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Chapter 3:
Human Development
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Developmental Psychology
The study of progressive changes in behavior
and abilities
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Heredity
Transmission of physical and psychologicalcharacteristics from parents to their children
through genes DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): Molecular
structure, shaped like a double helix thatcontains coded genetic information
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Genes
Specific areas on a strand of DNA that carry
hereditary information
Dominant: The genes feature will appeareach time the gene is present
Recessive: The genes feature will appear
only if it is paired with another recessive
gene
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Temperament Categories
(Chess & Thomas, 1986)
The physical core of
personality
Easy Children: 40 %;
relaxed and agreeable
Difficult Children: 10 %;
moody, intense, easily
angered
Slow-to-Warm-Up
Children: 15 %; restrained,unexpressive, shy
Remaining Children: Do
not fit into any specific
category
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Environment (Nurture) Sum of all external
conditions that affectdevelopment, especially the
effects of learning
Sensitive Period: A period of
increased sensitivity to
environmental influences;
also, a time when certain
events must occur for
normal development to take
place Congenital Problem: A
problem or defect that
occurs during prenatal
development; birth defect
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Environment Continued
Genetic Disorder:Problem caused byinherited characteristicsor gene deficits
Anything capable ofcausing birth defects(e.g., narcotics,radiation, cigarettesmoke, lead, and
cocaine) Deprivation: Lack ofnormal stimulation,nutrition, comfort, orlove
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Enrichment
When an environment is
deliberately made more
complex and
intellectually stimulating Enriched Environments:
Environments
deliberately made more
novel, complex, and
stimulating
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Newborns (Neonates)
and Their Reflexes
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Grasping Reflex
If an object is placed in
the infants palm, shell
grasp it automatically (allreflexes are automatic
responses; i.e., they come
from nature, not nurture)
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Rooting Reflex
Lightly touch the infants
cheek and hell turn
toward the object andattempt to nurse; helps
infant find bottle or
breast
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Sucking Reflex
Touch an object or
nipple to the infants
mouth and shell makerhythmic sucking
movements
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Moro Reflex
If a babys position is
abruptly changed or if
he is startled by a loudnoise, he will make a
hugging motion
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Maturation
Physical growth anddevelopment of the
body, brain, and
nervous system
Increased muscularcontrol occurs in
patterns
Cephalocaudal:
From head to toe Proximodistal: From
center of the body to
the extremities
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Social Smile
Smiling elicited by
social stimuli such a
seeing a parents face
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Separation Anxiety
Crying and signs of fearwhen a child is left
alone or is with astranger; generallyappears around 8-12months
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Quality of Attachment (Ainsworth)
Secure: Stable andpositive emotional bond;
upset by mothers
absence
Insecure-Avoidant:Tendency to avoid
reunion with parent or
caregiver
Insecure-Ambivalent:Desire to be with parent
or caregiver and some
resistance to being
reunited
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Authoritative: Supply firm and consistent guidance combined
with love and affection; children tend to be competent, self-
controlled, independent, and assertive
Overly Permissive: Give little guidance, allow too much freedom,
or dont require child to take responsibility; children tend to be
dependent and immature and frequently misbehave
Authoritarian: Enforce rigid rules and demand strict obedience
to authority; children are obedient and self-controlled
Parenting Styles (Baumrind, 2005)
Authoritarian, Authoritative, Overly Permissive
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Optimal Caregiving
Maternal Influences: All
the effects a mother has
on her child Paternal Influences:
Sum of all effects a
fatherhas on his child
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Goodness of Fit (Chess & Thomas)
Degree to which
parents and child have
compatibletemperaments
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Language Acquisition
Cooing: Repetition of vowel
sounds by infants (like oo
and ah); starts at about 6-8
weeks
Babbling: Repetition ofmeaningless language
sounds (e.g., babababa);
starts at about 7 months
Single-Word Stage: The
child says one word at a time Telegraphic Speech: Two
word sentences that
communicate a single idea
(e.g., Want yogurt)
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Noam Chomsky and the Roots of Language
Biological Disposition:
Presumed hereditary
readiness of all humans
to learn certain skillssuch as how to use
language
Chomsky: Language
patterns are inborn
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Parentese (Motherese)
Pattern of speech used
when talking to infants
Marked by raised
voice, short, simple
sentences, slower
speech, exaggerated
voice inflections, and
repetition
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Jean Piaget and Cognitive
Development
Piaget believed that allchildren passed through aset series of stagesduring their intellectual
development; like Freud,he was a Stage Theorist
Transformations:Mentally changing theshape or form of a
substance and toperceive that its volumeremains the same;children younger than 6or 7 cannot do this
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Assimilation
Application of existing
mental patterns to new
situations
Accommodation
Existing mental patterns
are changed to
accommodate new
information or experiences
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Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage
(0-2 Years)
All sensory input and motor responses are
coordinated; most intellectual development
here is nonverbal Object Permanence: Concept that objects
still exist when they are out of sight
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Piaget: Preoperational Stage
(2-7 years)
Children begin to use language and think
symbolically, but their thinking is still intuitive
and egocentric Intuitive Thought: Makes little use of
reasoning and logic
Egocentric Thought: Thought that is unable
to accommodate viewpoints of others andis self-centered
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Piaget: Concrete Operational Stage
(7-11 Years)
Children become able to use concepts of
time, space, volume, and number but in ways
that remain simplified and concrete, notabstract
Conservation: Mass, weight, and volume
remain unchanged when the shape or
appearance of objects changes Reversibility of Thought: Relationships
involving equality or identity can be
reversed
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Piaget: Formal Operations
(11 Years and Up)
Thinking now includes abstract, theoretical,
and hypothetical ideas
Abstract Ideas: Concepts and examplesremoved from specific examples and
concrete situations
Hypothetical Possibilities: Suppositions,
guesses, or projections
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Lev Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory
Childrens cognitivedevelopment is heavilyinfluenced by social and
cultural factors. A childs thinking
develops throughdialogues with morecapable persons
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Zone of Proximal Development
Range of tasks a child
cannot master alone
even though they are
close to having thenecessary mental skills;
they need guidance
from a more capable
partner in order tocomplete the task
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Scaffolding
Adjusting instruction so
it is responsive to a
beginners behavior and
so it supports thebeginners efforts to
understand a problem
or gain a mental skill
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Moral Development
When we acquire values, beliefs, and thinking
abilities that guide responsible behavior
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Lawrence Kohlbergs Three Stages of
Moral Development Preconventional: Moral
thinking guided byconsequences of actions(punishment, reward,exchange of favors)
Conventional: Reasoning
based on a desire to pleaseothers or to follow acceptedrules, authority, and values
Postconventional: Followscarefully examined and self-
accepted moral principles
Moral Development When we acquire values, beliefs, and thinking
abilities that guide responsible behavior
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Erik Eriksons Eight Stages of
Psychosocial Dilemmas
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Stage One:
Trust versus Mistrust (Birth-1)
Children are completely dependent on others
Trust: Established when babies givenadequate warmth, touching, love, andphysical care
Mistrust: Caused by inadequate orunpredictable care and by cold, indifferent,and rejecting parents
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Stage Two:
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
(1-3) Autonomy: Doing things for themselves
Overprotective or ridiculing parents may
cause children to doubt abilities and feelshameful about their actions
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Stage Three:
Initiative versus Guilt (3-5)
Initiative: Parents reinforce initiative by giving
children freedom to play, use imagination,
and ask questions
Guilt: May occur if parents criticize, prevent
play, or discourage a childs questions
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Stage Four:
Industry versus Inferiority (6-12)
Industry: Occurs when child is praised for
productive activities such as painting,
reading, and studying
Inferiority: Occurs if childs efforts are
regarded as messy, inadequate, or childish
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Stage Five (Adolescence):
Identity versus Role Confusion
Identity: For adolescents; problems
answering, Who am I?
Role Confusion: Occurs when adolescentsare unsure of where they are going and who
they are
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Stage Six (Young Adulthood):
Intimacy versus Isolation
Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to
share experiences with them
Isolation: Feeling alone and uncared for in life
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Stage Seven (Middle Adulthood):
Generativity versus Stagnation
Generativity: Interest in guiding the next
generation
Stagnation: When one is only concerned withones own needs and comforts
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Stage Eight (Late adulthood):
Integrity versus Despair
Integrity: Self-respect; developed when
people have lived richly and responsibly
Despair: Occurs when previous life eventsare viewed with regret; experiences
heartache and remorse
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Types of Child Discipline
Power Assertion: Using physical
punishment or a show of force to
enforce child discipline
Withdrawal of Love: Withholding
affection; refusing to speak to a child or
threatening to leave to enforce child
discipline
Management Techniques: Combine
praise, recognition, approval, rules, andreasoning to encourage desirable
behavior and to enforce child discipline
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Effective Parenting
Have stable rules ofconduct (consistency)
Show mutual respect,love, encouragement, andshared enjoyment
Eff ti C i ti
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Effective Communication
I-Message: Tells children the
effect their behavior had onyou (Use this)-also getsthem comfortable withauthority without feelingshame
You-Message: Threats,name-calling, accusing,bossing, criticizing, orlecturing; tells a child what iswrong with them (Avoid
this) Shame, guilt, fear, anxiety in
excess will stay with aperson, becomeinternalizedmental health
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Consequences
Natural Consequences:Effects that naturallyfollow a particular
behavior; intrinsiceffects
Logical Consequences:Rational and
reasonable effects-whatnaturally follows-dontprevent these if you cansafely teach/disciplinewith them