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Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Prepared by: Samuel Martin

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) was a German psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of development. His psychoanalytic theory identifies eight stages through which a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood.

Erikson explored three aspects of identity: the ego identity (self), personal identity (personal traits that differentiate one individual from another) and social identity (social roles a person might play). His theory of development took into consideration the influence of external factors, parents and society on personal development from childhood to adulthood.

Erikson believed that childhood is very important in personality development. All of the stages in Erikson's theory are present at birth (in some form), and continue according to both an innate scheme and one's up-bringing in a family that expresses the values of a culture. Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis, which is based on physiological development, but also on demands put on the individual by parents and/or society. Ideally, the crisis in each stage should be resolved by the ego in that stage, in order for development to proceed correctly. The outcome of one stage is not permanent, but can be altered by later experiences. Everyone has a mixture of the traits attained at each stage, but personality development is considered successful if the individual has more of the "good" traits than the "bad" traits. . Each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future.

Erikson's theory of ego psychology holds certain tenets that differentiate his theory from others. Some of these include:

The ego is of utmost importance. Part of the ego is able to operate independently of the id and the superego. The ego is a powerful agent that can adapt to situations, thereby promoting mental

health. Social and sexual factors both play a role in personality development.

The following table displays a breakdown of Eriksons’ Psychosocial Theory of Development.

Erikson's psychosocial crisis stages (syntonic v dystonic)

life stage / relationships / issues

basic virtue and second named strength (potential positive outcomes from each crisis)

maladaptation / malignancy(potential negative outcome - one or the other - from unhelpful experience during each crisis)

1. Trust v Mistrust

infant / mother / feeding and being comforted, teething, sleeping

Hope and Drive Sensory Distortion / Withdrawal

2. Autonomy v Shame & Doubt

toddler / parents / bodily functions, toilet training, muscular control, walking

Willpower and Self-Control

Impulsivity / Compulsion

3. Initiative v Guilt

preschool / family / exploration and discovery, adventure and play

Purpose and Direction

Ruthlessness / Inhibition

4. Industry v Inferiority

schoolchild / school, teachers, friends, neighborhood / achievement and accomplishment

Competence and Method

Narrow Virtuosity / Inertia

5. Identity v Role Confusion

adolescent / peers, groups, influences / resolving identity and direction, becoming a grown-up

Fidelity and Devotion

Fanaticism / Repudiation

6. Intimacy v Isolation

young adult / lovers, friends, work connections /intimate relationships, work and social life

Love and Affiliation Promiscuity / Exclusivity

7. Generativity v Stagnation

mid-adult / children, community / 'giving back', helping, contributing

Care and Production

Overextension / Rejectivity

8. Integrity v Despair

late adult / society, the world, life / meaning and purpose, life achievements

Wisdom and Renunciation

Presumption / Disdain

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1½ yrs)

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and eighteen months and is the most fundamental stage in life.

Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers. At this point in development, the child is utterly depending upon adult caregiver for everything – food, love, warmth, safety, nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that he or she cannot trust or depend upon the adults in his or her life.

If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Of course, no child is going to develop a sense of 100 percent trust or 100 percent doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 yrs)

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood (1-3 years) and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little bit of independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different from that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.

Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to the development of will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 yrs)

During the preschool years (3-6 years), children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this

stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative. When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry v Inferiority (5-12 yrs)

Industry here refers to purposeful or meaningful activity. It's the development of competence and skills, and a confidence to use a 'method', and is a crucial aspect of school-years experience. Erikson described this stage as a sort of 'entrance to life'. This correlates with Freud's psychosexual Latency stage, when sexual motives and concerns are largely repressed while the young person concentrates on work and skills development. A child who experiences the satisfaction of achievement - of anything positive - will move towards successful negotiation of this crisis stage. A child who experiences failure at school tasks and work, or worse still who is denied the opportunity to discover and develop their own capabilities and strengths and unique potential, quite naturally is prone to feeling inferior and useless. Engaging with others and using tools or technology are also important aspects of this stage. It is like a rehearsal for being productive and being valued at work in later life. Inferiority is feeling useless; unable to contribute, unable to cooperate or work in a team to create something, with the low self-esteem that accompanies such feelings. 

By successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development, we are led to the development of the strength known as competence or a belief our own abilities to handle the tasks set before us.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Role Confusion (9-18 yrs)

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Young people struggle to belong and to be accepted and affirmed, and yet also to become individuals. In itself this is a big dilemma, aside from all the other distractions and confusions experienced at this life stage. 

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.

In response to role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.

Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40 yrs)

Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 years), we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member.

At the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, though its effects still linger. Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain and to some of us rejection is so painful that our egos cannot bear it. Erikson also argues that "Intimacy has a counterpart: Distantiation - the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's intimate relations".

Once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendships or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships require. If people cannot form these intimate relationships – perhaps because of their own needs – a sense of isolation may result; arousing feelings of darkness and angst.

Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Psychosocial Stage 7 -Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-65 yrs)

During middle adulthood (ages 30 to 65 years), we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.

We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage but by failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair (65+ yrs)

As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life

The final developmental task is retrospection: people look back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals.

This stage can occur out of the sequence when an individual feels they are near the end of their life (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

Conclusion

Erikson's psychosocial theory is a very powerful tool for self-awareness and improvement, and for teaching and helping others. It emphasizes the sequential significance of the eight character-forming crisis stages. The concept also asserts that humans continue to change and develop throughout their lives, and that personality is not exclusively formed during early childhood years.  It is certainly a view that greatly assists encouraging oneself and others to see the future as an opportunity for positive change and development, instead of looking back with blame and regret.

The better that people come through each crisis, the better they will tend to deal with what lies ahead. Everyone can change and grow, no matter what has gone before. And as ever, understanding why we are like we are - gaining meaningful self-awareness - is always a useful and important step forward. 

Sources

Erik Eriksonhttp://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/erikson.htm

Erik Eriksonhttp://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theoryhttp://www.businessballs.com/erik_erikson_psychosocial_theory.htm

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Developmenthttp://allpsych.com/psychology101/social_development/#.VXjy9flViko

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson's_stages_of_psychosocial_development

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Developmenthttp://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial.htm

Psychosocial Theory: Eriksonhttp://www.haverford.edu/psychology/ddavis/p109g/erikson.stages.html