the library the "heart of the campus." (Brundin)

 

 

1970 Richard Vorwerk studied the organizational status and environmental demands of academic libraries. He found that newer forms of media were being excluded in academic libraries because administrators weren't quite sure what to do with them. (Vorwerk, 1970)

 

1972 John W. Ellison conducted the first study of learning resource centers on university and college campuses. He identified principles that validated the concept of an integrated learning resource center which would include both print and non-print materials. (Ellison)

 

1973 Melville Dewey is said to be the "Father of American Libraries." F. Dean McCluskey is said to be the "Father of American Audiovisual Education."

 

1973 Andrew Carnegie is said to be the "Father of Library Philanthropists." (Hostrop)

 

 

Footnotes

1. Richard W. Hostrop, Education Inside the Library Media Center. Hamden, Conn.: Shoe String Press, 1973, p. 3.

2. Pearce S. Grove, Nonprint Media in Academic Libraries. Chicago: American Library Association, 1975, p. x.

3. John L. Nolan, "Audio-Visual Materials." Library Trends 10, (October 1961), p. 262.

4. Hostrop, p. 3.

5. Ibid., pp. 2-4.

6. Ibid.. PP. 4-5.

References

American Library Annual. New York: R.R. Bowker, 1957.

Audiovisual Committee, Public Library Association. Guidelines for Audiovisual

Materials and Services for Public Libraries. Chicago: American Library Association, 1970.

Bliss, Henry Evelyn. "Economics in Libraries." Library Journal 28 (1910).

The Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information. New York: R.R.

Bowker, 1957.

The Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information. New York: R.R.

Bowker, 1958.

The Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information. New York: R.R.

Bowker, 1960.

The Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information. New York: R.R.

Bowker, 1964.

The History of Media Librarianship: A Chronology 87

the Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information. New York: R.R.

 

Bowker, 1971.

Brundin, Robert. "Changing Patterns of Library Service in Five California Junior

Colleges." PhD. Dissertation, Stanford University, 1970.

Chamber's Encyclopedia. vol. 8. London: Pergamon Press, Ltd., 1967.

Clement, Evelyn G. "Audiovisual in Libraries; the Past." Paper presented at the 95th ALA Conference, ISAD Audiovisual Section Program, July 1976. ERIC document #ED 129 328.

Cocks, Orrin. "Motion Pictures and. Reading Habits." Library Journal 43

(February 1918): 67-70.

Comenius, John Amos. The Orbis Pictus. Syracuse, N.Y.: C.W. Bardeen,

1887.

Dale, Edgar. Challenges to Librarianship. Tallahassee, Fl.: Florida State Uni

versity, 1953.

_. "Development of the Collection of Maps at the University of Chicago."

Science 79 (February 23, 1934).

Dewey, Melvil. Detvey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 16th ed. Lake

Placid Club, N.Y.: Forest, 1959.

Doss, Milburn Price, ed. Information Processing Equipment. New York:

Reinhold, 1955.

Dunn, Fannie W., and Schneider, Etta. "Practices in City Administration of

Visual Education." Educational Screen 15 (November 1936).

Duprey, Trevor N. Ferment in College Libraries: The Impact of Information

 

Technology. Washington, D.C.: Communication Service Corporation, 1968.

Eason, Tracy. "A Selected Bibliography of AV Media in Library Literature, 1958

69." Wilson Library Bulletin 44 (November 1969): 312-319.

Edison, Thomas. "Mechanical Arts and the Library." Public Library, 19

 

(1914) .

Ellison, John W. ' The Identification and Examination of Principles Which Validate or Refute the Concept of College or University Learning Resource Centers." PhD. Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1972.

Encyclopaedia Britannica 1, vol.#10. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.,

 

1978.

Encyclopedia Americana, vol.#17. New York: Americana Corporation, 1957.

Encyclopedia Americana, vol.#17. New York: Americana Corporation, 1962.

Encyclopedla Americana, vol.#17. New York: Americana Corporation, 1980.

Evaluative Criteria. Washington, D.C.: Cooperative Study of Secondary School

 

Standards, 1950.

Fay, Lucy E., and Eaton, Anne T. Instruction in the Use of Books and Libraries.

 

Boston: The F.W. Faxon Co., 1924.

Flemingl Bennett. "Audio-Visual Services in Colleges and Universities in the

United States." College and Research Libraries 16 (1955): 11-19.

Forman, Sidney. "Innovative Practices in the College Library." College and

 

Research Libraries 29 (November 1968): 486.

Grove, Pearce S. Nonprint Media in Academic Libraries. Chicago: American

Librarv Association. 1975.

88 MEDIA LIBRARIANSHIP

Hamman, Frances. "Bibliographic Control of Audiovisual Materials: Report of a Special Committee." Library Resources and Technical Services Bulletin 1 (Fall 1957): 180-89.

Hessel, Alfred. A History of Libraries. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1950.

Hostrop, Richard W. Education Inside the Library Media Center. Hamden, Conn.: Shoe String Press, 1973.

. Information Bulletin. 23. Washington D.C.: The Library of Congress.

Johnston, W. Dawson. "Symposium of Music in Libraries: St. Paul Public Library." Library-Journal 40 (August 1915): 574.

Kane, Joseph Nathan. Famous First Facts, 4th ed. New York: H.W. Wilson, 1981.

Kujoth, Jean Spealman. Readings in Nonbook Librarianship. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1968.

Lancaster, F. Wilfred. Information Retrieval Systems, 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1979.

Lieberman, Irving. Audiovisual Instruction in Library Education. New York: Columbia University School of Library Service, 1955.

McDonald Gerald D. Educational Motion Pictures and Libraries. Chicago: American Library Association, 1942.

Mullins, Lynn S. "The Rise of Map Libraries in America During the 19th Century." Bulletin 63 (March 1966).

Nolan, John L. "Audio-Visual Materials." Library Trends 10 (October 1961): 261 -6 7 .

Palmer, Joseph W. "Surveying the Future of Public Library Film Service." New York Library Association Bulletin, 30 (April 1982): 1-8.

Parker, John Austin. "A Brief History of the Picture Collection." Wilson Library Bulletin 30 (November 1955): 257-58.

Parsons, Edward Alexander. The Alexandrian Library. New York: Elsevier Press, 1959.

Pierre Key's International Music Yearbook, 1928. New York: Pierre Key, Inc., 1928.

Post War Standards for Public Libraries. Chicago: American Library Association, 1943.

Pringle, Eugene A. "Films in Public Libraries." Drexel Library Quarterly 2 (October 1961): 261-67.

Processing Audio Visual Materials. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University, 1948.

Quinly, William J. "Audio-Visual Materials in the Library." Library Trends 5 (October 1956) 294-300.

Richardson, Ernest Cushing. Classification: Theoretical and Practical. 3rd ed. New York: H.W. Wilson, 1930.

Rufsvold, Margaret. Audio-Visual School Library Service. Chicago: American Association of School Librarians, 1949.

Saettler, Paul. A History of Instructional Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1968.

Schmeckebier, Laurence F., and Eastin, Roy B. Government Publications and Their Use. Rev. ed. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1961.

The History of Media Librarianship: A Chronology 89

Shane, M. Lanning. "Audiovisual Aids & the Library." College and Research Libraries 1 (March 1940): 143-46.

Shores, Louis. Audiovisual Librarianship. Littleton, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, 1973.

Smith, Josephine Metcalfe. A Chronology of Librarianship. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1968.

Special Library Association, Geography and Map Division, Directory Revision Committee. Map Collections in the United States & Canada: A Directory. 2nd ed. New York: Special Library Association, 1970.

Stone, C. Walter. "The Place of the New Media in the Undergraduate Program." Library Quarterly 24 (October 1954).

Strabo. The Geography of Strabo. New York: Putnam, 1917.

Thompson, James Westfall. Ancient Libraries. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1940.

Thompson, Oscar, ed. The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians. Rev. ed. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1958.

Vorwerk, Richard J. "The Environmental Demands and Organizational Status of Two Academic Libraries." PhD. Dissertation, Indiana University, 1970.

Williams, Edwin E. "ALA Notes." Wilson Library Bulletin 14 (June 1940): 778-79.

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JournalismFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

This article or section deals primarily with the United States and does not represent a worldwide view of the subject.Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

This article is missing citations or needs footnotes.Using inline citations helps guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (June 2007)

Journalism is the discipline of gathering, writing and reporting news, and broadly it includes the process of editing and presenting the news articles. Journalism applies to various media, but is not limited to newspapers, magazines, radio, and television. Some high schools promote journalism as an elective class.

While under pressure to be the first to publish its stories, each news media organization adheres to its own standards of accuracy, quality, and style — usually editing and proofreading its reports prior to publication. Many news organizations claim proud traditions of holding government officials and institutions accountable to the public, while media critics have raised questions on the accountability of the press.

The word journalism is taken from the French journal which in turn comes from the Latin diurnal or daily; The Acta Diurna, a handwritten bulletin, was put up daily in the Forum, the main public square in ancient Rome, and was the world's first newspaper.

Topics in journalismProfessional issues

News • Reportage • Writing • Ethics • Objectivity • Values • Attribution •

Defamation • Editorial independence • Education • Other topics

FieldsArts • Business • Entertainment • Environment • Fashion • Politics • Science • Sports • Trade • Traffic •

WeatherGenres

Advocacy journalismCitizen journalismCivic journalism

Community journalismGonzo journalism

Investigative journalismLiterary journalism

Narrative journalismNew Journalism

Opinion journalismVisual journalism

Watchdog journalismSocial impact

Fourth EstateFreedom of the press

InfotainmentMedia bias

News propagandaPublic relations

Yellow journalismNews media

NewspapersMagazines

News agenciesBroadcast journalism

Online journalismPhotojournalism

Alternative mediaRoles

Journalist • Reporter • Editor • Columnist • Commentator •

Photographer • News presenter • Meteorologist

 This box: view • talk • edit 

News-oriented journalism was described by former Washington Post editor, Phil Graham, as "a first rough draft of history", because journalists often record important historical events as they are happening, but at the same time, they must produce their news articles on short deadlines.

Journalism's activities include stating What, When, Where, How, and Why, famously quoted by Rudyard Kipling (see the Five Ws), and stating the significance and effects of certain events or trends. Journalism exists in a number of media: newspapers, television , radio, magazines and, most recently, the World Wide Web through the Internet.

Journalists report and write on a wide variety of subjects: politics on the international, national, provincial and local levels, economics and business on the same four levels, health and medicine, education, sports, hobbies and recreation, lifestyles, clothing, food, pets, and relationships; journalists report on anything that news organizations think consumers will read. Journalists can report for general interest news outlets like newspapers, news magazines and broadcast sources; general circulation specialty publications like trade and hobby magazines, or for news publications and outlets with a select group of subscribers. Journalists are usually expected and required to go out to the scene of a story to gather information for their reports, and often may compose their reports in the field. They also use the telephone, the computer and the internet to gather information. However, more often those reports are written, and they are almost always edited in newsrooms, the offices where journalists and editors work together to prepare the content of news items.

Journalists, especially if they cover a specific subject or area (a 'beat') are expected to cultivate sources, people in the subject or area, that they can communicate with, either to explain the details of a story, or to provide leads to other subjects for stories yet to be reported. They are also expected to develop their investigative skills to research and report stories better.

Print journalism can be split into several categories: newspapers, news magazines, general interest magazines, trade magazines, hobby magazines, newsletters, private publications, online news pages and others. Each genre can have its own requirements for researching and writing reports.

For example, newspaper journalists in the United States have traditionally written reports using the inverted pyramid style, although this style is used more for straight or hard news reports rather than features. Written hard news reports are expected to be spare in the use of words, and to list the most important information first, so that if the story must be cut because there is not enough space for it, the least important facts will be automatically removed. Editors usually ensure that reports are written with as few words as possible. Feature stories are usually written in a looser style which usually depends on the subject matter of the report, and are in general granted more space (see Feature-writing below).

News magazine and general interest magazine articles are usually written in different styles, with less emphasis on the inverted pyramid. Trade publications can be more news-oriented, while hobby publications can be more feature-oriented.

Contents

[hide] 1 Broadcast journalism 2 Online (Cyber) journalism 3 Variations of journalism

o 3.1 Sports journalism o 3.2 Science journalism o 3.3 Investigative journalism o 3.4 New journalism o 3.5 Gonzo journalism o 3.6 'Celebrity' or 'People' journalism o 3.7 'Convergence Journalism' o 3.8 Ambush journalism o 3.9 Gotcha journalism

4 Role of journalism in a democracy o 4.1 The Elements of Journalism

5 Professional and ethical standards o 5.1 Recognition of excellence in journalism o 5.2 Failing to uphold standards o 5.3 Reporting versus editorializing

6 Legal status o 6.1 Rights of journalists versus those of private citizens and

organizationso 6.2 Right to protect confidentiality of sources o 6.3 Right of access to government information (United States of

America) 7 See also 8 External links

9 Other Reading

[edit] Broadcast journalismFor more information about radio and television journalism, see News broadcasting

Radio journalists must gather facts about and make them fairly and accurately, but also must find and record relevant and interesting sounds to add to their reports, both interviews with people involved in the story and background sounds that help characterize the story. Radio reporters may also write the introduction to the story read by a radio news anchor, and may also answer questions live from the anchor.

Television journalists rely on visual information to illustrate and characterize their reporting, including on-camera interviews with people involved in the story, shots of the scene where the story took place, and graphics usually produced at the station to help frame the story. Like radio reporters, television reporters also may write the introductory script that a television news anchor would read to set up their story. Both radio and television journalists usually do not have as much "space" to present

information in their reports as print journalists. Television Journalists have to be well presented and well prepared.

[edit] Online (Cyber) journalismMain article: Online journalism

The World Wide Web has spawned from babby seals the newest medium for journalism, online (Cyber) journalism. The speed at which news can be disseminated on the web, and the profound penetration to anyone with a computer and web browser, have greatly increased the quantity and variety of news reports available to the average web user.

The bulk of online journalism has been the extension of existing print and broadcast media into the web via web versions of their primary products. News reports that were set to be released at expected times can now be published as soon as they are written and edited, increasing the deadline pressure and fear of being scooped which many journalists must deal with.

The digitalization of news production and the diffusion capabilities of the internet are challenging the traditional journalistic professional culture. The concept of participatory or (citizen journalism) proposes that amateur reporters can actually produce their own stories either inside or outside professional media outlets.

Most news websites are free to their users — one notable exception being the Wall Street Journal website, for which a subscription is required to view its contents — but some outlets, such as the New York Times website, offer current news free, but archived reports and access to opinion columnists and other non-news sections for a periodic fee. Attempts to start unique web publications, such as Slate and Salon, have met with limited success, in part because they do or did charge subscription fees.

Many newspapers are branching into new mediums because of the Internet. Their websites may now include video, podcasts, blogs and slideshows. Story chat, where readers may post comments on an article, has changed the dialogue newspapers foster. Traditionally kept to the confines of the opinion section as letters to the editor, story chat has allowed readers to express opinions without the time delay of a letter or the approval of an editor.

The growth of blogs as a source of news and especially opinion on the news has changed journalism forever. Blogs now can create news as well as report it, and blur the dividing line between news and opinion. The debate about whether blogging is really journalism rages on.

[edit] Variations of journalism

Newspapers and periodicals often contain features (see under heading feature style at article news style) written by journalists, many of whom specialize in this form of in-depth journalism.

Feature articles usually are longer than straight news articles, and are combined with photographs, drawings or other "art." They may also be highlighted by typographic effects or colors.

Writing features can be more demanding than writing straight news stories, because while a journalist must apply the same amount of effort to accurately gather and report the facts of the story, the reporter must also find a creative and interesting way to write the article, especially the lead, or the first one or two paragraphs of the story. The lead must grab the reader's attention yet accurately embody the ideas of the article. Often the lead of a feature article is dictated by its subject matter. Journalists must work even harder to avoid clichéd images and words when writing the lead and the rest of the article.

In the last half of the 20th Century the line between straight news reporting and feature writing blurred as more and more journalists and publications experimented with different approaches to writing an article. Tom Wolfe, Gay Talese, Hunter S. Thompson and other journalists used many different approaches to writing news articles. Urban and alternative weekly newspapers went even further in blurring the distinction, and many magazines include more features than straight news.

Some television news shows experimented with alternative formats, and many TV shows that claimed to be news shows were not considered as such by many critics, because their content and methods did not adhere to accepted journalistic standards. National Public Radio, on the other hand, is considered a good example of a good mixture of straight news reporting, features, and combinations of the two, usually meeting standards of high quality. Other U.S. public radio news organizations have achieved similar results. A majority of newspapers still maintain a clear distinction between news and features, as do most television and radio news organizations.

[edit] Sports journalism For more information, see Sports journalism.

Sports journalism covers many aspects of human athletic competition, and is an integral part of most journalism products, including newspapers, magazines, and radio and television news broadcasts. While some critics don't consider sports journalism to be true journalism, the prominence of sports in Western culture has justified the attention of journalists to not just the competitive events in sports, but also to athletes and the business of sports.

Sports journalism in the United States has traditionally been written in a looser, more creative and more opinionated tone than traditional journalistic writing; the emphasis on accuracy and underlying fairness is still a part of sports journalism. An emphasis on the accurate description of the statistical performances of athletes is also an important part of sports journalism.

[edit] Science journalism

* For more information, see Science journalism.

Science journalism is a relatively new branch of journalism, in which journalists' reporting conveys information on science topics to the public. Science journalists must understand and interpret very detailed, technical and sometimes jargon-laden information and render it into interesting reports that are comprehensible to consumers of news media.

Scientific journalists also must choose which developments in science merit news coverage, as well as cover disputes within the scientific community with a balance of fairness to both sides but also with a devotion to the facts.

Many, but not all, journalists covering science have training in the sciences they cover, including several medical journalists who cover medicine.

[edit] Investigative journalism

* For more information, see Investigative reporting.

Investigative journalism, in which journalists investigate and expose unethical, immoral and illegal behavior by individuals, businesses and government agencies, can be complicated, time-consuming and expensive — requiring teams of journalists, months of research, interviews (sometimes repeated interviews) with numerous people, long-distance travel, computers to analyze public-record databases, or use of the company's legal staff to secure documents under freedom of information laws.

Because of its inherently confrontational nature, this kind of reporting is often the first to suffer from budget cutbacks or interference from outside the news department. Investigative reporting done poorly can also expose journalists and media organizations to negative reaction from the subjects of investigations and the public, and accusations of gotcha journalism. When conducted correctly it can bring the attention of the public and government to problems and conditions that the public deem need to be addressed, and can win awards and recognition to the journalists involved and the media outlet that did the reporting.

[edit] New journalism For more information, see New Journalism.

New Journalism was the name given to a style of 1960s and 1970s news writing and journalism which used literary techniques deemed unconventional at the time. The term was codified with its current meaning by Tom Wolfe in a 1973 collection of journalism articles.

It is typified by using certain devices of literary fiction, such as conversational speech, first-person point of view, recording everyday details and telling the story using scenes. Though it seems undisciplined at first, new journalism maintains elements of reporting including strict adherence to factual accuracy and the writer being the primary source. To get "inside the head" of a character, the journalist asks the subject what they were thinking or how they felt.

Because of its unorthodox style, new journalism is typically employed in feature writing or book-length reporting projects.

Many new journalists are also writers of fiction and prose. In addition to Wolfe, writers whose work has fallen under the title "new journalism" include Norman Mailer, Hunter S. Thompson, Joan Didion, Truman Capote, George Plimpton and Gay Talese.

[edit] Gonzo journalism

Gonzo journalism is a type of journalism popularized by the American writer Hunter S. Thompson, author of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72, among other stories and books. Gonzo journalism is characterized by its punchy style, rough language, and ostensible disregard for conventional journalistic writing forms and customs. Gonzo journalism attempts to present a multi-disciplinary perspective on a particular story, drawing from popular culture, sports, political, philosophical and literary sources. Gonzo journalism has been styled eclectic or untraditional. It remains a feature of popular magazines such as Rolling Stone magazine. It has a good deal in common with new journalism and on-line journalism (see above).

[edit] 'Celebrity' or 'People' journalism

Another area of journalism that grew in stature in the 20th Century is 'celebrity' or 'people' journalism, which focuses on the personal lives of people, primarily celebrities, including movie and stage actors, musical artists, models and photographers, other notable people in the entertainment industry, as well as people who seek attention, such as politicians, and people thrust into the attention of the public, such as people who do something newsworthy.

Once the province of newspaper gossip columnists and gossip magazines, celebrity journalism has become the focus of national tabloid newspapers like the National Enquirer, magazines like People and Us Weekly, syndicated television shows like Entertainment Tonight, Inside Edition, The Insider, Access Hollywood, and Extra, cable networks like E!, A&E Network and The Biography Channel, and numerous other television productions and thouasands of websites. Most other news media provide some coverage of celebrities and people.

Celebrity journalism differs from feature writing in that it focuses on people who are either already famous or are especially attractive, and in that it often covers celebrities obsessively, to the point of these journalists behaving unethically in order to provide coverage. Paparazzi, photographers who would follow celebrities incessantly to obtain potentially embarrassing photographs, have come to characterize celebrity journalism.

[edit] 'Convergence Journalism'

An emerging form of journalism, which combines different forms of journalism, such as print, photographic and video, into one piece or group of pieces. Convergence Journalism can be found in the likes of CNN and many other news sites. The Washington Post has a notable amount of this.

[edit] Ambush journalism

Ambush journalism refers to aggressive tactics practiced by journalists to suddenly confront with questions people who otherwise do not wish to speak to a journalist. The practice has particularly been applied by television journalists, such as those on the CBS-TV news show 60 Minutes and by Geraldo Rivera, currently on the Fox News cable channel, and by hundreds of American local television reporters conducting investigations.

The practice has been sharply criticized by journalists and others as being highly unethical and sensational, while others defend it as the only way to attempt to provide those subject to it an opportunity to comment for a report. Ambush journalism has not been ruled illegal in the United States, although doing it on private property could open a journalist to being charged with trespassing.

[edit] Gotcha journalism For more information, see Gotcha journalism.

Gotcha journalism refers to the deliberate manipulation of the presentation of facts in a report in order to portray a person or organization in a particular way that varies from an accurate portrayal based on a balanced review of the facts available. In particular, it is applied to broadcast journalism, where the story, images and interviews are tailored to create a particular impression of the subject matter.

It is considered highly unethical to engage in gotcha journalism. Many subjects of reporting have claimed to have been subjected to it, and some media outlets are guilty of deliberately biased reporting.

[edit] Role of journalism in a democracy

In the 1920s, as modern journalism was just taking form, writer Walter Lippmann and American philosopher John Dewey debated over the role of journalism in a democracy. Their differing philosophies still characterize a debate about the role of journalism in society and the nation-state.

Lippmann understood that journalism's role at the time was to act as a mediator or translator between the public and policymaking elites. The journalist became the middleman. When elites spoke, journalists listened and recorded the information, distilled it, and passed it on to the public for their consumption. His reasoning behind this was that the public was not in a position to deconstruct the growing and complex flurry of information present in modern society, and so an intermediary was needed to filter news for the masses. Lippman put it this way: The public is not smart enough to understand complicated, political issues. Furthermore, the public was too consumed with their daily lives to care about complex public policy. Therefore the public needed someone to interpret the decisions or concerns of the elite to make the information plain and simple. That was the role of journalists. Lippmann believed that the public would affect the decision-making of the elite with their vote. In the meantime, the elite (i.e. politicians, policy makers, bureaucrats, scientists, etc.) would keep the business of power running. In Lippman's world, the journalist's role was to inform the

public of what the elites were doing. It was also to act as a watchdog over the elites, as the public had the final say with their votes. Effectively that kept the public at the bottom of the power chain, catching the flow of information that is handed down from experts/elites.

Dewey, on the other hand, believed the public was not only capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. Dewey believed journalists not only had to inform the public, but should report on issues differently than simply passing on information. In Dewey's world, a journalist's role changed. Dewey believed that journalists should take in the information, then weigh the consequences of the policies being enacted by the elites on the public. Over time, his idea has been implemented in various degrees, and is more commonly known as "community journalism."

This concept of Community Journalism is at the centre of new developments in journalism. In this new paradigm, journalists are able to engage citizens and the experts/elites in the proposition and generation of content. It's important to note that while there is an assumption of equality, Dewey still celebrates expertise. Dewey believes the shared knowledge of many is far superior to a single individual's knowledge. Experts and scholars are welcome in Dewey's framework, but there is not the hierarchical structure present in Lippman's understanding of journalism and society. According to Dewey, conversation, debate, and dialogue lie at the heart of a democracy.

While Lippman's journalistic philosophy might be more acceptable to government leaders, Dewey's approach is a better description of how many journalists see their role in society, and, in turn, how much of society expects journalists to function. Americans, for example, may criticize some of the excesses committed by journalists, but they tend to expect journalists to serve as watchdogs on government, businesses and other actors, enabling people to make informed decisions on the issues of the time.

[edit] The Elements of Journalism

According to The Elements of Journalism by Bill Kovach and Tom Rosensteil, there are nine elements of journalism [1]. In order for a journalist to fulfill their duty of providing the people with the information they need to be free and self-governing. They must follow these guidelines:

1. Journalism's first obligation is to the truth.2. Its first loyalty is to the citizens.3. Its essence is discipline of verification.4. Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover.5. It must serve as an independent monitor of power.6. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise.7. It must strive to make the significant interesting, and relevant.8. It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional.9. Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience.

On the April 2007 edition of the book [2], they have added one additional element, the rights and responsibilities of citizens to make it a total of ten elements of journalism.

[edit] Professional and ethical standards

Since the development of professional journalism at the beginning of the 20th Century, journalists have been expected to follow a stringent code of journalistic conduct that requires them to, among other things:

Use original sources of information, including interviews with people directly involved in a story, original documents and other direct sources of information, whenever possible, and cite the sources of this information in reports;

o For more information on using sources, see Journalism sourcing. Fully attribute information gathered from other published sources, should

original sources not be available (not to do so is considered plagiarism; some newspapers also note when an article uses information from previous reports);

Use multiple original sources of information, especially if the subject of the report is controversial;

Check every fact reported; Find and report every side of a story possible; Report without bias, illustrating many aspects of a conflict rather than siding

with one; Approach researching and reporting a story with a balance between objectivity

and skepticism. Use careful judgment when organizing and reporting information. Be careful about granting confidentiality to sources (news organizations

usually have specific rules that journalists must follow concerning grants of confidentiality);

Decline gifts or favours from any subject of a report, to avoid the appearance of being influenced;

Abstain from reporting or otherwise participating in the research and writing about a subject in which the journalist has a personal stake or bias that cannot be set aside.

This was in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th Century, where the media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumpton of balance or objectivity. E.g., see (1).

[edit] Recognition of excellence in journalism

There are several professional organizations, universities and foundations that recognize excellence in journalism in the USA. The Pulitzer Prize, administered by Columbia University in New York City, is awarded to newspapers, magazines and broadcast media for excellence in various kinds of journalism. The Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism gives the Alfred I. duPont-Columbia University Awards for excellence in radio and television journalism, and the Scripps

Howard Foundation gives the National Journalism Awards in 17 categories. The Society of Professional Journalists gives the Sigma Delta Chi Award for journalism excellence. In the television industry, the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences gives awards for excellence in television journalism.

[edit] Failing to uphold standards

Such a code of conduct can, in the real world, be difficult to uphold consistently. Journalists who believe they are being fair or objective may give biased accounts -- by reporting selectively, trusting too much to anecdote, or giving a partial explanation of actions. (See Media bias.) Even in routine reporting, bias can creep into a story through a reporter's choice of facts to summarize, or through failure to check enough sources, hear and report dissenting voices, or seek fresh perspectives.

As much as reporters try to set aside their prejudices, they may simply be unaware of them. Young reporters may be blind to issues affecting the elderly. A 20-year veteran of the "police beat" may be deaf to rumours of departmental corruption. Publications marketed to affluent suburbanites may ignore urban problems. And, of course, naive or unwary reporters and editors alike may fall prey to public relations, propaganda or disinformation.

News organizations provide editors, producers or news directors whose job is to check reporters' work at various stages. But editors can get tired, lazy, complacent or biased. An editor may be blind to a favorite reporter's omissions, prejudices or fabrications. (See Jayson Blair.) Provincial editors also may be ill-equipped to weigh the perspective (or check the facts of) a correspondent reporting from a distant city or foreign country. (See News management.)

A news organization's budget inevitably reflects decision-making about what news to cover, for what audience, and in what depth. Those decisions may reflect conscious or unconscious bias. When budgets are cut, editors may sacrifice reporters in distant news bureaus, reduce the number of staff assigned to low-income areas, or wipe entire communities from the publication's zone of interest.

Publishers, owners and other corporate executives, especially advertising sales executives, can try to use their powers over journalists to influence how news is reported and published. Journalists usually rely on top management to create and maintain a "firewall" between the news and other departments in a news organization to prevent undue influence on the news department. One journalism magazine, Columbia Journalism Review, has made it a practice to reveal examples of executives who try to influence news coverage, of executives who do not abuse their powers over journalists, and of journalists who resist such pressures.

Self-censorship is a growing problem in journalism, particularly in covering countries that sharply restrict press freedom. As commercial pressure in the media marketplace grows, media organizations are loath to lose access to high-profile countries by producing unflattering stories. For example, CNN admitted that it had practiced self-censorship in covering the Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq in order to ensure continued access after the regime had thrown out other media. CNN correspondent Christiane Amanpour also complained of self-censorship during the invasion of Iraq

due to the fear of alienating key audiences in the US. There are claims that the media are also avoiding covering stories about repression and human rights violations by the Iranian regime in order to maintain a presence in the country.

[edit] Reporting versus editorializing

Generally, publishers and consumers of journalism draw a distinction between reporting — "just the facts" — and opinion writing, often by restricting opinion columns to the editorial page and its facing or "op-ed" (opposite the editorials) page. Unsigned editorials are traditionally the official opinions of the paper's editorial board, while op-ed pages may be a mixture of syndicated columns and other contributions, frequently with some attempt to balance the voices across some political or social spectrum.

The distinction between reporting and opinion can break down. Complex stories often require summarizing and interpretation of facts, especially if there is limited time or space for a story. Stories involving great amounts of interpretation are often labelled "news analysis," but still run in a paper's news columns. The limited time for each story in a broadcast report rarely allows for such distinctions.

[edit] Legal status

For more information, see Freedom of the press

Journalists around the world often write about the governments in their nations, and those governments have widely varying policies and practices towards journalists, which control what they can research and write, and what press organizations can publish. Many Western governments guarantee the freedom of the press, and do relatively little to restrict press rights and freedoms, while other nations severely restrict what journalists can research and/or publish.

Journalists in many nations have enjoyed some privileges not enjoyed by members of the general public, including better access to public events, crime scenes and press conferences, and to extended interviews with public officials, celebrities and others in the public eye. These privileges are available because of the perceived power of the press to turn public opinion for or against governments, their officials and policies, as well as the perception that the press often represents their consumers. These privileges extend from the legal rights of journalists but are not guaranteed by those rights. Sometimes government officials may attempt to punish individual journalists who irk them by denying them some of these privileges extended to other journalists.

Nations or jurisdictions that formally license journalists may confer special privileges and responsibilities along with those licenses, but in the United States the tradition of an independent press has avoided any imposition of government-controlled examinations or licensing.[citation needed] Some of the states have explicit shield laws that protect journalists from some forms of government inquiry, but those statutes' definitions of "journalist" were often based on access to printing presses and broadcast towers. A national shield law has been proposed.

In some nations, journalists are directly employed, controlled or censored by their governments. In other nations, governments who may claim to guarantee press rights actually intimidate journalists with threats of arrest, destruction or seizure of property (especially the means of production and dissemination of news content), torture or murder.

Journalists who elect to cover conflicts, whether wars between nations or insurgencies within nations, often give up any expectation of protection by government, if not giving up their rights to protection by government. Journalists who are captured or detained during a conflict are expected to be treated as civilians and to be released to their national government.

[edit] Rights of journalists versus those of private citizens and organizations

Journalists enjoy similar powers and privileges as private citizens and organizations. The power of journalists over private citizens is limited by the citizen's rights to privacy. Many who seek favourable representation in the press (celebrities, for example) do grant journalists greater access than others enjoy. The right to privacy of a private citizen may be reduced or lost if the citizen is thrust into the public eye, either by their own actions or because they are involved in a public event or incident.

Citizens and private organizations can refuse to deal with some or all journalists; the powers the press enjoy in many nations often make this tactic ineffective or counter-productive.

Citizens in most nations also enjoy the right against being libelled or defamed by journalists, and citizens can bring suit against journalists who they claim have published damaging untruths about them with malicious disregard for the truth. Libel or defamation lawsuits can also become conflicts between the journalists' rights to publish versus the private citizen's right to privacy. Some journalists have claimed lawsuits brought against them and news organizations — or even the threat of such a lawsuit — were intended to stifle their voices with the threat of expensive legal procedings, even if plaintiffs cannot prove their cases. This is referred to as the Chilling effect.

In the United Kingdom, it is up to the journalist and/or their employers to defend against claims of defamation, as opposed to other nations where the burden of proof is on the claimant.

In many nations, journalists and news organizations must function under a similar threat of retaliation from private individuals or organizations as from governments. Criminals and criminal organizations, political parties, some zealous religious organizations, and even mobs of people have been known to punish journalists who speak or write about them in ways they do not like. Punishments can include threats, physical damage to property, assault, torture and murder.

[edit] Right to protect confidentiality of sourcesFor more information, see Protection of sources

Journalists' interaction with sources sometimes involves confidentiality, an extension of freedom of the press giving journalists a legal protection to keep the identity of a source private even when demanded by police or prosecutors; withholding sources can land journalists in contempt of court, or in jail.

The scope of rights granted to journalists varies from nation to nation; in the United Kingdom, for example, the government has had more legal rights to protect what it considers sensitive information, and to force journalists to reveal the sources of leaked information, than the United States. Other nations, particularly Zimbabwe and the People's Republic of China, have a reputation of persecuting journalists, both domestic and foreign.

In the United States, there has never been a right to protect sources in a federal court. Some states provide varying degrees of such protection. However, federal courts will refuse to force journalists to reveal sources, unless the information the court seeks is highly relevant to the case, and there's no other way to get it. Journalists, like all citizens, who refuse to testify even when ordered to can be found in contempt of court and fined or jailed.

[edit] Right of access to government information (United States of America)

Like sources, journalists depend on the rights granted by government to the public and, by extension, to the press, for access to information held by the government. These rights also vary from nation to nation (see Freedom of information legislation) and, in the United States, from state to state. Some states have more open policies for making information available, and some states have acted in the last decade to broaden those rights. New Jersey, for example, has updated and broadened its Sunshine Law to better define what kinds of government documents can be withheld from public inquiry.

In the United States, the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) guarantees journalists the right to obtain copies of government documents, although the government has the right to redact, or black out, information from documents in those copies that FOIA allows them to withhold. Other federal legislation also controls access to information (see Freedom of information in the United States).

[edit] See also

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Journalism

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of How To Run A Newspaper

At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Journalism at: The School of Journalism

Wikinews has related news: Journalism

Journalism Portal

History of Journalism History of American Newspapers Yellow journalism Fashion journalism Sports journalism Parachute journalism Journalism in Australia Journalism education Online Journalism Community journalism Reporters without borders Citizen journalism Advocacy journalism Environmental journalism Science journalism Video journalism Objectivity (philosophy) main article discussing the concept of objectivity in

various fields (history, science, journalism, philosophy, etc.) Objectivity (journalism) Journalism ethics and standards Freedom of the press Journalist Magazine Mass media Newspaper Journalism school Pen & Pencil Club

[edit] External links

Wikia has a wiki about this topic: journalism European Journalism Observatory Society of Professional Journalists Journalism.org: Research, Resources and Ideas to Improve Journalism U of Iowa: Journalism and Mass Communication Resources American Journalism Review magazine International Journalism Festival

[edit] Other Reading

An excellent listing of books on various aspects of journalism from the early 20th Century can be found in Popular Educator Library, Volume Two, National Educational alliance, Inc, copyright 1938, 808-811.

Media studiesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

Media Studies is the study of the constitution, history, and effects of media. Media studies employ theories and methods from a number of fields which include political economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, Media influence, film/video studies, cultural anthropology, cultural studies, philosophy, museum studies, art history/criticism, information theory, and economics. Accordingly Media Studies, a comparably young academic field, differ in the extent to which Media itself are thematic and to what extent a unified definition of Media is attempted.

Media Studies in the tradition of social sciences like communication studies, sociology and economics generally focus on Mass Media, their political, social, economic and cultural role and impact in creating and distributing content to media audiences.

Media Studies in the tradition of humanities like literary theory, film/video studies, cultural studies and philosophy focus on the constitution of media and question in how far they shape what is regarded as knowledge and as communicable.

Contents

[hide] 1 History of media studies 2 Key themes in media studies 3 Political communication and political economy 4 Media Studies in Germany 5 Media Studies in India 6 Media Studies in the UK

o 6.1 Cultural Studies o 6.2 Media Studies & Educational Websites

7 Criticism of Media Studies in the UK Media 8 See also 9 References

10 External links

[edit] History of media studies

Main article: History of media studies

[edit] Key themes in media studies

In addition to the interdisciplinary nature of the academic field, popular understandings of media studies encompass:

media content production audience studies and media influence mass communication journalism political economy interpersonal communication cultural sociology

Although most production and journalism courses incorporate media studies for contextual purposes (see Fourth estate), the terms are not interchangeable.

Separate strands are being identified within media studies, such as audience studies, producer studies, television studies and radio studies. Film studies is often considered a separate discipline, though television and video games studies grew out of it, as made evident by the application of basic critical theories such as psychoanalysis, feminism and Marxism.

Critical media theory looks at how the corporate ownership of media production and distribution affects society, and provides a common ground to social conservatives (concerned by the effects of media on the traditional family) and liberals and socialists (concerned by the corporatization of social discourse). The study of the effects and techniques of advertising forms a cornerstone of media studies.

Contemporary media studies includes the analysis of new media with emphasis on the internet, video games, mobile devices, interactive television, and other forms of mass media which developed from the 1990s. Because these new technologies allow instant communication across the world (chat rooms and instant messaging, online video games, video conferencing), interpersonal communication is an important element in new media studies. Another factor influencing contemporary media studies is globalization: the debate of globalization as a historical event or as a social construction rages on [1].

It has been argued that media studies has not fully acknowledged the changes which the internet and digital interactive media have brought about, seeing these as an 'add-on'. David Gauntlett has argued for a 'Media Studies 2.0' which fully recognises the ways in which media has changed, and that traditional boundaries between 'audiences' and 'producers' has collapsed.

[edit] Political communication and political economy

From the beginning, media studies are closely related to politics and wars (Guo & Wu, 2005, p. 276) such as campaign research and war propaganda. Political communication mainly studies the connections among politicians, voters and media. It focused on the media effects. There are four main media effects theories: magic

bullet, two-step flow of communications (Lazarsfeld, 1948), limited effects (Lang & Lang, 1953), and the spiral of silence (Noelle-Neumann, 1984). Also, many scholars studied the technique of political communication such as rhetoric, symbolism and etc.

In the last quarter century, political economy has played a major part in media studies literature. The theory gained notoriety in media studies particularly with the publication of Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky’s Manufacturing Consent, published in 1988. In the book, the authors discuss a theory of how the United States’ media industry operates, which they term a “propaganda model.” The model describes a “decentralized and non-conspiratorial market system of control and processing, although at times the government or one or more private actors may take initiatives and mobilize co-ordinated elite handling of an issue." [2]

[edit] Media Studies in Germany

In Germany two main streams of Media Studies can be identified. The older stream and dominant stream is comparable to Communication Studies. Pioneered by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann in the 1940s this stream studies mass media, its institutions and its effects on society and individuals.

Since the 1980s a second stream of Media Studies has developed. Emerging from Germanic and Literature Studies and pioneered by Friedrich Kittler, Hartmut Winkler, Georg Christoph Tholen, Norbert Bolz and Bernhard Siegert Media are investigated as means of representation of knowledge. Often applying historical research and utilizing and criticizing post-structuralist French theory media are investigated in their structural function in enabling and forming knowledge and its communication. Discourses are analyzed for their underlying medial a priori (German: 'mediales apriori')

This stream of Media Studies has become institutionalized during the second half of the 1990s when numerous departments for media studies and media history have been established at German universities.

[edit] Media Studies in India

Media is growing in India at the rate of 20 percent per annum. The entertainment and media together makes the sixth biggest Industry of the country. Approx.3.5 million people are working in this industry. The turnover is going to be eighty thousand crores by next 4 to 5 years. The third biggest media institute of the world Asian Academy Of Film & Television is also based in India.

[edit] Media Studies in the UK

In the UK, media studies developed in the 1960s from the academic study of English, and from literary criticism more broadly. The key date, according to Andrew Crisell, is 1959:

when Joseph Trenaman left the BBC's Further Education Unit to become the first holder of the Granada Research Fellowship in Television at Leeds University. Soon after in 1966, the Centre for Mass Communication Research was founded at Leicester University, and degree programmes in media studies began to sprout at polytechnics and other universities during the 1970s and 1980s.[3]

[edit] Cultural StudiesMain article: Cultural studies

The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) was founded by Richard Hoggart and Stuart Hall at the University of Birmingham in 1964. As the appeal of Marxism waned in the 1960s, the CCCS took critical theory in new directions, raising questions about media and power. There was the shift of paradigm from ethnography to Hall's semiology. The CCCS was pivotal in developing the field, producing a number of key researchers. Under the directorship of Stuart Hall, who wrote the seminal Encoding/Decoding model, the centre produced key empirical research about the relationship between texts and audiences. Amongst these was The Nationwide Audience by David Morley and Charlotte Brunsdon.[4] Cultural studies revamped the definition of culture. The definition of culture changed from culture being viewed as good/bad to an overall view of social interests and relations.[5]

[edit] Media Studies & Educational WebsitesMain article: Media Studies & Educational Websites

Sites like Mediaedu are now actively supporting secondary school staff and students with GCSE and A Level media education in the UK. Mediaedu.co.uk is a collaborative website designed by qualified Media Studies teachers. Some of its content is written by senior examiners and professionals in the industry.

[edit] Criticism of Media Studies in the UK Media

In the UK, Media Studies is regularly the victim of jokes and cynical attitudes, often being labelled as a Mickey Mouse subject.[6][7] It receives many of the criticisms directed at sociology scholars during the 70s and 80s.[8]

In 2000, England's Chief Schools Inspector, Chris Woodhead suggested that media studies is a "one way ticket to the dole queue." There is, he says, a "profound scepticism as to whether these courses teach students the skills and understanding they want".[8]

However, Paul Smith, professor of media and culture at the University of Sussex says that the rising number of media studies programmes is not "dumbing down", but reflects changes in the real world. "In the current cultural, social and political circumstances that we live in, the media is so pre-eminent, that some way of understanding it is fairly crucial for an informed citizenship. We are trying to understand how [the media] operates, what kind of structures it has and the cultural impact it has."[8] Boris Johnson, the UK shadow minister for higher education has also supported the subject: "[media studies] is an excellent preparation for the real thing,

by the way" [9] and has cited media studies as an example of a degree thought by some journalists to be "complete rubbish" but which was often "a good way of getting employment."[10]

Its relation to polytechnics, and subsequently the post-1992 New Universities, are also a target for ridicule. The now annual moral panic in the UK every August when GCSE and A-level results are released normally focuses upon Media Studies as an example of the alleged dumbing down of education.[11]

[edit] See also

Anthropology of media Media ecology Mass media Hot and cool media Mass communication Multimedia literacy Journalism

o Yellow Journalism Transparency (humanities) Behavioural sciences Political Economy Virtual ethnography Time- and space-bias Marshall McLuhan 's tetrad of media effects Cultural sociology

[edit] References

1. ̂ The Global Transformations Reader: An Introduction to the Globalization Debate David Held (Editor), Anthony G. McGrew (Editor). Polity Press, 2000

2. ̂ Herman, Edward S. (2000). "The Propaganda Model: A retrospective". Journalism Studies 1 (1).  (Herman, 2000)

3. ̂ Crisell, Andrew (2002). An Introductory History of British Broadcasting. London: Routledge, 186-7. ISBN 0-415-24792-6. 

4. ̂ Moores, Shaun (1993). Interpreting Audiences: The Ethnography of Media Consumption. London: Sage. ISBN 0-8039-8447-2. 

5. ̂ Katz, E., Peters, J.D., Liebes, T., & Orloff, A. (2003). Canonic Texts in Media Research. Cambridge: Polity Press, p 214-215.

6. ̂ "Media Studies. Discuss", BBC News, 18 August 2005. Retrieved on 2006-12-01. 

7. ̂ "'Mickey Mouse' degrees defended", BBC News. Retrieved on 2006-12-01. 8. ^ a b c "Is media studies a doss? Discuss", BBC News, 2000-03-03. Retrieved

on 2006-12-01. 9. ̂ Johnson Website10. ̂ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4642806.stm BBC11. ̂ Barker, Martin (with Julian Petley) (2001) "On the problems of being a

'trendy travesty'" In: M. Barker and J. Petley (eds) Ill effects: the

media/violence debate. (2nd ed.) London: Routledge. pp. 202-224. ISBN 0-415-22513-2

[edit] External links

Theory.org.uk : media studies website by David Gauntlett Mediaedu.co.uk A new Media Studies website offering blogging, podcasts,

interactive forums, online quizzes, photo resources, writing frames, competitions, useful links and managed content. This is a collaborative site aimed at supporting the needs of staff and students working in KS4 and KS5 Media Studies.

MANA - the Media Alliance for New Activism LanguageMonitor : Media Metrics and Analysis MediaStudies.com Links to a variety of news and other media sites.

PressFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

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Look up Press inWiktionary, the free dictionary.

Press may refer to:

In publishing:

The press or journalism The press or the newspaper business The press or news media The Fourth Estate, the press in its explicit capacity of advocacy and in its

implicit ability to frame political issues The popular press or mass media A press or publishing house A press or printer (publisher) Printing press , a machine that presses ink from a printing plate onto paper The Press , a newspaper published in Christchurch, New Zealand The Press (York) , an English regional newspaper Press TV , an Iranian English-language news channel

Journalism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

This article or section deals primarily with the United States and does not represent a worldwide view of the subject.Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

This article is missing citations or needs footnotes.Using inline citations helps guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (June 2007)

Journalism is the discipline of gathering, writing and reporting news, and broadly it includes the process of editing and presenting the news articles. Journalism applies to various media, but is not limited to newspapers, magazines, radio, and television. Some high schools promote journalism as an elective class.

While under pressure to be the first to publish its stories, each news media organization adheres to its own standards of accuracy, quality, and style — usually editing and proofreading its reports prior to publication. Many news organizations claim proud traditions of holding government officials and institutions accountable to the public, while media critics have raised questions on the accountability of the press.

The word journalism is taken from the French journal which in turn comes from the Latin diurnal or daily; The Acta Diurna, a handwritten bulletin, was put up daily in the Forum, the main public square in ancient Rome, and was the world's first newspaper.

News-oriented journalism was described by former Washington Post editor, Phil Graham, as "a first rough draft of history", because journalists often record important historical events as they are happening, but at the same time, they must produce their news articles on short deadlines.

Topics in journalismProfessional issues

News • Reportage • Writing • Ethics • Objectivity • Values • Attribution •

Defamation • Editorial independence • Education • Other topics

FieldsArts • Business • Entertainment • Environment • Fashion • Politics • Science • Sports • Trade • Traffic •

WeatherGenres

Advocacy journalismCitizen journalismCivic journalism

Community journalismGonzo journalism

Investigative journalismLiterary journalism

Narrative journalismNew Journalism

Opinion journalismVisual journalism

Watchdog journalismSocial impact

Fourth EstateFreedom of the press

InfotainmentMedia bias

News propagandaPublic relations

Yellow journalismNews media

NewspapersMagazines

News agenciesBroadcast journalism

Online journalismPhotojournalism

Alternative mediaRoles

Journalist • Reporter • Editor • Columnist • Commentator •

Photographer • News presenter • Meteorologist

 This box: view • talk • edit 

Journalism's activities include stating What, When, Where, How, and Why, famously quoted by Rudyard Kipling (see the Five Ws), and stating the significance and effects of certain events or trends. Journalism exists in a number of media: newspapers, television , radio, magazines and, most recently, the World Wide Web through the Internet.

Journalists report and write on a wide variety of subjects: politics on the international, national, provincial and local levels, economics and business on the same four levels, health and medicine, education, sports, hobbies and recreation, lifestyles, clothing, food, pets, and relationships; journalists report on anything that news organizations think consumers will read. Journalists can report for general interest news outlets like newspapers, news magazines and broadcast sources; general circulation specialty publications like trade and hobby magazines, or for news publications and outlets with a select group of subscribers. Journalists are usually expected and required to go out to the scene of a story to gather information for their reports, and often may compose their reports in the field. They also use the telephone, the computer and the internet to gather information. However, more often those reports are written, and they are almost always edited in newsrooms, the offices where journalists and editors work together to prepare the content of news items.

Journalists, especially if they cover a specific subject or area (a 'beat') are expected to cultivate sources, people in the subject or area, that they can communicate with, either to explain the details of a story, or to provide leads to other subjects for stories yet to be reported. They are also expected to develop their investigative skills to research and report stories better.

Print journalism can be split into several categories: newspapers, news magazines, general interest magazines, trade magazines, hobby magazines, newsletters, private publications, online news pages and others. Each genre can have its own requirements for researching and writing reports.

For example, newspaper journalists in the United States have traditionally written reports using the inverted pyramid style, although this style is used more for straight or hard news reports rather than features. Written hard news reports are expected to be spare in the use of words, and to list the most important information first, so that if the story must be cut because there is not enough space for it, the least important facts will be automatically removed. Editors usually ensure that reports are written with as few words as possible. Feature stories are usually written in a looser style which usually depends on the subject matter of the report, and are in general granted more space (see Feature-writing below).

News magazine and general interest magazine articles are usually written in different styles, with less emphasis on the inverted pyramid. Trade publications can be more news-oriented, while hobby publications can be more feature-oriented.

Contents

[hide] 1 Broadcast journalism

2 Online (Cyber) journalism 3 Variations of journalism

o 3.1 Sports journalism o 3.2 Science journalism o 3.3 Investigative journalism o 3.4 New journalism o 3.5 Gonzo journalism o 3.6 'Celebrity' or 'People' journalism o 3.7 'Convergence Journalism' o 3.8 Ambush journalism o 3.9 Gotcha journalism

4 Role of journalism in a democracy o 4.1 The Elements of Journalism

5 Professional and ethical standards o 5.1 Recognition of excellence in journalism o 5.2 Failing to uphold standards o 5.3 Reporting versus editorializing

6 Legal status o 6.1 Rights of journalists versus those of private citizens and

organizationso 6.2 Right to protect confidentiality of sources o 6.3 Right of access to government information (United States of

America) 7 See also 8 External links

9 Other Reading

[edit] Broadcast journalismFor more information about radio and television journalism, see News broadcasting

Radio journalists must gather facts about and make them fairly and accurately, but also must find and record relevant and interesting sounds to add to their reports, both interviews with people involved in the story and background sounds that help characterize the story. Radio reporters may also write the introduction to the story read by a radio news anchor, and may also answer questions live from the anchor.

Television journalists rely on visual information to illustrate and characterize their reporting, including on-camera interviews with people involved in the story, shots of the scene where the story took place, and graphics usually produced at the station to help frame the story. Like radio reporters, television reporters also may write the introductory script that a television news anchor would read to set up their story. Both radio and television journalists usually do not have as much "space" to present information in their reports as print journalists. Television Journalists have to be well presented and well prepared.

[edit] Online (Cyber) journalismMain article: Online journalism

The World Wide Web has spawned from babby seals the newest medium for journalism, online (Cyber) journalism. The speed at which news can be disseminated on the web, and the profound penetration to anyone with a computer and web browser, have greatly increased the quantity and variety of news reports available to the average web user.

The bulk of online journalism has been the extension of existing print and broadcast media into the web via web versions of their primary products. News reports that were set to be released at expected times can now be published as soon as they are written and edited, increasing the deadline pressure and fear of being scooped which many journalists must deal with.

The digitalization of news production and the diffusion capabilities of the internet are challenging the traditional journalistic professional culture. The concept of participatory or (citizen journalism) proposes that amateur reporters can actually produce their own stories either inside or outside professional media outlets.

Most news websites are free to their users — one notable exception being the Wall Street Journal website, for which a subscription is required to view its contents — but some outlets, such as the New York Times website, offer current news free, but archived reports and access to opinion columnists and other non-news sections for a periodic fee. Attempts to start unique web publications, such as Slate and Salon, have met with limited success, in part because they do or did charge subscription fees.

Many newspapers are branching into new mediums because of the Internet. Their websites may now include video, podcasts, blogs and slideshows. Story chat, where readers may post comments on an article, has changed the dialogue newspapers foster. Traditionally kept to the confines of the opinion section as letters to the editor, story chat has allowed readers to express opinions without the time delay of a letter or the approval of an editor.

The growth of blogs as a source of news and especially opinion on the news has changed journalism forever. Blogs now can create news as well as report it, and blur the dividing line between news and opinion. The debate about whether blogging is really journalism rages on.

[edit] Variations of journalism

Newspapers and periodicals often contain features (see under heading feature style at article news style) written by journalists, many of whom specialize in this form of in-depth journalism.

Feature articles usually are longer than straight news articles, and are combined with photographs, drawings or other "art." They may also be highlighted by typographic effects or colors.

Writing features can be more demanding than writing straight news stories, because while a journalist must apply the same amount of effort to accurately gather and report the facts of the story, the reporter must also find a creative and interesting way

to write the article, especially the lead, or the first one or two paragraphs of the story. The lead must grab the reader's attention yet accurately embody the ideas of the article. Often the lead of a feature article is dictated by its subject matter. Journalists must work even harder to avoid clichéd images and words when writing the lead and the rest of the article.

In the last half of the 20th Century the line between straight news reporting and feature writing blurred as more and more journalists and publications experimented with different approaches to writing an article. Tom Wolfe, Gay Talese, Hunter S. Thompson and other journalists used many different approaches to writing news articles. Urban and alternative weekly newspapers went even further in blurring the distinction, and many magazines include more features than straight news.

Some television news shows experimented with alternative formats, and many TV shows that claimed to be news shows were not considered as such by many critics, because their content and methods did not adhere to accepted journalistic standards. National Public Radio, on the other hand, is considered a good example of a good mixture of straight news reporting, features, and combinations of the two, usually meeting standards of high quality. Other U.S. public radio news organizations have achieved similar results. A majority of newspapers still maintain a clear distinction between news and features, as do most television and radio news organizations.

[edit] Sports journalism For more information, see Sports journalism.

Sports journalism covers many aspects of human athletic competition, and is an integral part of most journalism products, including newspapers, magazines, and radio and television news broadcasts. While some critics don't consider sports journalism to be true journalism, the prominence of sports in Western culture has justified the attention of journalists to not just the competitive events in sports, but also to athletes and the business of sports.

Sports journalism in the United States has traditionally been written in a looser, more creative and more opinionated tone than traditional journalistic writing; the emphasis on accuracy and underlying fairness is still a part of sports journalism. An emphasis on the accurate description of the statistical performances of athletes is also an important part of sports journalism.

[edit] Science journalism

* For more information, see Science journalism.

Science journalism is a relatively new branch of journalism, in which journalists' reporting conveys information on science topics to the public. Science journalists must understand and interpret very detailed, technical and sometimes jargon-laden information and render it into interesting reports that are comprehensible to consumers of news media.

Scientific journalists also must choose which developments in science merit news coverage, as well as cover disputes within the scientific community with a balance of fairness to both sides but also with a devotion to the facts.

Many, but not all, journalists covering science have training in the sciences they cover, including several medical journalists who cover medicine.

[edit] Investigative journalism

* For more information, see Investigative reporting.

Investigative journalism, in which journalists investigate and expose unethical, immoral and illegal behavior by individuals, businesses and government agencies, can be complicated, time-consuming and expensive — requiring teams of journalists, months of research, interviews (sometimes repeated interviews) with numerous people, long-distance travel, computers to analyze public-record databases, or use of the company's legal staff to secure documents under freedom of information laws.

Because of its inherently confrontational nature, this kind of reporting is often the first to suffer from budget cutbacks or interference from outside the news department. Investigative reporting done poorly can also expose journalists and media organizations to negative reaction from the subjects of investigations and the public, and accusations of gotcha journalism. When conducted correctly it can bring the attention of the public and government to problems and conditions that the public deem need to be addressed, and can win awards and recognition to the journalists involved and the media outlet that did the reporting.

[edit] New journalism For more information, see New Journalism.

New Journalism was the name given to a style of 1960s and 1970s news writing and journalism which used literary techniques deemed unconventional at the time. The term was codified with its current meaning by Tom Wolfe in a 1973 collection of journalism articles.

It is typified by using certain devices of literary fiction, such as conversational speech, first-person point of view, recording everyday details and telling the story using scenes. Though it seems undisciplined at first, new journalism maintains elements of reporting including strict adherence to factual accuracy and the writer being the primary source. To get "inside the head" of a character, the journalist asks the subject what they were thinking or how they felt.

Because of its unorthodox style, new journalism is typically employed in feature writing or book-length reporting projects.

Many new journalists are also writers of fiction and prose. In addition to Wolfe, writers whose work has fallen under the title "new journalism" include Norman Mailer, Hunter S. Thompson, Joan Didion, Truman Capote, George Plimpton and Gay Talese.

[edit] Gonzo journalism

Gonzo journalism is a type of journalism popularized by the American writer Hunter S. Thompson, author of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72, among other stories and books. Gonzo journalism is characterized by its punchy style, rough language, and ostensible disregard for conventional journalistic writing forms and customs. Gonzo journalism attempts to present a multi-disciplinary perspective on a particular story, drawing from popular culture, sports, political, philosophical and literary sources. Gonzo journalism has been styled eclectic or untraditional. It remains a feature of popular magazines such as Rolling Stone magazine. It has a good deal in common with new journalism and on-line journalism (see above).

[edit] 'Celebrity' or 'People' journalism

Another area of journalism that grew in stature in the 20th Century is 'celebrity' or 'people' journalism, which focuses on the personal lives of people, primarily celebrities, including movie and stage actors, musical artists, models and photographers, other notable people in the entertainment industry, as well as people who seek attention, such as politicians, and people thrust into the attention of the public, such as people who do something newsworthy.

Once the province of newspaper gossip columnists and gossip magazines, celebrity journalism has become the focus of national tabloid newspapers like the National Enquirer, magazines like People and Us Weekly, syndicated television shows like Entertainment Tonight, Inside Edition, The Insider, Access Hollywood, and Extra, cable networks like E!, A&E Network and The Biography Channel, and numerous other television productions and thouasands of websites. Most other news media provide some coverage of celebrities and people.

Celebrity journalism differs from feature writing in that it focuses on people who are either already famous or are especially attractive, and in that it often covers celebrities obsessively, to the point of these journalists behaving unethically in order to provide coverage. Paparazzi, photographers who would follow celebrities incessantly to obtain potentially embarrassing photographs, have come to characterize celebrity journalism.

[edit] 'Convergence Journalism'

An emerging form of journalism, which combines different forms of journalism, such as print, photographic and video, into one piece or group of pieces. Convergence Journalism can be found in the likes of CNN and many other news sites. The Washington Post has a notable amount of this.

[edit] Ambush journalism

Ambush journalism refers to aggressive tactics practiced by journalists to suddenly confront with questions people who otherwise do not wish to speak to a journalist. The practice has particularly been applied by television journalists, such as those on the CBS-TV news show 60 Minutes and by Geraldo Rivera, currently on the Fox

News cable channel, and by hundreds of American local television reporters conducting investigations.

The practice has been sharply criticized by journalists and others as being highly unethical and sensational, while others defend it as the only way to attempt to provide those subject to it an opportunity to comment for a report. Ambush journalism has not been ruled illegal in the United States, although doing it on private property could open a journalist to being charged with trespassing.

[edit] Gotcha journalism For more information, see Gotcha journalism.

Gotcha journalism refers to the deliberate manipulation of the presentation of facts in a report in order to portray a person or organization in a particular way that varies from an accurate portrayal based on a balanced review of the facts available. In particular, it is applied to broadcast journalism, where the story, images and interviews are tailored to create a particular impression of the subject matter.

It is considered highly unethical to engage in gotcha journalism. Many subjects of reporting have claimed to have been subjected to it, and some media outlets are guilty of deliberately biased reporting.

[edit] Role of journalism in a democracy

In the 1920s, as modern journalism was just taking form, writer Walter Lippmann and American philosopher John Dewey debated over the role of journalism in a democracy. Their differing philosophies still characterize a debate about the role of journalism in society and the nation-state.

Lippmann understood that journalism's role at the time was to act as a mediator or translator between the public and policymaking elites. The journalist became the middleman. When elites spoke, journalists listened and recorded the information, distilled it, and passed it on to the public for their consumption. His reasoning behind this was that the public was not in a position to deconstruct the growing and complex flurry of information present in modern society, and so an intermediary was needed to filter news for the masses. Lippman put it this way: The public is not smart enough to understand complicated, political issues. Furthermore, the public was too consumed with their daily lives to care about complex public policy. Therefore the public needed someone to interpret the decisions or concerns of the elite to make the information plain and simple. That was the role of journalists. Lippmann believed that the public would affect the decision-making of the elite with their vote. In the meantime, the elite (i.e. politicians, policy makers, bureaucrats, scientists, etc.) would keep the business of power running. In Lippman's world, the journalist's role was to inform the public of what the elites were doing. It was also to act as a watchdog over the elites, as the public had the final say with their votes. Effectively that kept the public at the bottom of the power chain, catching the flow of information that is handed down from experts/elites.

Dewey, on the other hand, believed the public was not only capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. Dewey believed journalists not only had to inform the public, but should report on issues differently than simply passing on information. In Dewey's world, a journalist's role changed. Dewey believed that journalists should take in the information, then weigh the consequences of the policies being enacted by the elites on the public. Over time, his idea has been implemented in various degrees, and is more commonly known as "community journalism."

This concept of Community Journalism is at the centre of new developments in journalism. In this new paradigm, journalists are able to engage citizens and the experts/elites in the proposition and generation of content. It's important to note that while there is an assumption of equality, Dewey still celebrates expertise. Dewey believes the shared knowledge of many is far superior to a single individual's knowledge. Experts and scholars are welcome in Dewey's framework, but there is not the hierarchical structure present in Lippman's understanding of journalism and society. According to Dewey, conversation, debate, and dialogue lie at the heart of a democracy.

While Lippman's journalistic philosophy might be more acceptable to government leaders, Dewey's approach is a better description of how many journalists see their role in society, and, in turn, how much of society expects journalists to function. Americans, for example, may criticize some of the excesses committed by journalists, but they tend to expect journalists to serve as watchdogs on government, businesses and other actors, enabling people to make informed decisions on the issues of the time.

[edit] The Elements of Journalism

According to The Elements of Journalism by Bill Kovach and Tom Rosensteil, there are nine elements of journalism [1]. In order for a journalist to fulfill their duty of providing the people with the information they need to be free and self-governing. They must follow these guidelines:

1. Journalism's first obligation is to the truth.2. Its first loyalty is to the citizens.3. Its essence is discipline of verification.4. Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover.5. It must serve as an independent monitor of power.6. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise.7. It must strive to make the significant interesting, and relevant.8. It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional.9. Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience.

On the April 2007 edition of the book [2], they have added one additional element, the rights and responsibilities of citizens to make it a total of ten elements of journalism.

[edit] Professional and ethical standards

Since the development of professional journalism at the beginning of the 20th Century, journalists have been expected to follow a stringent code of journalistic conduct that requires them to, among other things:

Use original sources of information, including interviews with people directly involved in a story, original documents and other direct sources of information, whenever possible, and cite the sources of this information in reports;

o For more information on using sources, see Journalism sourcing. Fully attribute information gathered from other published sources, should

original sources not be available (not to do so is considered plagiarism; some newspapers also note when an article uses information from previous reports);

Use multiple original sources of information, especially if the subject of the report is controversial;

Check every fact reported; Find and report every side of a story possible; Report without bias, illustrating many aspects of a conflict rather than siding

with one; Approach researching and reporting a story with a balance between objectivity

and skepticism. Use careful judgment when organizing and reporting information. Be careful about granting confidentiality to sources (news organizations

usually have specific rules that journalists must follow concerning grants of confidentiality);

Decline gifts or favours from any subject of a report, to avoid the appearance of being influenced;

Abstain from reporting or otherwise participating in the research and writing about a subject in which the journalist has a personal stake or bias that cannot be set aside.

This was in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th Century, where the media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumpton of balance or objectivity. E.g., see (1).

[edit] Recognition of excellence in journalism

There are several professional organizations, universities and foundations that recognize excellence in journalism in the USA. The Pulitzer Prize, administered by Columbia University in New York City, is awarded to newspapers, magazines and broadcast media for excellence in various kinds of journalism. The Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism gives the Alfred I. duPont-Columbia University Awards for excellence in radio and television journalism, and the Scripps Howard Foundation gives the National Journalism Awards in 17 categories. The Society of Professional Journalists gives the Sigma Delta Chi Award for journalism excellence. In the television industry, the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences gives awards for excellence in television journalism.

[edit] Failing to uphold standards

Such a code of conduct can, in the real world, be difficult to uphold consistently. Journalists who believe they are being fair or objective may give biased accounts -- by reporting selectively, trusting too much to anecdote, or giving a partial explanation of actions. (See Media bias.) Even in routine reporting, bias can creep into a story through a reporter's choice of facts to summarize, or through failure to check enough sources, hear and report dissenting voices, or seek fresh perspectives.

As much as reporters try to set aside their prejudices, they may simply be unaware of them. Young reporters may be blind to issues affecting the elderly. A 20-year veteran of the "police beat" may be deaf to rumours of departmental corruption. Publications marketed to affluent suburbanites may ignore urban problems. And, of course, naive or unwary reporters and editors alike may fall prey to public relations, propaganda or disinformation.

News organizations provide editors, producers or news directors whose job is to check reporters' work at various stages. But editors can get tired, lazy, complacent or biased. An editor may be blind to a favorite reporter's omissions, prejudices or fabrications. (See Jayson Blair.) Provincial editors also may be ill-equipped to weigh the perspective (or check the facts of) a correspondent reporting from a distant city or foreign country. (See News management.)

A news organization's budget inevitably reflects decision-making about what news to cover, for what audience, and in what depth. Those decisions may reflect conscious or unconscious bias. When budgets are cut, editors may sacrifice reporters in distant news bureaus, reduce the number of staff assigned to low-income areas, or wipe entire communities from the publication's zone of interest.

Publishers, owners and other corporate executives, especially advertising sales executives, can try to use their powers over journalists to influence how news is reported and published. Journalists usually rely on top management to create and maintain a "firewall" between the news and other departments in a news organization to prevent undue influence on the news department. One journalism magazine, Columbia Journalism Review, has made it a practice to reveal examples of executives who try to influence news coverage, of executives who do not abuse their powers over journalists, and of journalists who resist such pressures.

Self-censorship is a growing problem in journalism, particularly in covering countries that sharply restrict press freedom. As commercial pressure in the media marketplace grows, media organizations are loath to lose access to high-profile countries by producing unflattering stories. For example, CNN admitted that it had practiced self-censorship in covering the Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq in order to ensure continued access after the regime had thrown out other media. CNN correspondent Christiane Amanpour also complained of self-censorship during the invasion of Iraq due to the fear of alienating key audiences in the US. There are claims that the media are also avoiding covering stories about repression and human rights violations by the Iranian regime in order to maintain a presence in the country.

[edit] Reporting versus editorializing

Generally, publishers and consumers of journalism draw a distinction between reporting — "just the facts" — and opinion writing, often by restricting opinion columns to the editorial page and its facing or "op-ed" (opposite the editorials) page. Unsigned editorials are traditionally the official opinions of the paper's editorial board, while op-ed pages may be a mixture of syndicated columns and other contributions, frequently with some attempt to balance the voices across some political or social spectrum.

The distinction between reporting and opinion can break down. Complex stories often require summarizing and interpretation of facts, especially if there is limited time or space for a story. Stories involving great amounts of interpretation are often labelled "news analysis," but still run in a paper's news columns. The limited time for each story in a broadcast report rarely allows for such distinctions.

[edit] Legal status

For more information, see Freedom of the press

Journalists around the world often write about the governments in their nations, and those governments have widely varying policies and practices towards journalists, which control what they can research and write, and what press organizations can publish. Many Western governments guarantee the freedom of the press, and do relatively little to restrict press rights and freedoms, while other nations severely restrict what journalists can research and/or publish.

Journalists in many nations have enjoyed some privileges not enjoyed by members of the general public, including better access to public events, crime scenes and press conferences, and to extended interviews with public officials, celebrities and others in the public eye. These privileges are available because of the perceived power of the press to turn public opinion for or against governments, their officials and policies, as well as the perception that the press often represents their consumers. These privileges extend from the legal rights of journalists but are not guaranteed by those rights. Sometimes government officials may attempt to punish individual journalists who irk them by denying them some of these privileges extended to other journalists.

Nations or jurisdictions that formally license journalists may confer special privileges and responsibilities along with those licenses, but in the United States the tradition of an independent press has avoided any imposition of government-controlled examinations or licensing.[citation needed] Some of the states have explicit shield laws that protect journalists from some forms of government inquiry, but those statutes' definitions of "journalist" were often based on access to printing presses and broadcast towers. A national shield law has been proposed.

In some nations, journalists are directly employed, controlled or censored by their governments. In other nations, governments who may claim to guarantee press rights actually intimidate journalists with threats of arrest, destruction or seizure of property

(especially the means of production and dissemination of news content), torture or murder.

Journalists who elect to cover conflicts, whether wars between nations or insurgencies within nations, often give up any expectation of protection by government, if not giving up their rights to protection by government. Journalists who are captured or detained during a conflict are expected to be treated as civilians and to be released to their national government.

[edit] Rights of journalists versus those of private citizens and organizations

Journalists enjoy similar powers and privileges as private citizens and organizations. The power of journalists over private citizens is limited by the citizen's rights to privacy. Many who seek favourable representation in the press (celebrities, for example) do grant journalists greater access than others enjoy. The right to privacy of a private citizen may be reduced or lost if the citizen is thrust into the public eye, either by their own actions or because they are involved in a public event or incident.

Citizens and private organizations can refuse to deal with some or all journalists; the powers the press enjoy in many nations often make this tactic ineffective or counter-productive.

Citizens in most nations also enjoy the right against being libelled or defamed by journalists, and citizens can bring suit against journalists who they claim have published damaging untruths about them with malicious disregard for the truth. Libel or defamation lawsuits can also become conflicts between the journalists' rights to publish versus the private citizen's right to privacy. Some journalists have claimed lawsuits brought against them and news organizations — or even the threat of such a lawsuit — were intended to stifle their voices with the threat of expensive legal procedings, even if plaintiffs cannot prove their cases. This is referred to as the Chilling effect.

In the United Kingdom, it is up to the journalist and/or their employers to defend against claims of defamation, as opposed to other nations where the burden of proof is on the claimant.

In many nations, journalists and news organizations must function under a similar threat of retaliation from private individuals or organizations as from governments. Criminals and criminal organizations, political parties, some zealous religious organizations, and even mobs of people have been known to punish journalists who speak or write about them in ways they do not like. Punishments can include threats, physical damage to property, assault, torture and murder.

[edit] Right to protect confidentiality of sourcesFor more information, see Protection of sources

Journalists' interaction with sources sometimes involves confidentiality, an extension of freedom of the press giving journalists a legal protection to keep the identity of a

source private even when demanded by police or prosecutors; withholding sources can land journalists in contempt of court, or in jail.

The scope of rights granted to journalists varies from nation to nation; in the United Kingdom, for example, the government has had more legal rights to protect what it considers sensitive information, and to force journalists to reveal the sources of leaked information, than the United States. Other nations, particularly Zimbabwe and the People's Republic of China, have a reputation of persecuting journalists, both domestic and foreign.

In the United States, there has never been a right to protect sources in a federal court. Some states provide varying degrees of such protection. However, federal courts will refuse to force journalists to reveal sources, unless the information the court seeks is highly relevant to the case, and there's no other way to get it. Journalists, like all citizens, who refuse to testify even when ordered to can be found in contempt of court and fined or jailed.

[edit] Right of access to government information (United States of America)

Like sources, journalists depend on the rights granted by government to the public and, by extension, to the press, for access to information held by the government. These rights also vary from nation to nation (see Freedom of information legislation) and, in the United States, from state to state. Some states have more open policies for making information available, and some states have acted in the last decade to broaden those rights. New Jersey, for example, has updated and broadened its Sunshine Law to better define what kinds of government documents can be withheld from public inquiry.

In the United States, the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) guarantees journalists the right to obtain copies of government documents, although the government has the right to redact, or black out, information from documents in those copies that FOIA allows them to withhold. Other federal legislation also controls access to information (see Freedom of information in the United States).

[edit] See also

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Journalism

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of How To Run A Newspaper

At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Journalism at: The School of Journalism

Wikinews has related news: Journalism

Journalism Portal

History of Journalism History of American Newspapers Yellow journalism Fashion journalism Sports journalism Parachute journalism Journalism in Australia Journalism education Online Journalism Community journalism Reporters without borders Citizen journalism Advocacy journalism Environmental journalism Science journalism Video journalism Objectivity (philosophy) main article discussing the concept of objectivity in

various fields (history, science, journalism, philosophy, etc.) Objectivity (journalism) Journalism ethics and standards Freedom of the press Journalist Magazine Mass media Newspaper Journalism school Pen & Pencil Club

[edit] External links

Wikia has a wiki about this topic: journalism European Journalism Observatory Society of Professional Journalists Journalism.org: Research, Resources and Ideas to Improve Journalism U of Iowa: Journalism and Mass Communication Resources American Journalism Review magazine International Journalism Festival

Newspaper

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

A newspaper is a written publication containing news, information and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint. General-interest newspapers often feature articles on political events, crime, business, art/entertainment, society and sports. Most traditional papers also feature an editorial page containing columns which express the personal opinions of writers. Supplementary sections may contain advertising, comics, coupons, and other printed media. Newspapers are most often published on a daily or weekly basis, and they usually focus on one particular geographic area where most of their readers live. Despite recent setbacks in circulation and profits newspapers are still the most iconic outlet for news and other types of written journalism.

Reading the newspaper: Brookgreen Gardens in Pawleys Island, South Carolina, United States.

Features a newspaper may include are:

Weather news and forecasts An advice column Critic reviews of movies, plays,

restaurants, etc. Editorial opinions A gossip column Comic strips and other

entertainment, such as crosswords, sudoku and horoscopes

A sports column or section

Topics in journalismProfessional issues

News • Reportage • Writing • Ethics • Objectivity • Values • Attribution •

Defamation • Editorial independence • Education • Other topics

FieldsArts • Business • Entertainment • Environment • Fashion • Politics • Science • Sports • Trade • Traffic •

WeatherGenres

Advocacy journalismCitizen journalismCivic journalism

Community journalismGonzo journalism

Investigative journalismLiterary journalism

Narrative journalismNew Journalism

Opinion journalismVisual journalism

Watchdog journalismSocial impact

Fourth EstateFreedom of the press

InfotainmentMedia bias

News propagandaPublic relations

Yellow journalismNews media

NewspapersMagazines

News agenciesBroadcast journalism

Online journalismPhotojournalism

Alternative mediaRoles

Journalist • Reporter • Editor • Columnist • Commentator •

Photographer • News presenter • Meteorologist

 This box: view • talk • edit 

A humor column or section A food column Classified ads are commonly seen in local or small newspapers.

Contents

[hide] 1 History 2 Types 3 Format

o 3.1 Online-only o 3.2 Electronic paper

4 Circulation and readership 5 Advertising 6 Journalism 7 Future 8 See also 9 References

10 External links

[edit] History

There is some debate over which publication was the first newspaper because the definition of a newspaper has been flexible. In ancient Rome, Acta Diurna, or government announcement bulletins, were made public by Julius Caesar. They were carved on stone or metal and posted in public places. Between 713 and 734, the Kai Yuan Za Bao of the Chinese Tang Dynasty published government news; it was handwritten on silk and read by government officials. In 1582 there was the first reference to privately-published newssheets in Beijing, during the late Ming Dynasty;[1] by 1638 the Beijing Gazette switched from woodblock print to movable type printing.[1] However, the World Association of Newspapers recognizes Johann Carolus’s Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien, published in 1605, as the world’s first newspaper. The Dutch Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c. of 1618 is also considered by some to be the first modern newspaper since the Relation looks more like a book than what is now considered a newspaper. The newspaper Opregte Haarlemsche Courant from Haarlem, first published in 1656, is considered by some to be the oldest continuously published newspaper, though it was forced to merge with the newspaper Haarlems Dagblad in 1942 by the German occupier. Since then the Harlems Dagblad appears with the subtitle Oprechte Haerlemse Courant 1656 and considers itself to be the oldest still-publishing newspaper in the world.

In the English-speaking world, Nathaniel Butter is often credited with the creation of the first news periodical in 1622. The earliest papers in the United Kingdom were devoted to politics and government proceedings. In 1702, the first daily newspaper called The Daily Courant was published.[2] In Boston in 1690, Benjamin Harris published Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick. This is considered the first newspaper in the American colonies even though only one edition was published

before the paper was suppressed by the government. In 1704, the governor allowed the Boston News-Letter to be published and it became the first “continuously published” newspaper in the colonies. Soon after, weekly papers began publishing in New York and Philadelphia. These early newspapers followed the British format and were usually four pages long. They mostly carried news from Britain and content depended on the editor’s interests. In 1783, the Pennsylvania Evening Post became the first American daily. In 1751, John Bushell’s Halifax Gazette became the first Canadian newspaper. By the early 19th century, many cities in Western and Eastern Europe, as well as North and South America, published newspaper-type publications though not all of them developed in the same way; content was vastly shaped by regional and cultural preferences.[3]

A modern remake of Kai Yuan Za Bao

Advances in printing technology during the Industrial Revolution were responsible for turning the newspaper into a widely circulated means of communication. In 1814, The Times of London acquired a printing press capable of making 1,100 impressions per minute.[4] Soon, it was adapted to print on both sides of a page at once. This innovation made newspapers cheaper and thus available to a larger part of the population. In 1833, Benjamin Day printed the first penny press newspaper, The New York Sun (historical). Penny press papers cost about one sixth the price of other newspapers and appealed to a wider audience.[5]

Recent developments on the Internet are, however, posing major challenges to the business model of many newspapers. Paid circulation is declining in most countries, and advertising revenue, which makes up the bulk of most newspapers’ income, is shifting from print to online, resulting in a general decline in newspaper profits. This has led to some predictions that newspapers will shrink or even disappear, although new media technologies such as radio and television never supplanted print media.

[edit] Types

A daily newspaper is issued every day, sometimes with the exception of Sundays and some national holidays. Saturday and, where they exist, Sunday editions of daily newspapers tend to be larger, include more specialized sections and advertising inserts, and cost more. Typically, the majority of these newspapers’ staff work Monday to Friday, so the Sunday and Monday editions largely depend on content done in advance or content that is syndicated. Most daily newspapers are published in the morning. Afternoon or evening papers are aimed more at commuters and office workers.

Weekly newspapers are common and tend to be smaller than daily papers. In some cases, there also are newspapers that are published twice or three times a week. In the United States, such newspapers are generally still classified as weeklies.

Most nations have at least one newspaper that circulates throughout the whole country: a national newspaper, as contrasted with a local newspaper serving a city or region. In the United Kingdom, there are numerous national newspapers, including The Independent, The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian, The Observer, The Daily Mail, The Sun, The Daily Express and The Daily Mirror. In the United States and Canada, there are few truly national newspapers, with the notable exceptions The Wall Street Journal and USA Today in the US and The Globe and Mail and The National Post in Canada. Large metropolitan newspapers with expanded distribution networks such as The New York Times and The Washington Post can fill the role of de facto national newspapers.

As English has become the international language of business and technology, many newspapers formerly published only in non-English languages have also developed English-language editions. In places as varied as Jerusalem and Bombay (Mumbai), newspapers are printed to a local and international English-speaking public. The advent of the Internet has also allowed the non-English newspapers to put out a scaled-down English version to give their newspaper a global outreach.

There is also a small group of newspapers which may be characterised as international newspapers. Some, such as Christian Science Monitor and The International Herald Tribune, have always had that focus, while others are repackaged national newspapers or “international editions” of national-scale or large metropolitan newspapers. Often these international editions are scaled down to remove articles that might not interest the wider range of readers.

Job titles within the newspaper industry vary greatly. In the United States, the overall manager of the newspaper — sometimes also the owner — may be termed the publisher. This usage is less common outside the U.S., but throughout the English-speaking world the person responsible for content is usually referred to as the editor. Variations on this title such as editor-in-chief, executive editor, and so on, are common.

While most newspapers are aimed at a broad spectrum of readers, usually geographically defined, some focus on groups of readers defined more by their interests than their location: for example, there are daily and weekly business newspapers and sports newspapers. More specialist still are some weekly newspapers, usually free and distributed within limited areas; these may serve communities as specific as certain immigrant populations, or the local gay community.

Newspapers often refine distribution of ads and news through zoning and editioning. Zoning occurs when advertising and editorial content change to reflect the location to which the product is delivered. The editorial content often may change merely to reflect changes in advertising — the quantity and layout of which affects the space available for editorial — or may contain region-specific news. In rare instances, the advertising may not change from one zone to another, but there will be different

region-specific editorial content. As the content can vary widely, zoned editions are often produced in parallel.

Editioning occurs in the main sections as news is updated throughout the night. The advertising is usually the same in each edition (with the exception of zoned regionals, in which it is often the ‘B’ section of local news that undergoes advertising changes). As each edition represents the latest news available for the next press run, these editions are produced linearly, with one completed edition being copied and updated for the next edition. The previous edition is always copied to maintain a Newspaper of Record and to fall back on if a quick correction is needed for the press. For example, both the New York Times and Wall Street Journal offer a regional edition, printed through a local contractor, and featuring locale specific content. The Journal’s global advertising rate card provides a good example of editioning. [1]

[edit] Format

Israeli broadsheet Haaretz seen in its Hebrew and English editions

Most modern newspapers are in one of three sizes:

Broadsheets : 600 mm by 380 mm (23½ by 15 inches), generally associated with more intellectual newspapers, although a trend towards “compact” newspapers is changing this.

Tabloids : half the size of broadsheets at 380 mm by 300 mm (15 by 11¾ inches), and often perceived as sensationalist in contrast to broadsheets. Examples: The Sun, The National Enquirer, The National Ledger, The Star Magazine, New York Post, The Globe.

Berliner or Midi: 470 mm by 315 mm (18½ by 12¼ inches) used by European papers such as Le Monde in France, La Stampa in Italy, El Pais in Spain and, since 12 September 2005, The Guardian in the United Kingdom.

Newspapers are usually printed on inexpensive, off-white paper known as newsprint. Since the 1980s, the newspaper industry has largely moved away from lower-quality letterpress printing to higher-quality, four-color process, offset printing. In addition, desktop computers, word processing software, graphics software, digital cameras and digital prepress and typesetting technologies have revolutionized the newspaper production process. These technologies have enabled newspapers to publish color photographs and graphics, as well as innovative layouts and better design.

To help their titles stand out on newsstands, some newspapers are printed on coloured newsprint. For example, the Financial Times is printed on a distinctive salmon pink

paper, and the Italian sports newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport is printed on pink paper. Sheffield’s weekly sports publication derives its name, the “Green ’Un”, from the traditional colour of its paper, while L'Équipe (formerly L’Auto) is printed on yellow paper. Both the latter promoted major cycling races and their newsprint colours were reflected in the colours of the jerseys used to denote the race leader; thus, the leader in the Giro d'Italia wears a pink jersey.

[edit] Online-onlyMain article: Online newspaper

With the introduction of the Internet, web-based newspapers have also started to be produced as online-only publications, like the Southport Reporter [6] . To be a Web-Only newspaper they must be web published only and must not be part of or have any connection to hard-copy formats. To be classed as an Online Only Newspaper, the paper must also be regularly updated at a regular time and keep to a fixed news format, like a hardcopy newspaper. They must also be only published by professional media companies and regarded under the national/international press rules and regulations [7] unlike blog [8] sites and other news websites, it is run as a newspaper and is recognized by media groups in the UK, like the NUJ and/or the IFJ. Also they fall under the UK’s PCC rules.

[edit] Electronic paper

In 2006, the Flemish daily De Tijd of Antwerp field tested an version of the publication using electronic paper - in which text can be changed, like an online site, but is portable and show on a paper-like substrate - to a few hundred selected subscribers.[2]

[edit] Circulation and readership

Main article: Newspaper circulation

The number of copies distributed, either on an average day or on particular days (typically Sunday), is called the newspaper’s circulation and is one of the principal factors used to set advertising rates. Circulation is not necessarily the same as copies sold, since some copies or newspapers are distributed without cost. Readership figures may be higher than circulation figures because many copies are read by more than one person, although this is offset by the number of copies distributed but not read (especially for those distributed free).

Newspaper vendor, Paddington, London, February 2005

According to the Guinness Book of Records, the daily circulation of the Soviet newspaper Trud exceeded 21,500,000 in 1990, while the Soviet weekly Argumenty i fakty boasted the circulation of 33,500,000 in 1991.

According to United Nations data from 1995 Japan has three daily papers —the Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun and Yomiuri Shimbun— with circulations well above 4 million. Germany’s Bild, with a circulation of 4.5 million, was the only other paper in that category.

In the United Kingdom, The Sun is the top seller, with around 3.2 million copies distributed daily (late-2004).

In India, The Times of India is the largest English newspaper, with 2.14 million copies daily. According to the 2006 National Readership Study, the Dainik Jagran is the most-read, local-language (Hindi) newspaper, with 21.2 million readers [3].

In the U.S., USA Today has a daily circulation of approximately 2 million, making it the most widely distributed paper in the country.

A common measure of a newspaper’s health is market penetration, expressed as a percentage of households that receive a copy of the newspaper against the total number of households in the paper’s market area. In the 1920s, on a national basis in the U.S., daily newspapers achieved market penetration of 130 percent (meaning the average U.S. household received 1.3 newspapers). As other media began to compete with newspapers, and as printing became easier and less expensive giving rise to a greater diversity of publications, market penetration began to decline. It wasn’t until the early 1970s, however, that market penetration dipped below 100 percent. By 2000, it was 53 percent 1.

Many paid-for newspapers offer a variety of subscription plans. For example, someone might want only a Sunday paper, or perhaps only Sunday and Saturday, or maybe only a workweek subscription, or perhaps a daily subscription.

Some newspapers provide some or all of their content on the Internet, either at no cost or for a fee. In some cases, free access is available only for a matter of days or weeks, after which readers must register and provide personal data. In other cases, free archives are provided.

[edit] Advertising

Most newspapers make a majority of their income from advertising; the income from the customer’s payment at the news-stand is small in comparison. The portion of the newspaper that is not advertising is called editorial content, editorial matter, or simply editorial, although the last term is also used to refer specifically to those articles in which the newspaper and its guest writers express their opinions.

In recent years, the advertorial emerged. Advertorials are most commonly recognized as an opposite-editorial which third-parties pay a fee to have included in the paper. Advertorials commonly advertise new products or techniques, such as a new design for golf equipment, a new form of laser surgery, or weight-loss drugs. The tone is usually closer to that of a press release than of an objective news story.

[edit] Journalism

Since newspapers began as a journal (record of current events), the profession involved in the making of newspapers began to be called journalism.

In the yellow journalism era of the 19th century, many newspapers in the United States relied on sensational stories that were meant to anger or excite the public, rather than to inform. The more restrained style of reporting that relies on fact checking and accuracy regained popularity around World War II.

Criticism of journalism is varied and sometimes vehement. Credibility is questioned because of anonymous sources; errors in facts, spelling, and grammar; real or perceived bias; and scandals involving plagiarism and fabrication.

In the past, newspapers have often been owned by so-called press barons, and were used either asa rich man’s toy, or a political tool. More recently in the United States, a number of newspapers (and all of the largest ones) are being run by large media corporations such as Gannett, The McClatchy Company, Hearst Corporation, Cox, LandMark, Morris Corporation, The Tribune Company, Hollinger International, News Corporation, etc.

Newspapers have, in the modern world, played an important role in the exercise of freedom of expression. Whistle-blowers, and those who “leak” stories of corruption in political circles often choose to inform newspapers before other mediums of communication, relying on the perceived willingness of newspaper editors to expose the secrets and lies of those who would rather cover them. However, there have been many circumstances of the political autonomy of newspapers being curtailed.

Opinions of other writers and readers are expressed in the op-ed (“opposite the editorial page”) and letters to the editors sections of the paper.

Some ways newspapers have tried to improve their credibility are: appointing ombudsmen, developing ethics policies and training, using more stringent corrections policies, communicating their processes and rationale with readers, and asking sources to review articles after publication.

[edit] Future

The future of newspapers is cloudy, with overall readership slowly declining in most developed countries due to increasing competition from television and the Internet. The 57th annual World Newspaper Congress, held in Istanbul in June 2004, reported circulation increases in only 35 of 208 countries studied. Most of the increases came in developing countries, notably China and India.

Front page of The New York Times on Armistice Day, November 11, 1918.

A report at the gathering said circulation declined by an average of 2.2 percent across 13 of the 15 countries that made up the European Union. One growth area is the distribution of free daily newspapers, which are not reflected in the above circulation data. Led by the Metro chain of newspapers, they grew 16 percent in 2003.

Newspapers also face increased competition from internet sites such as Craigslist for classified ads, especially for jobs, real estate, and cars, the advertising of which has long been key sources of newspaper revenue. Also from online only newspapers. Already in the UK a newspaper called Southport Reporter started out in 2000 and remains online as a recognized newspaper, but only published online and others now exist through out the world. This opens the debate as to what constitutes a newspaper.

Further information: Online Newspapers

[edit] See also

List of newspapers (by country) List of online newspaper archives Above the fold Alternative weekly

List of fictional newspapers Freedom of the press Free daily newspaper Graphic design Gazette History of British newspapers History of American newspapers International Freedom of Expression Exchange Journalism List of journalism topics Magazine Mass media Muckraker Newspaper National Network LP Newspaper Association of America Newseum News design Newspaper circulation Newspapers on demand Photojournalism Printing Propaganda model Student newspaper Telephone newspaper Underground press Weekly newspaper Yellow journalism World Association of Newspapers

[edit] References

1. ^ a b Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22154-0 (Paperback). Page xxi.

2. ̂ Concise History of the British Newspaper in the 18th Century: The British Library Newspaper Library

3. ̂ newspaper - Britannica Online Encyclopedia4. ̂ Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1998. (pp 130–133)5. ̂ Bird, S. Elizabeth. For Enquiring Minds: A Cultural Study of Supermarket

Tabloids. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1992: 12-17.6. ̂ Published in UK as the “UK’s only web-based newspaper” in January 2002

in hard copy magazine called “Web Pages Made Easy.”7. ̂ Journalism Magazine — “The UK PCC (Press Complaints Commission)

before 2007 already regulated online editions of UK newspapers”8. ̂ Google Define Blog

News media

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

Electronic News Gathering trucks and photojournalists gathered outside the Prudential Financial headquarters in Newark, New Jersey in August 2004 following the announcement of evidence of a terrorist threat to it and to buildings in New York City.

The news media refers to the section of the mass media that focuses on presenting current news to the public. These include print media (newspapers, magazines); broadcast media (radio stations, television stations, television networks), and increasingly Internet-based media (World Wide Web pages, weblogs).

The term news trade refers to the concept of the news media as a business separate from, but integrally connected to, the profession of journalism.

Contents

[hide] 1 Etymology 2 Broadcasting 3 Newsmagazines 4 Newspapers 5 Newsreels 6 Online journalism 7 News coverage

8 See also

[edit] Etymology

A medium (plural media) is a carrier of something. Common things carried by media include information, art, or physical objects. A medium may provide transmission or storage of information or both.

Topics in journalismProfessional issues

News • Reportage • Writing • Ethics • Objectivity • Values • Attribution •

Defamation • Editorial independence • Education • Other topics

FieldsArts • Business • Entertainment • Environment • Fashion • Politics • Science • Sports • Trade • Traffic •

WeatherGenres

Advocacy journalismCitizen journalismCivic journalism

Community journalismGonzo journalism

Investigative journalismLiterary journalism

Narrative journalismNew Journalism

Opinion journalismVisual journalism

Watchdog journalismSocial impact

Fourth EstateFreedom of the press

InfotainmentMedia bias

News propagandaPublic relations

Yellow journalismNews media

NewspapersMagazines

News agenciesBroadcast journalism

Online journalismPhotojournalism

Alternative mediaRoles

Journalist • Reporter • Editor • Columnist • Commentator •

Photographer • News presenter • Meteorologist

 This box: view • talk • edit 

The industries which produce news and entertainment content for the mass media are often called "the media" (in much the same way the newspaper industry is called "the press"). In the late 20th century it became commonplace for this usage to be construed as singular ("The media is...") rather than as the traditional plural.

[edit] Broadcasting

Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and video signals (programs) to a number of recipients ("listeners" or "viewers") that belong to a large group. This group may be the public in general, or a relatively large audience within the public. Thus, an Internet channel may distribute text or music world-wide, while a public address system in (for example) a workplace may broadcast very limited ad hoc soundbites to a small population within its range.

The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule.

Television and radio programs are distributed through radio broadcasting or cable, often both simultaneously. By coding signals and having decoding equipment in homes, the latter also enables subscription-based channels and pay-per-view services.

A broadcasting organization may broadcast several programs at the same time, through several channels (frequencies), for example BBC One and Two. On the other hand, two or more organizations may share a channel and each use it during a fixed part of the day. Digital radio and digital television may also transmit multiplexed programming, with several channels compressed into one ensemble.

When broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used.

Broadcasting forms a very large segment of the mass media.

Broadcasting to a very narrow range of audience is called narrowcasting.

[edit] Newsmagazines

Photographers crowd around a starlet at the Cannes Film Festival.Main article: Newsmagazine

A newsmagazine, sometimes called news magazine, is a usually weekly magazine featuring articles on current events. News magazines generally go a little more in-depth into stories than newspapers, trying to give the reader an understanding of the context surrounding important events, rather than just the facts.

Major news magazines include:

Der Spiegel (Germany) La Repubblica (Italy) Le Nouvel Observateur (France) Maclean's Magazine (Canada) Monocle (United Kingdom) New African (Africa) Newsweek (United States) India Today (India) Outlook (India) Frontline (India) The Bulletin (Australia) The Economist (United Kingdom) The Nation (United States) The Week (United Kingdom/United States) TIME (United States) U.S. News & World Report (United States) Veja (Brazil) WORLD (United States)

[edit] Newspapers

Main article: Newspaper

Reading the newspaper: Brookgreen Gardens in Pawleys Island, South Carolina.

A newspaper is a lightweight and disposable publication (more specifically, a periodical), usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint. It may be general or special interest, and may be published daily, weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly, or quarterly.

General-interest newspapers are usually journals of current news on a variety of topics. Those can include political events, crime, business, sports, and opinions (either editorials, columns, or political cartoons). Many also include weather news and forecasts. Newspapers increasingly use photographs to illustrate stories; they also often include comic strips and other entertainment, such as crosswords.

[edit] Newsreels

A newsreel is a documentary film that is regularly released in a public presentation place containing filmed news stories.

Created by Pathé Frères of France in 1908, this form of film was a staple of the typical North American, British, and Commonwealth countries (especially Canada, Australia and New Zealand), and throughout European cinema programming schedule from the silent era until the 1960s when television news broadcasting completely supplanted its role.

Pathé would eventually merge with RKO...

An example of a newsreel story is in the film Citizen Kane (which was prepared by RKO's actual newsreel staff), which includes a fictional newsreel that summarizes the life of the title character.

[edit] Online journalism

Online journalism is reporting and other journalism produced or distributed via the Internet.

An early leader was The News & Observer in Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.

Many news organizations based in other media also distribute news online. How much they take advantage of the medium varies. Some news organizations, such as the Gongwer News Service, use the Web only or primarily.

The Internet challenges traditional news organizations in several ways. They may be losing classified ads to Web sites, which are often targeted by interest instead of geography. The advertising on news Web sites is sometimes insufficient to support the investment.

Even before the Internet, technology and perhaps other factors were dividing people's attention, leading to more but narrower media outlets.

Online journalism also leads to the spread of independent online media such as openDemocracy and the UK, Wikinews as well as allowing smaller news organizations to publish to a broad audience, such as mediastrike.

[edit] News coverage

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.Please improve this article if you can. (September 2006)

By covering news, politics, weather, sports, entertainment, and vital events, the daily media shape the dominant cultural, social and political picture of society. Beyond the media networks, independent news sources have evolved to report on events which

escape attention or underlie the major stories. In recent years, the blogosphere has taken reporting a step further, mining down to the experiences and perceptions of individual citizens.

An exponentially growing phenomenon, the blogosphere can be abuzz with news that is overlooked by the press and TV networks. Apropos of this was Robert F. Kennedy Jr.'s 11,000-word Rolling Stone article apropos of the 2004 United States presidential election, published June 1, 2006. By June 8, there had been no mainstream coverage of the documented allegations by President John F. Kennedy's nephew. On June 9, this sub-story was covered by a Seattle Post-Intelligencer article. [1]

News media (United States)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

The neutrality and factual accuracy of this article are disputed.Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page. This article has been tagged since December 2007.

American news media, reporting from a political event

Mass media are the means through which information is transmitted to a large audience. This includes newspapers, television, radio, and more recently the Internet. Those who provide news and information, and the outlets for which they work, are known as the news media.

Some high-quality news media organizations exist in the United States. However, some critics[weasel words] suggest they are undermined by lower quality media, which do not satisfactorily provide information and critical analysis. Others argue[weasel words] that the news media are simply catering to public demand. The role of the government-funded media is small in the US in comparison to the public media in some other countries.[citation needed]

Contents

[hide] 1 Structure of US news media

o 1.1 Private-sector news media o 1.2 Public sector news media

2 Public attitudes regarding news media 3 Agenda-setting

o 3.1 Agenda-setting in domestic politics

o 3.2 Agenda-setting in foreign policy o 3.3 Horse race approach to political campaign coverage

4 See also

5 References

[edit] Structure of US news media

The American media is made up of profit-making and nonprofit enterprises. A private, nonprofit news service, which is called the Public Broadcasting Service or PBS, is partially funded by the U.S. government and partially funded by charitable donations.

[edit] Private-sector news media

There are widely available press publications which are generally considered detailed, high quality publications.[neutrality disputed] There are thousands of newspapers in the United States. Some are available throughout the country, such as the New York Times and the International Herald Tribune (owned by the New York Times), the Washington Post and the Los Angeles Times (owned by the Washington Post), as well as news magazines such as Time and Newsweek.[citations needed] They often keep editorial opinions in separate columns from news. However, they generally carry little international news compared to the practice in other countries.[neutrality disputed][citation needed]

OWNERSHIP: the "big six" compaines are:

1) General Electric.

media-related holdings include television networks NBC and Telemundo, Universal Pictures, Focus Features, 26 television stations in the United States, and cable networks MSNBC, Bravo and the Sci Fi Channel.

2)Time Warner

holdings including: CNN, the CW (a joint venture with CBS), HBO, Cinemax, Cartoon Network, TBS, TNT, America Online, MapQuest, Moviefone, Netscape, Warner Bros. Pictures, Castle Rock, and New Line Cinema, over 150 magazines such as Time, Cooking Light, Marie Claire and People.

3)Walt Disney Company

ABC Television Network, cable networks including ESPN, the Disney Channel, SOAPnet, A&E and Lifetime, 227 radio stations, music and book publishing companies, production companies Touchstone, Miramax and Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios, the cellular service Disney Mobile, and theme parks around the world.

4)News Corporation’s media

holdings include: the Fox Broadcasting Company, television and cable networks such as Fox, Fox Business Channel, National Geographic and FX, 35 television stations, print publications including the Wall Street Journal, the New York Post, TVGuide, the magazines Barron’s and SmartMoney, book publisher HarperCollins, film production companies 20th Century Fox, Fox Searchlight Pictures and Blue Sky Studios, numerous Web sites including MarketWatch.com, and non-media holdings including the National Rugby League.

5) CBS Corporation

the CBS Television Network, CBS Television Distribution Group, the CW (a joint venture with Time Warner), Showtime, book publisher Simon & Schuster, 27 television stations, and CBS Radio, Inc, which has 140 stations. CBS is now the leading supplier of video to Google’s new Video Marketplace.

6)Viacom

holdings include: Music Television, Nickelodeon, VH1, BET, Comedy Central, Paramount Pictures, Paramount Home Entertainment, Atom Entertainment, publishing company Famous Music and music game developer Harmonix. Viacom 18 is a joint venture with the Indian media company Global Broadcast news.

source: http://www.freepress.net/ownership/chart.php?chart=main

Major providers of television news:

ABC CBS News CNN Fox News Channel MSNBC NBC News

Major newspapers include:

New York Times Los Angeles Times USA Today The Wall Street Journal Washington Post

Major news magazines:

Newsweek TIME U.S. News & World Report

[edit] Public sector news media

The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is a non-profit public broadcasting television service with 349 member TV stations in the United States. PBS was founded in 1969, at which time it took over many of the functions of its predecessor, National Educational Television (NET).

PBS is funded more by charitable donations than by the government.[citation needed] It is responsible for a relatively small portion of US media output.[citation needed]

In 2006-07, PBS' prime-time television broadcasts ranked seventh in the U.S. in audience size, behind CBS, Fox, NBC, ABC, CW and USA [1].

In the United States, listeners can hear programming produced by two nonprofit radio networks, National Public Radio, funded by the federal government, by sponsoring corporations and organizations and by listeners themselves, and Public Radio International.

The United States differs from some other countries, especially in Europe in that the public service broadcasting is very limited.[citation needed] In many countries (e.g. United Kingdom, France) public sector broadcasting is highly respected and is considered to provide high-quality news information and analysis.[citation needed] In the United Kingdom, the British Broadcasting Company is funded through a television licensing fee currently set at 10.96 pounds sterling per household per month. [2] In France, a news giant is TV5.

[edit] Public attitudes regarding news media

Research suggests that most Americans do believe the news that they receive through the media, but with reservations[3]:

"[Americans] say they can believe most, but not all of what national news organizations say… [But] upwards of 20% say they disbelieve much or all of the news delivered by many national news outlets." [Source: The Pew Research Centre for the People and the Press [4]]

[edit] Agenda-setting

An important role which is often ascribed to the media is that of agenda-setter. Wasserman describes this as "putting together an agenda of national priorities - what should be taken seriously, what lightly, what not at all". Gary Wasserman calls this "the most important political function the media perform." [5] Agenda-setting theory was proposed by McCombs and Shaw in the 1970s and suggests that the public agenda is dictated by the media agenda.

[edit] Agenda-setting in domestic politics

This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (October 2007)

In a commercialized media context, the media can often not afford to ignore an important issue which another television station, newspaper, or radio station is willing to pick up. The media may be able to create new issues by reporting what should be taken seriously, but it is not so obvious how they can suppress issues by reporting that they should not be taken seriously. If people are affected by high crime rates, or unemployment, for instance, the media can reduce the time they report on such problems in comparison to other issues, but they cannot reduce the direct effects of these problems on the lives of the public. The media cannot make the problem go away by ignoring it, but the public can go away to another media source, so it is in the media interest to try to find an agenda which corresponds as closely as possible to peoples’ lives. They may not be entirely successful, but the agenda-setting potential of the media is considerably limited by the commercial competition for viewers, readers and listeners. It is difficult to see, for instance, how an issue which is a major story to one television station could be ignored by other television stations.

Different US media sources tend to identify the same major stories in domestic politics, which strongly implies that the media are prioritizing issues according to an exogenous set of criteria.

[edit] Agenda-setting in foreign policyThe neutrality of this section is disputed.Please see the discussion on the talk page.This section has been tagged since December 2007.

The only way in which the media can be expected to be able to set the agenda is if it is in an area in which very few Americans have direct experience of the issues.[neutrality

disputed] This applies to foreign policy. When American military personnel are involved, the media needs to report because the personnel are related to the American public. The media is also likely to have an interest in reporting issues with major direct effects on American workers, such as major trade agreements with Mexico. In other cases, it is difficult to see how the media can be prevented[weasel words] from setting the foreign policy agenda.

In practice, the American media appears to "set" the foreign policy agenda by ignoring foreign policy as much as possible, if the US is not very heavily involved.[neutrality disputed] McKay lists as one of the three main distortions of information by the media "Placing high priority on American news to the detriment of foreign news. And when the US is engaged in military action abroad, this 'foreign news' crowds out other foreign news". [6]

[edit] Horse race approach to political campaign coverage

American news media are more obsessed than ever with the horse-race aspects of the presidential campaign, according to a new study. Coverga of the political campaigns have been less reflective on the issues that matter to voters, and instead have primarily focused on campaign tactics and strategy, according to a report conducted jointly by the Project for Excellence in Journalism, part of the Pew Research Center, and the Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy at the Kennedy School of Harvard University, which examined 1,742 stories that appeared from January through May 2007 in 48 news outlets. Almost two-thirds of all stories in US

news media, including print, television, radio and online, focused on the political aspects of the campaign, while only one percent focused on the candidates’ public records. Only 12 percent of stories seemed relevant to voters’ decision-making; the rest were more about tactics and strategy.[7]

The proportion of horse-race stories has gotten worse over time. Horse-race coverage has accounted for 63 percent of reports this year compared with what the study said was about 55 percent in 2000 and 2004. “If American politics is changing,” the study concluded, “the style and approach of the American press does not appear to be changing with it.”

The study found that the US news media deprive the American public of what Americans say they want: voters are eager to know more about the candidates’ positions on issues and their personal backgrounds, more about lesser-known candidates and more about debates.[8] Commentators have pointed out that when covering election campaigns news media often emphasize trivial facts about the candidates but more rarely provide the candidates' specific public stances on issues that matter to voters.[9]

[edit] See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Media of the United States

Media bias in the United States

[edit] References

1. ̂ PBS | About PBS | Corporate Facts2. ̂ http://www.bbc.co.uk/annualreport/text/bbcexecutive.txt3. ̂ Internet News Takes Off, The Pew Research Centre for the People and the

Press, http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=884. ̂ Internet News Takes Off, The Pew Research Centre for the People and the

Press, http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=885. ̂ Wasserman, Basics of American Politics (London, Longman, 2003) p. 2346. ̂ McKay, American Politics & Society (Oxford, Blackwell, 2005) pg 1447. ̂ "Study: Media Focused On Tactics Not Issues", October 29, 2007,

http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/29/business/media/29coverage.html also archived at: http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/10/29/4880/

8. ̂ "Study: Media Focused On Tactics Not Issues", October 29, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/29/business/media/29coverage.html also archived at: http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/10/29/4880/

9. ̂ New York Times, July 30, 2004, Paul Krugman, "Triumph of the Trivial," http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C05E4DA113DF933A05754C0A9629C8B63