GENERAL HUMAN GENERAL HUMAN ANATOMYANATOMY
Biology 220Professor Sharon
Daniel
PERSPECTIVES
The Classification of Humans
The Definition of Anatomy
Structural Levels of Organization
The Relationship of Structure to Function
The Systems of the Human Body
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMANS
Classification Scheme Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Mammalia Order: Primate Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: Sapiens
Scientific Binominal: Homo sapiens
KINGDOM
6 Recognized Kingdoms Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
EUBACTERIACharacteristics
Prokaryotes Unicellular Microscopic
Kinds Decomposers Parasites Some Photosynthetic Some recycle nitrogen
ARCHAEBACTERIA
Characteristics Prokaryotes Unicellular microscopic Differ biochemically
from EubacteriaKinds
Methanogens Halophiles Thermophiles
PROTISTA
Characteristics• Eukaryotes• Mostly
unicellular
Kinds• Protozoa,
Algae and Slime Molds
FUNGICharacteristics
Eukaryotes Heterotrophic Absorb nutrients,
do not photosynthesize
Kinds Decomposers;
some parasitic
PLANTAE
Characteristics Eukaryotes Multicellular Photosynthetic
Kinds Primary producers;
important source of oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere
ANIMALIA
Characteristics Eukaryotes Multicellular Organisms Must eat other organisms for nourishment High degree of tissue and body
organization in complex animals• Motility• Complex Sense Organs• Nervous Systems• Muscular Systems
PHYLA of the Animal Kingdom
Range from Simple (Phylum Protozoa) to complex (Phylum Chordata)
Phylogeny = the study of PhylaOntogeny = the study of individual
developmentEmbryology = the study of prenatal
developmentClassification requires the study of all
phases of the life cycle
Phylum: Chordata Characteristics
Dorsal hollow Nerve Cord
Notochord Pharyngeal
Pouches
Seen in all Chordates In some, only
present in the embryo
Must study embryology to properly classify
Dorsal hollow Nerve Cord See in human
embryos Lies dorsal to the
Notochord Develops into the
Brain and Spinal Cord of adults
NotochordFlexible rod of
tissueMid-dorsalPosition later
occupied by the vertebral column
In adult, only remnants are inside intervertebral discs
Pharyngeal Pouches
Envaginations of pharyngeal walls
Gill slits in fishIn human adults,
become: Eustachian tube Middle ear cavity Tympanic
membrane
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Characteristics Animals with backbones
• Forms a vertebral column• In most animals, largely replaces the
notochord
Endoskeleton Closed circulatory system Paired kidneys that regulate fluid balance Complete digestive system Sexes typically separate
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Other Characteristics Bilateral Symmetry
• An animal can be sectioned into right and left haves; one the mirror image of the other
Segmentation Tube-within-a-tube
body plan Body Cavities
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Other Characteristics Bilateral
Symmetry Segmentation: Tube-within-a-
tube body plan Body Cavities
Subphylum: VertebrataOther
Characteristics Bilateral
Symmetry Segmentation Tube-within-a-
tube body plan:• Tube formed by
digestive organs within the body
Body Cavities
Subphylum: VertebrataOther
Characteristics Bilateral Symmetry Segmentation Tube-within-a-tube
body plan Body Cavities:
• Closed to the external environment
• Contain internal organs
Body Cavities: Dorsal
Cranial Cavity Houses the
BrainVertebral
Canal Houses the
Spinal Cord
Body Cavities: Ventral(Lateral View)Thoracic CavityAbdominopelvic
Cavity (contains the “viscera”) Abdominal
Cavity Pelvic Cavity
Lined by serous membranes
Body Cavities: Thoracic(Anterior View)
Mediastinum: a potential space that contains the heart, great vessels, trachea, esophagus, etc
Plural Cavities: contain the lungs
Pericardial Cavity: contains the heart
Serous CavitiesVentral Body CavityLined by a serous membrane, or
Serosa Parietal serosa: forms outer wall of
cavity Visceral serosa: covers the visceral
organsSerous fluid
Secreted by the membranes Is slick; reduces friction
Serous Pericardium
Around the HeartParietal PericardiumVisceral PericardiumPericardial Cavity
Filled with serous fluid
The Plural Cavities
Around the LungsParietal Pleura:
lines walls of thoracic cavityVisceral Pleura:
covers each lung
The Peritoneal CavityAround some abdominopelvic
organsContained within the
abdominopelvic cavityParietal Peritoneum
Covers wall of abdominopelvic cavityVisceral Peritoneum
Covers organs of the peritoneal cavitySome organs are retroperitoneal
Abdominal Divisions
Quadrants: 4 Right Upper
Quadrant Right Lower
Quadrant Left Upper
Quadrant Left Lower
Quadrant
Abdominal DivisionsRegions: 9
Rt Hypochondriac region Rt Lumbar region Rt Iliac (Inguinal) region Epigastric region Umbilical region Hypogastric (Pubic)
region Lt Hypochondriac region Lt Lumbar region Lt Iliac (Inguinal) region
Other Cavities
Oral cavityNasal cavityOrbital cavitiesMiddle ear cavitiesSynovial cavities
Classes
OsteichthyesAmphibiaReptiliaAvesMammalia
Class OsteichthyesCharacteristic
Bony fish Marine and
fresh water Gills Swim bladder Cold-blooded Generally
oviparous
Class AmphibiaAquatic larva typically
metamorposize into terrestrial adults
Gas exchange through lungs and/or moist skin
Heart consists of two atria and one ventricle
Systemic and pulmonary circulations
Class ReptilaTetrapodsMainly terrestrialBody covered with hard scalesReproduction adapted for land
(internal fertilization, leathery shell, amnion)
LungsVentricles of the heart partially
divided
Class Aves
Tetrapods with feathersAnterior limbs modified into wingsCompact, streamlined bodyLungsFour-chambered heartCompleted separation of oxygen-rich
and oxygen-poor bloodEndothermsVocal calls and complex songs
Class Mammalia
Characteristics Hair Mammary glands Differentiation of teeth Muscular diaphragm Endotherms Four-chambered heart with systemic and
pulmonary circuits Red blood cells without nuclei Complex nervous system Internal fertilization
Order Primates
Five digitsNailsUsually an
opposable thumbCerebrum
Family Hominidae
Large cerebrumHighly
developed eyesight
Terrestrial biped
Genus Homo
Steep facial angle
Prominent noseProminent chinLess prominent
supraorbital ridges
Species Sapiens
Largest CerebrumIncreasing Brain SizeIncreasing Skeletal sizeIncreasing tool useDecreasing tooth sizeDecreasing Skeletal robustness
PERSPECTIVES
The Classification of Humans
The Definition of Anatomy
Structural Levels of Organization
The Relationship of Structure to Function
The Systems of the Human Body
THE DEFINITION OF ANATOMY
Anatomy Greek=to cut up, or dissect The science that deals with the structure of
the body
Kinds: Gross Anatomy Microscopic Anatomy Developmental Anatomy Comparative Anatomy
Gross Anatomy
Definition: That which can be seen with the
naked eyeKinds:
Regional: • body studied by area
Systematic:• body studied by system
Microscopic Anatomy
Definition: That which can be seen with the assisted
eye
Kinds: Cytology:
• The study of cells
Histology:• The study of tissues
Organology:• The study of organs
Developmental Anatomy
Definition: The study of anatomical changes in a life
cycle
Kinds: Embryology:
• The study of prenatal development
Postnatal development:• The study of structures after birth
Ontogeny:• Total development of an individual
Comparative Anatomy
Definition: Comparison of structures between
organismsKinds:
Vertebrate: • Comparison of structures among the
vertebrate classes
Phylogeny:• The study of phyla, and their relationships
Physiology
The scientific discipline that studies the function of body structures.
Structure and function cannot be completely separated.
Form is related to function
History of AnatomyIn Western Civilization: began around
the Mediterranean Sea Mesopotamia
The Greeks Hippocrates (~400 B.C.): Father of Medicine Aristotle (384-322 B.C.): structure and
functionAlexandria in Egypt
First Medical School, cadaver dissection Herophilus (300 B.C.): Father of Anatomy
Rome (after Alexandria fell) Galen (A.D. 130-201): “the supreme
authority”
History After the Fall of Rome (476 A.D.): the dark ages
Medical knowledge saved by Byzantium and the Islamic world
monasteries 1200’s
Out of the dark ages Medical schools in Solerno, Bologna Italy
1400’s: Renaissance Leonardo de Vinci (1452-1519)
Vesalius: the “Reformer of Anatomy” (1514-1564) Based on cadaver dissection again; corrected Galen The father of modern anatomy
The emergence of modern medicine
50
Tashrih al-badan
manuscript
Ca 1400-1500
By Mansur ibn
Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn
Yusuf ibn Faqih LLyas
Persian Anatomist
51
Tibb al-Akbar manuscript
Female figure
Ca 1650-1700
by
Muhammad Akbar
Persian Physician
52
Leonardo’s Sketches
De Humani Corporis Fabrica
Albinus
Tabulae Sceleti e Musculorum Corporis
Humani(London, 1749).
Copperplate engraving with etching. National Library of Medicine
Plastination: Gunter von Hagen
PERSPECTIVES
The Classification of Humans
The Definition of Anatomy
Structural Levels of Organization
The Relationship of Structure to Function
The Systems of the Human Body
STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
ChemicalCellularTissueOrganSystemOrganism
PERSPECTIVES
The Classification of Humans
The Definition of Anatomy
Structural Levels of Organization
The Relationship of Structure to Function
The Systems of the Human Body
MAJOR FUNCTIONS
Metabolism: sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body Anabolism: building; requires energy Catabolism: break-down; releases
energyExcitability/Conductivity:ContractilityGrowth and DevelopmentReproduction
PERSPECTIVES
The Classification of Humans
The Definition of Anatomy
Structural Levels of Organization
The Relationship of Structure to Function
The Systems of the Human Body
Integumentary System
Components Skin Hair, nails
Function External covering Protection Synthesis of Vitamin D Location of Sense receptors
Skeletal SystemComponents
Bones Joints and adjacent cartilages
Function Support Protection Movement Blood cell production (red bone
marrow) Mineral storage (calcium and
phosphorus)
Muscular SystemComponents
Skeletal Muscles Associated Connective
Tissues (tendons)Function
Locomotion Manipulation of the
environment Facial expression
(communication) Maintain posture Produce heat
Circulatory System
Components Cardiovascular System Lymphatic System
Function Transportation of materials Within the body To and from internal and external
environments
Cardiovascular SystemComponents
Heart Vessels
Function Transportation of blood Blood contains O2 and
CO2, nutrients, wastes, etc.
Blood composed of plasma and cells
Lymphatic SystemComponents
Lymphatic Organs (spleen, lymph nodes, thymus, etc.)
Lymphatic VesselsFunction
Transportation of lymph Lymph is derived from
tissue fluid Houses white blood cells
Immune SystemComponents
Immune Organs (red bone marrow, thymus, etc.)
White blood cells (lymphocytes, macrophages, etc.)
Function Defense (Immune
response)
Nervous SystemComponents
Brain, Spinal cord (CNS) Nerves (PNS), sense
receptorsFunction
Control system (fast, “hard wired”)
Response to external and internal environments
Endocrine SystemComponents
Glands that secrete hormones
E.g.:Pituitary, pancreas, thyroid
Function Control system (slow,
“chemical”) Regulates processes such
as growth, reproduction and nutrient use
Respiratory SystemComponents
Lungs Tubing ( trachea, bronchus,
etc.) Larynx (vocal cords)
Function Exchange of respiratory
gases (O2 and CO2) Between blood and
atmosphere Voice production
Digestive SystemComponents
Alimentary canal (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine)
Accessory structures(liver, salivary glands, etc.)
Function Break down food into
small, absorbable pieces Between blood and lumen Eliminate waste
Urinary SystemComponents
Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra
Function Eliminate waste
(nitrogen) from blood Between blood and
external environment Regulates water,
electrolytes, acid/base
Reproductive SystemComponents
Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive
System
Function Perpetuation of the species Hormones influence
structure and function Sexually bimorphic species
AnatomicalTerminology
Anatomic position is a specific body position in which an individual stands upright with the feet parallel and flat on the floor.
The head is level, and the eyes look forward toward the observer.
The arms are at either side of the body with the palms facing forward and the thumbs pointing away from the body.
Anatomical Terminology
A plane is an imaginary surface that slices the body into specific sections.
The three major anatomic planes of reference are the coronal, transverse, and sagittal planes.
Sectionsand Planes
A coronal plane, also called a frontal plane, is a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.
Sectionsand Planes
A transverse plane, also called a cross-sectional plane or horizontal plane, cuts perpendicularly along the long axis of the body or organ separating it into both superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.
Sectionsand Planes
A sagittal plane or median plane, extends through the body or organ vertically and divides the structure into right and left halves.
Sections and Planes
A sagittal plane in the body midline is a midsagittal plane.
A plane that is parallel to the midsagittal plane, but either to the left or the right of it, is termed a parasagittal (or sagittal) plane.
A minor plane, called the oblique plane, passes through the specimen at an angle.
Directional Terms of the Body
Directional terms are precise and brief, and for most of them there is a correlative term that means just the opposite.
Relative and Directional Terms of the Body
Relative to front (belly side) or back (back side) of the body : Anterior = In front
of; toward the front surface
Posterior = In back of; toward the back surface
Dorsal =At the back side of the human body
Ventral = At the belly side of the human body
Relative and Directional Terms of the Body
Relative to the head or tail of the body: Superior = Toward
the head or above Inferior = Toward
feet not head Caudal = At the rear
or tail end Cranial = At the head
end
Relative and Directional Terms of the Body
Relative to the midline or center of the body: Medial = Toward the
midline of the body Lateral = Away from
the midline of the body
Deep = On the inside, underneath another structure
Superficial = On the outside
Relative and Directional Terms of the Body
Relative to point of attachment of the appendage: Proximal =
Closest to point of attachment to trunk
Distal = Furthest from point of attachment to trunk
Body Regions
The human body is partitioned into two main regions, called the axial and appendicular regions. the axial region includes the head,
neck, and trunk which comprise the main vertical axis of our body
our limbs, or appendages, attach to the body’s axis and make up the appendicular region
THE END