Ch. 3: Human Development

8/14/2019 Ch. 3: Human Development

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Chapter 3:

Human Development


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Developmental Psychology

The study of progressive changes in behavior

and abilities


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Heredity

Transmission of physical and psychologicalcharacteristics from parents to their children

through genes DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): Molecular

structure, shaped like a double helix thatcontains coded genetic information


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Genes

Specific areas on a strand of DNA that carry

hereditary information

Dominant: The genes feature will appeareach time the gene is present

Recessive: The genes feature will appear

only if it is paired with another recessive

gene


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Temperament Categories

(Chess & Thomas, 1986)

The physical core of

personality

Easy Children: 40 %;

relaxed and agreeable

Difficult Children: 10 %;

moody, intense, easily

angered

Slow-to-Warm-Up

Children: 15 %; restrained,unexpressive, shy

Remaining Children: Do

not fit into any specific

category


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Environment (Nurture) Sum of all external

conditions that affectdevelopment, especially the

effects of learning

Sensitive Period: A period of

increased sensitivity to

environmental influences;

also, a time when certain

events must occur for

normal development to take

place Congenital Problem: A

problem or defect that

occurs during prenatal

development; birth defect


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Environment Continued

Genetic Disorder:Problem caused byinherited characteristicsor gene deficits

Anything capable ofcausing birth defects(e.g., narcotics,radiation, cigarettesmoke, lead, and

cocaine) Deprivation: Lack ofnormal stimulation,nutrition, comfort, orlove


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Enrichment

When an environment is

deliberately made more

complex and

intellectually stimulating Enriched Environments:

Environments

deliberately made more

novel, complex, and

stimulating


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Newborns (Neonates)

and Their Reflexes


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Grasping Reflex

If an object is placed in

the infants palm, shell

grasp it automatically (allreflexes are automatic

responses; i.e., they come

from nature, not nurture)


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Rooting Reflex

Lightly touch the infants

cheek and hell turn

toward the object andattempt to nurse; helps

infant find bottle or

breast


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Sucking Reflex

Touch an object or

nipple to the infants

mouth and shell makerhythmic sucking

movements


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Moro Reflex

If a babys position is

abruptly changed or if

he is startled by a loudnoise, he will make a

hugging motion


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Maturation

Physical growth anddevelopment of the

body, brain, and

nervous system

Increased muscularcontrol occurs in

patterns

Cephalocaudal:

From head to toe Proximodistal: From

center of the body to

the extremities


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Social Smile

Smiling elicited by

social stimuli such a

seeing a parents face


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Separation Anxiety

Crying and signs of fearwhen a child is left

alone or is with astranger; generallyappears around 8-12months


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Quality of Attachment (Ainsworth)

Secure: Stable andpositive emotional bond;

upset by mothers

absence

Insecure-Avoidant:Tendency to avoid

reunion with parent or

caregiver

Insecure-Ambivalent:Desire to be with parent

or caregiver and some

resistance to being

reunited


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Authoritative: Supply firm and consistent guidance combined

with love and affection; children tend to be competent, self-

controlled, independent, and assertive

Overly Permissive: Give little guidance, allow too much freedom,

or dont require child to take responsibility; children tend to be

dependent and immature and frequently misbehave

Authoritarian: Enforce rigid rules and demand strict obedience

to authority; children are obedient and self-controlled

Parenting Styles (Baumrind, 2005)

Authoritarian, Authoritative, Overly Permissive


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Optimal Caregiving

Maternal Influences: All

the effects a mother has

on her child Paternal Influences:

Sum of all effects a

fatherhas on his child


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Goodness of Fit (Chess & Thomas)

Degree to which

parents and child have

compatibletemperaments


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Language Acquisition

Cooing: Repetition of vowel

sounds by infants (like oo

and ah); starts at about 6-8

weeks

Babbling: Repetition ofmeaningless language

sounds (e.g., babababa);

starts at about 7 months

Single-Word Stage: The

child says one word at a time Telegraphic Speech: Two

word sentences that

communicate a single idea

(e.g., Want yogurt)


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Noam Chomsky and the Roots of Language

Biological Disposition:

Presumed hereditary

readiness of all humans

to learn certain skillssuch as how to use

language

Chomsky: Language

patterns are inborn


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Parentese (Motherese)

Pattern of speech used

when talking to infants

Marked by raised

voice, short, simple

sentences, slower

speech, exaggerated

voice inflections, and

repetition


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Jean Piaget and Cognitive

Development

Piaget believed that allchildren passed through aset series of stagesduring their intellectual

development; like Freud,he was a Stage Theorist

Transformations:Mentally changing theshape or form of a

substance and toperceive that its volumeremains the same;children younger than 6or 7 cannot do this


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Assimilation

Application of existing

mental patterns to new

situations

Accommodation

Existing mental patterns

are changed to

accommodate new

information or experiences


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Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage

(0-2 Years)

All sensory input and motor responses are

coordinated; most intellectual development

here is nonverbal Object Permanence: Concept that objects

still exist when they are out of sight


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Piaget: Preoperational Stage

(2-7 years)

Children begin to use language and think

symbolically, but their thinking is still intuitive

and egocentric Intuitive Thought: Makes little use of

reasoning and logic

Egocentric Thought: Thought that is unable

to accommodate viewpoints of others andis self-centered


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Piaget: Concrete Operational Stage

(7-11 Years)

Children become able to use concepts of

time, space, volume, and number but in ways

that remain simplified and concrete, notabstract

Conservation: Mass, weight, and volume

remain unchanged when the shape or

appearance of objects changes Reversibility of Thought: Relationships

involving equality or identity can be

reversed


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Piaget: Formal Operations

(11 Years and Up)

Thinking now includes abstract, theoretical,

and hypothetical ideas

Abstract Ideas: Concepts and examplesremoved from specific examples and

concrete situations

Hypothetical Possibilities: Suppositions,

guesses, or projections


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Lev Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory

Childrens cognitivedevelopment is heavilyinfluenced by social and

cultural factors. A childs thinking

develops throughdialogues with morecapable persons


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Zone of Proximal Development

Range of tasks a child

cannot master alone

even though they are

close to having thenecessary mental skills;

they need guidance

from a more capable

partner in order tocomplete the task


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Scaffolding

Adjusting instruction so

it is responsive to a

beginners behavior and

so it supports thebeginners efforts to

understand a problem

or gain a mental skill


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Moral Development

When we acquire values, beliefs, and thinking

abilities that guide responsible behavior


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Lawrence Kohlbergs Three Stages of

Moral Development Preconventional: Moral

thinking guided byconsequences of actions(punishment, reward,exchange of favors)

Conventional: Reasoning

based on a desire to pleaseothers or to follow acceptedrules, authority, and values

Postconventional: Followscarefully examined and self-

accepted moral principles

Moral Development When we acquire values, beliefs, and thinking

abilities that guide responsible behavior


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Erik Eriksons Eight Stages of

Psychosocial Dilemmas


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Stage One:

Trust versus Mistrust (Birth-1)

Children are completely dependent on others

Trust: Established when babies givenadequate warmth, touching, love, andphysical care

Mistrust: Caused by inadequate orunpredictable care and by cold, indifferent,and rejecting parents


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Stage Two:

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

(1-3) Autonomy: Doing things for themselves

Overprotective or ridiculing parents may

cause children to doubt abilities and feelshameful about their actions


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Stage Three:

Initiative versus Guilt (3-5)

Initiative: Parents reinforce initiative by giving

children freedom to play, use imagination,

and ask questions

Guilt: May occur if parents criticize, prevent

play, or discourage a childs questions


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Stage Four:

Industry versus Inferiority (6-12)

Industry: Occurs when child is praised for

productive activities such as painting,

reading, and studying

Inferiority: Occurs if childs efforts are

regarded as messy, inadequate, or childish


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Stage Five (Adolescence):

Identity versus Role Confusion

Identity: For adolescents; problems

answering, Who am I?

Role Confusion: Occurs when adolescentsare unsure of where they are going and who

they are


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Stage Six (Young Adulthood):

Intimacy versus Isolation

Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to

share experiences with them

Isolation: Feeling alone and uncared for in life


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Stage Seven (Middle Adulthood):

Generativity versus Stagnation

Generativity: Interest in guiding the next

generation

Stagnation: When one is only concerned withones own needs and comforts


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Stage Eight (Late adulthood):

Integrity versus Despair

Integrity: Self-respect; developed when

people have lived richly and responsibly

Despair: Occurs when previous life eventsare viewed with regret; experiences

heartache and remorse


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Types of Child Discipline

Power Assertion: Using physical

punishment or a show of force to

enforce child discipline

Withdrawal of Love: Withholding

affection; refusing to speak to a child or

threatening to leave to enforce child

discipline

Management Techniques: Combine

praise, recognition, approval, rules, andreasoning to encourage desirable

behavior and to enforce child discipline


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Effective Parenting

Have stable rules ofconduct (consistency)

Show mutual respect,love, encouragement, andshared enjoyment

Eff ti C i ti


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Effective Communication

I-Message: Tells children the

effect their behavior had onyou (Use this)-also getsthem comfortable withauthority without feelingshame

You-Message: Threats,name-calling, accusing,bossing, criticizing, orlecturing; tells a child what iswrong with them (Avoid

this) Shame, guilt, fear, anxiety in

excess will stay with aperson, becomeinternalizedmental health


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Consequences

Natural Consequences:Effects that naturallyfollow a particular

behavior; intrinsiceffects

Logical Consequences:Rational and

reasonable effects-whatnaturally follows-dontprevent these if you cansafely teach/disciplinewith them

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Ch. 3: Human Development