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The book teaches you how to learn English in a completely different and easiest way.
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前前前前 言言言言
英语是一门严谨、富有逻辑性的语言，具有系统的语法体系。但传统的英
语语法过于零碎、复杂、包括诸多概念如定语、状语、补语、主语从句、宾语
从句、表语从句、状语从句等。可以说其大多时候都在告诉我们英语语法“是
什么”，而没有说明“为什么”，这使得英语学习者知其然而不知其所以然，进
而陷入被动的机械式记忆中，很难全面、准确地掌握英语语法。为简单、有效
地解决这一问题，笔者以全新的视角，用计算机编程中的对象思想重新解读了
英语语法，创造性地建立了“对象英语语法①”这一全新的语法体系。
对象是这一语法体系的核心概念。作者认为世界就是由各种各样的对象组
成的，对象有属性和动作，且对象之间是相互联系的。而语言是一种社会现象，
其功能就是描述世界上各种各样对象的属性、动作、身份及其与其它对象的关
系（从这一角度来说，对象语法可以用来分析、学习任何语言），从而达到传达
信息的目的。
根据这一核心概念，作者分析出英语中仅含五种基本简单句句型。当两个
简单句有相同的对象/联系较为紧密时，两者可以复合，如果其中有可推知信息，
这些信息可以省略。而且英语句子中的一些词段可以被封装起来，形成复合词，
从而使句子变得更加简洁（简单句之间的复合、省略以及复合词等在一方面使
英语变得简洁，但在另一方面却使英语变得复杂了）。
根据以上概念的理解，我们发现对象英语语法不存在定语、状语、补语、
各种从句等多种传统语法概念。我们可以把英语中五种基本简单句句型形象地
比喻成五种不同颜色的积木，通过堆砌、调整这些积木我们可以构造出各种各
样的物件，即复合句。因而从理论上讲，英语句子可以无限长，但都可以被拆
解成五种基本简单句。
①也可称为面向对象英语语法。
2全书分为十一章，第一、二、五、六、七、八、九、十章为对象英语语法
的理论基础；第三章探讨了如何构造各种各样复杂的英语句子（需配合其它章
节阅读）；第四章为例子分析，在这一章中，作者根据由简入繁的原则，对一些
经典英语句子进行了拆分，以帮助读者更好的理解对象英语语法①，第十章包含
了对象英语语法中的其它一些语法概念；第十一章简单介绍了一下传统语法中
的一些重要概念。
邓福璋
2010 年 4 月
①为便于理解，建议先浏览全书，重点学习复合、省略、复合词、介词、时态、情态助动
词这些概念；一些最基本的语法概念包含在第十章中；加☆的内容初学者可以暂不看；复
合词封装的内容在方括号中表示。
关于本书
出于某些考虑，本书保留了部分内容，如果你有什么意见建议或想获得完
整版本，你可以通过以下方式联系作者，
QQ：380088832;
对象英语语法交流群：33988576;
Email: [email protected];
我的翻译博客：http://blog.sina.com.cn/dengfuzhang1
本书已取得作品登记证，你可以在网络上分享，但请尊重知识成果，请勿
用于商业用途，谢谢！
4目目目目 录录录录
前前前前 言言言言....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1111
关于本书关于本书关于本书关于本书....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3333
目目目目 录录录录....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4444
第一章第一章第一章第一章 对象对象对象对象....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6666
第一节第一节第一节第一节 对象的概念对象的概念对象的概念对象的概念................................................................................................................................................... 6第二节第二节第二节第二节 对象的属性、动作及其与其它对象的关系对象的属性、动作及其与其它对象的关系对象的属性、动作及其与其它对象的关系对象的属性、动作及其与其它对象的关系 ............................................................................................... 8
第二章第二章第二章第二章 五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................11111111
第一节第一节第一节第一节 四种词四种词四种词四种词......................................................................................................................................................... 11第二节第二节第二节第二节 五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型................................................................................................................................. 17第三节第三节第三节第三节 简单句作名词性句子成分简单句作名词性句子成分简单句作名词性句子成分简单句作名词性句子成分......................................................................................................................... 20
第三章第三章第三章第三章 英语造句英语造句英语造句英语造句............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................21212121
第四章第四章第四章第四章 例子分析例子分析例子分析例子分析............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................50505050
第一节第一节第一节第一节 简单句子分析简单句子分析简单句子分析简单句子分析............................................................................................................................................. 50第二节第二节第二节第二节 长难句分析长难句分析长难句分析长难句分析............................................................................................................................................... 103
第五章第五章第五章第五章 简单句的复合简单句的复合简单句的复合简单句的复合............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................131131131131
第一节第一节第一节第一节 平行简单句的复合平行简单句的复合平行简单句的复合平行简单句的复合................................................................................................................................... 131第二节第二节第二节第二节 主简单句与限定简单句的复合主简单句与限定简单句的复合主简单句与限定简单句的复合主简单句与限定简单句的复合............................................................................................................... 135
第六章第六章第六章第六章 简单句的复合省略简单句的复合省略简单句的复合省略简单句的复合省略....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................138138138138
第一节第一节第一节第一节 主简单句与限定简单句的复合省略主简单句与限定简单句的复合省略主简单句与限定简单句的复合省略主简单句与限定简单句的复合省略 ......................................................................................................... 138第二节第二节第二节第二节 平行简单句的复合省略平行简单句的复合省略平行简单句的复合省略平行简单句的复合省略............................................................................................................................. 148
第七章第七章第七章第七章 复合句的复合及复合句的复合省略复合句的复合及复合句的复合省略复合句的复合及复合句的复合省略复合句的复合及复合句的复合省略 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................155155155155
第一节第一节第一节第一节 平行复合句的复合平行复合句的复合平行复合句的复合平行复合句的复合................................................................................................................................... 155第二节第二节第二节第二节 主复合句与限定复合主复合句与限定复合主复合句与限定复合主复合句与限定复合句句句句的复合的复合的复合的复合............................................................................................................... 157第三节第三节第三节第三节 平行复合句的复合省略平行复合句的复合省略平行复合句的复合省略平行复合句的复合省略........................................................................................................................... 158第四节第四节第四节第四节 主复合句与限定复合句的复合省略主复合句与限定复合句的复合省略主复合句与限定复合句的复合省略主复合句与限定复合句的复合省略 ....................................................................................................... 159
第八章第八章第八章第八章 句子作名词性成分及作名词性成分时的省略句子作名词性成分及作名词性成分时的省略句子作名词性成分及作名词性成分时的省略句子作名词性成分及作名词性成分时的省略 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................161161161161
第一节第一节第一节第一节 句子作名词性成分句子作名词性成分句子作名词性成分句子作名词性成分................................................................................................................................... 161第二节第二节第二节第二节 句子作名词性成分时的省略形式句子作名词性成分时的省略形式句子作名词性成分时的省略形式句子作名词性成分时的省略形式........................................................................................................... 163
第九章第九章第九章第九章 复合词复合词复合词复合词....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................167167167167
第十章第十章第十章第十章 其它语法概念其它语法概念其它语法概念其它语法概念............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................171171171171
第一节第一节第一节第一节 时态时态时态时态........................................................................................................................................................... 171[1] 现在一般时现在一般时现在一般时现在一般时..................................................................................................................................................171[2][2][2][2] 过去一般时过去一般时过去一般时过去一般时................................................................................................................................................... 174[3][3][3][3] 将来一般时将来一般时将来一般时将来一般时................................................................................................................................................... 175[4][4][4][4] 过去将来一般时过去将来一般时过去将来一般时过去将来一般时........................................................................................................................................... 175[5][5][5][5] 现在现在现在现在////过去过去过去过去////将来将来将来将来////过去将来进行时过去将来进行时过去将来进行时过去将来进行时................................................................................................................175[6][6][6][6] 现在现在现在现在////过去过去过去过去////将来将来将来将来////过去将来完成时过去将来完成时过去将来完成时过去将来完成时................................................................................................................178
[7][7][7][7] 现在现在现在现在////过去过去过去过去////将来将来将来将来////过去将来完成进行时过去将来完成进行时过去将来完成进行时过去将来完成进行时........................................................................................................178第二节第二节第二节第二节 被动语态被动语态被动语态被动语态................................................................................................................................................... 181第三节第三节第三节第三节 介词介词介词介词........................................................................................................................................................... 184第四节第四节第四节第四节 情态助动词情态助动词情态助动词情态助动词............................................................................................................................................... 203第五节第五节第五节第五节 名词名词名词名词........................................................................................................................................................... 219第六节第六节第六节第六节 冠词冠词冠词冠词........................................................................................................................................................... 225第七节第七节第七节第七节 代词代词代词代词........................................................................................................................................................... 229第八节第八节第八节第八节 数词数词数词数词........................................................................................................................................................... 235第九节第九节第九节第九节 副词副词副词副词........................................................................................................................................................... 241第十节第十节第十节第十节 形容词、副词的比较级和最高级形容词、副词的比较级和最高级形容词、副词的比较级和最高级形容词、副词的比较级和最高级........................................................................................................... 244第十一节第十一节第十一节第十一节 句子的种类句子的种类句子的种类句子的种类........................................................................................................................................... 247
[1][1][1][1] 陈述句陈述句陈述句陈述句........................................................................................................................................................... 247[2][2][2][2] 疑问句疑问句疑问句疑问句........................................................................................................................................................... 247[3][3][3][3] 祈使句祈使句祈使句祈使句........................................................................................................................................................... 251[4][4][4][4] 感叹句感叹句感叹句感叹句........................................................................................................................................................... 252
第十二节第十二节第十二节第十二节 语气语气语气语气....................................................................................................................................................... 254第十三节第十三节第十三节第十三节 调整句子成分的位置顺序调整句子成分的位置顺序调整句子成分的位置顺序调整句子成分的位置顺序................................................................................................................... 264第十四节第十四节第十四节第十四节 主谓一致主谓一致主谓一致主谓一致............................................................................................................................................... 271第十五节第十五节第十五节第十五节 强调句强调句强调句强调句................................................................................................................................................... 276第十六节第十六节第十六节第十六节 直接引语和间接引语直接引语和间接引语直接引语和间接引语直接引语和间接引语........................................................................................................................... 278第十七节第十七节第十七节第十七节 标点符号标点符号标点符号标点符号............................................................................................................................................... 281第十八节第十八节第十八节第十八节 构词法构词法构词法构词法................................................................................................................................................... 285第十九节第十九节第十九节第十九节 英语不规则动词表英语不规则动词表英语不规则动词表英语不规则动词表............................................................................................................................... 296第二十节第二十节第二十节第二十节 感叹词感叹词感叹词感叹词................................................................................................................................................... 315
第十一章第十一章第十一章第十一章 部分传统英语语法概念部分传统英语语法概念部分传统英语语法概念部分传统英语语法概念....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................316316316316
第一节第一节第一节第一节 句子成分概说句子成分概说句子成分概说句子成分概说........................................................................................................................................... 316第二节第二节第二节第二节 动词动词动词动词........................................................................................................................................................... 320第三节第三节第三节第三节 名词性从句名词性从句名词性从句名词性从句............................................................................................................................................... 327第四节第四节第四节第四节 副词副词副词副词........................................................................................................................................................... 328第五节第五节第五节第五节 定语从句定语从句定语从句定语从句................................................................................................................................................... 329第六节第六节第六节第六节 状语从句状语从句状语从句状语从句................................................................................................................................................... 331第七节第七节第七节第七节 非限定动词非限定动词非限定动词非限定动词............................................................................................................................................... 336
6第一章第一章第一章第一章 对象对象对象对象
第一节第一节第一节第一节 对象的概念对象的概念对象的概念对象的概念
什么是对象：什么是对象：什么是对象：什么是对象：
你可能一开始就有疑问了：学习英语语法为什么要了解对象的概念呢？难
道它们之间有什么联系？
给你一个肯定的回答：是！它们之间的联系非常紧密。在对象英语语法中，
对象是一个最核心的概念，它是本语法的基石，当你全面、深刻地了解对象这
一概念后，从某种程度上说你已经掌握了本语法的二分之一。
既然对象的概念如此重要，那什么是对象呢？
我们先看以下图片，说说你看到了什么？
你可能会说我看到了一个女人、一个孩子、一头大象、一列火车等，其实
女人、孩子、大象、火车等就是对象。
简单地讲对象是存在于宇宙中任何事物。从简单的分子到复杂的机器等均
是对象，它不仅指具体的事物，还指抽象的规则、计划或事件等，如具体的事
物：动物（猫、狗）；植物（白菜、萝卜）；颜色（白色、黑色）等。抽像的事
物：数字、想法(我想回家、我想学习)、事件（起床，吃饭）等。
总之可以这样理解：整个物质世界和精神世界都是由各种各样的对象组成
的。
8第二节第二节第二节第二节 对象的属性、动作及其与其它对象的关系对象的属性、动作及其与其它对象的关系对象的属性、动作及其与其它对象的关系对象的属性、动作及其与其它对象的关系
通过第一节的学习我们了解了对象的概念，在这一节我们将更深入地学习
对象，了解其属性、动作及其与其它对象的关系。
对象的属性：对象的属性：对象的属性：对象的属性：
先看下图试说几句：
我猜你可能会说：1）这只狮子是黄色的；2）这颗辣椒是红色；3）这个女
孩很漂亮。
其实，在日常生活中我们经常会说：黑色的狗、白色的雪、高大的树、洪
亮的声音、香香的蛋糕、甜甜的雪糕、柔软的羽毛、快乐的孩子、好主意、坏
孩子等，其实这些描述的就是对象的属性。
对象的属性包括两个方面：
（一）对象在人的五种基本感觉上的静态反映
视觉上的反映（外观—圆的、方的、大的、小的；颜色—红的、黄的、绿
的等）；
听觉上的反映（大的、小的、高的、低的、清晰的、模糊的等）；
嗅觉上的反映（香的、臭的等）；
味觉上的反映（苦的、甜的、辣的等）;
触觉上的反映（软的、硬的、湿的、干的、重的、轻的等）。
（二）对象的内在状态、品质在人的判断力上的静态反映
内在状态（快乐的、痛苦的等）；
内在品质（好的、坏的等）。
对象的动作：对象的动作：对象的动作：对象的动作：
看到下面几张图你会说什么呢？
你可能会这样描述：1）两个小孩子在走路；2）一个男孩在骑自行车；3）
一个女孩在看书。其实在日常生活中我们也经常说：狗吃骨头、我敲门、小明
在哭、老师写字、妈妈扫地、鸟在飞等，这些描述的就是对象的动作。简单点
说动作就是对象的行为举动，是对象在人的五种基本感觉上和判断力上的动态
反映。如：吃、喝、走、跑、爬等。
对象与其它对象的关系对象与其它对象的关系对象与其它对象的关系对象与其它对象的关系①：：：：
试描述下图：
在你的描述中你也许会说到以下几句：1）两个老人在桌子旁边；2）菜在
①其它对象也包括对象本身。
10桌子上；3）玉米在盘子里；4）鱼在水里，其实这些描述的就是对象与其它
对象的关系。
联系是世界的普遍规律，对象间是相互联系的，任何对象都不可能独立存
在。一般来说对象间存在二种联系方式，即动态关系和静态关系
对象间的静态关系又可分为三种，即：空间关系（如: 杯子在桌子上、小狗
在桌子下、书包在柜子里）、时间关系（如：晚餐后我洗澡了—我洗澡这个事件
对象发生在我吃晚餐这个事件对象之后）、逻辑关系（如：因为堵车，我迟到了
—堵车这一事件对象是我迟到这一事件对象的原因）。
从上面的阐述我们发现对象的属性及其与其它对象的静态关系是对象的静
态反映，而对象的动作及其与其它对象的动态关系是对象的动态反映。对于初
学者来说，要在短时间内掌握对象的概念是不太现实的。但不用着急，你可以
先对它有一个初步的了解，在以后的学习中，我会通过很多的例子慢慢地帮助
你更好地理解这一概念。
第二章第二章第二章第二章 五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型
第一节第一节第一节第一节 四种词四种词四种词四种词
任何一种语言都是用声音、手势或文字描述对象的属性、动作、身份以及
其与其它对象的关系，从而达到传达信息的目的。显然无论用那种语言去描述，
对象本身、对象的属性、动作、身份以及其与其它对象的关系是不会变的，因
而语言之间的本质区别（这里只谈文字上的）在于表示对象本身、对象的属性、
身份以及其与其它对象的关系的符号的不同，以及排列这些符号去表达一个完
整的信息时所应用的规则的不同。为帮助大家理解上面所阐述的内容，下面我
们分析一个例子（以汉语和英语为例）。
我们先用汉语和英语分别描述下图的左半部分：（假设它们描述的信息一
致）
(图 1)
12汉语：桌子上的一只黄色的猫在吃一条鱼。
分析：汉语用“猫”这个符号表示了左半图中这个毛茸茸的动物对象，用“鱼”
这个符号表示了猫口中的那个小动物对象，用“桌子”这个符号表示了猫下面的对
象，用“黄色”这个符号表示了猫的属性，用“吃”这个符号表示了猫的动作，用“上”
这个符号表示了猫这个对象和桌子这个对象的空间位置关系，用“一只”这个符号
表示了猫这个对象的数量，“一条”这个符号表示了鱼这个对象的数量。
在汉语中我们称“猫”、“鱼”、“桌子”这些符号为名词，用来表示对象本身；
称“黄色”为形容词，用来表示对象的属性；称“上”为介词，用来表示对象与其它
对象的关系；称“吃”为动词，用来表示对象的动作；称“一只”、 “一条”为数量
词，用来表示对象的数量。
下面我们来拆解这句话，看其包括的信息有那些（这里暂时不讨论对象的
数量）：1）猫是黄色的（对猫的属性的描述）；2）猫在桌子上（对猫与桌子的
空间位置关系的描述）；3）猫吃鱼（对猫动作的描述）。
下面我们用英语来描述图片的左半部分：
英语：AAAA yellowyellowyellowyellow catcatcatcat onononon aaaa tabletabletabletable eatseatseatseats aaaa fishfishfishfish①.... （为方便讨论，我们用现在一般时）
分析：英语用“cat”这个符号表示了左半图中这个毛茸茸的动物对象；用
“fish”这个符号表示了猫口中的那个小动物对象；用“table”这个符号表示了猫下
面的对象；用“yellow”这个符号表示了猫的属性；用“eat”②这个符号表示了猫的
动作；用“on”表示了猫这个对象和桌子这个对象的空间位置关系；用“a”这个符
号表示了猫这个对象的数量；用“a”这个符号表示了鱼的数量。
在英语中我们称“cat”、“fish”、“desk”这些符号为名词，用来表示对象本身；
称“yellow”为形容词，用来表示对象的属性；称“on”为介词，用来表示对象与对
①当然你也可以这样表达：A yellow cat eats a fish on a table.
② eats 是 eat 的第三人称单数形式，这个问题会在附录当中讨论。
象间的关系；称“eat”为动词，用来表示对象的动作；称“a”为冠词用来表示对象
的数量。
下面我们来拆解这句话，看其包括的信息有那些（这里暂时不讨论对象的
数量）：1）A cat is yellow（对猫的属性的描述）；2）A cat is on a table（对猫与
桌子位置关系的描述）；3）A cat eats a fish（对猫动作的描述）。
从上面的分析中我们发现对象之间有二种联系方式，即：（1）静态关系，
如猫（cat）和桌子(table)的关系，其关系是用“上”(on)这个介词符号表示的；（2）
动态关系，如猫与鱼的关系，其关系是用“吃”(eat)这个动词符号表示的。
我们刚才用两种语言描述了图片的左半部分（相同信息），通过对比我们发
现两种语言之间有二个明显的区别：1）两者使用的符号是不一样的；2）符号
的排列位置有所不同。但无论用那一种语言，其描述的都是对象本身、对象的
属性、动作、以及其与其它对象的关系，且对象本身、对象的属性、动作以及
其与其它对象的关系也不会因为描述语言的不同而发生变化。
其实学习任何语言（为方便这里只谈文字方面的）主要有二方面的任务：
1）学习这种语言表示对象本身、对象的属性、动作以及其与其它对象静态关系
的符号。
2）学习这些符号在描述对象本身、对象的属性、动作、身份以及其与其它对象
的关系时的排列、变化规则。
那么我们现在开始学习英语的表示符号及这些符号在表达信息时所应用的
排列、变化规则吧。
在英语中，有四种词分别表示对象本身、对象的属性、动作及其与其它对
象的静态关系，即：
14一、名词（noun, n）：即用来表示对象名称的词
①。
如：dog（狗），cat（猫），apple（苹果）， orange（柑橘），idea（想法），
plan（计划），thing（东西），thinking（思考）， sleeping（睡觉），drinking water
（喝水），being hot（很热），to swim (去游泳)，I hate you（我讨厌你）。
试说出下图中对象的名称：
二、形容词（adjective, adj）：即用来表示对象属性的词②。
如：big(大的)，small（小的），red（红色的），yellow（黄色的），green(绿
的)，good（好的），bad（坏的）。
试描述下图中对象的属性：
①这里名词的概念是广义上的。
②☆这里的形容词概念是狭义上的，在学习了复合词后，其概念有所扩展。如：financial
[involving money] （财务的，金融的）我们会认为其为一个形容词。
三、动词（verb, v）①：
（一）即用来描述对象的动作的词(称作一般动词)。
如：move（移动），eat（吃），drink（喝），walk（走），run（跑），do（做）。
（二）即用来连接对象与其属性、身份及其与其它对象静态关系的词（称
作系动词，本语法认为英语中仅有 be 一个系动词②）。
试描述下图中对象的动作：
注：动名词和动词不定式是动词的两种名词形式。③
①☆这里的动词的概念是狭义上的，在学习了复合词后，其概念有所扩展。如：have [be of]
（有）；sit [be in a position in which the body is upright and resting on the buttocks, either on aseat or on the ground] 坐着；smell [have a smell of the specified type] 有某种气味；我们会认
为这些词为动词。②
☆Be 没有实际的意义，只是一个功能词，其作用是反映谓语的“时”。当 be 反映的“时”
为可推知信息时，其本身常省略。在这以后的学习中会经常遇到，请注意。③
☆动作本身就是对象，在英语中有二种形式可以表示动作对象，即 1）动词+ing 后缀（这
种叫做动名词）；2）to+动词原形（叫做动词不定式，其中 to 只是一个功能符号，指出这
个结构是一个名词，其本身没有意思，在少数情况下 to 也可以不要，称作不带 to 的动词
不定式）。
两者都可以作名词性成份，表达的意思稍有区别，总的来说两者的区别在于：动名词
常表习惯性、经常性或不具体的泛指动作对象；而动词不定式常表具体动作对象或将来的
某个动作对象；而且根据英语的习惯有的动词后只能接动名词表示的动作对象，或只能接
动词不定式表示的动作对象，有的动词两种动作对象都能接，这就需要你在平时当中多积
累了。
☆学习了句子谓语的时态和语态后你可以发现：这两种形式都能反映谓语动词的“状
态”和“语态”但不能反映其“时”。例（动名词）：1) doing; 2) being doing; 3) having done;4) having been doing。例（动词不定式）：1) to do; 2) to be doing; 3) to have done; 4) to havebeen doing。例（被动语态）：1) being done; 2) to be done。正因为两者都反映不了“时”，
所以其动作可能与主句的动作同时发生，也可能发生在主句的动作之后或之前，其具体的
“时”可以由上下文推测出来。
16四、介词（preposition, pep）：用来表示描述对象之间静态关系的词
①。
如：on(在...之上)，in（在...之内），below（在...之下），for（为了），of（属
于...的）。
下图有助有你理解介词的概念：
d ow nd ow nd ow nd ow n t ot ot ot o f o rf o rf o rf o r 英语中还有其它几种词，详见第十章
②。
①☆这里的介词概念是狭义上的，在学习了复合词后，其概念有所扩展。学习复合词后我
们称与 up [from a lower to a higher place (of sth)]类似的词为介词复合词。②
注：为了保持本书的逻辑性，一部分语法概念放在了第十章当中，如果你是英语初学者
话，遇到不懂的问题请参第十章。
第二节第二节第二节第二节 五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型五种基本简单句句型
在英语中根据描述对象的属性、动作、身份及其与其它对象关系的需要存
在五种基本简单句句型①（这里以现在一般时为例）：
一、描述对象的动作及其与其它对象的动态关系：
（句型①） 对象（名词/代词）+动作（一般动词），即：主语+谓语。（描
述对象的动作）如：
� I② move. 我移动。
� She runs③. 她跑步。
� The④ earth shakes. 大地震动。
� The leaf falls. 叶子下落。
� A baby crawls. 婴儿爬行。
� The puppy barks. 小狗汪汪叫。
� The water flows. 水流动。
（句型②） 对象（名词/代词）+动作（一般动词）+另一个对象（名词/代
词），即：主语+谓语+动宾。（描述对象的动作及其它对象的动态关系）如：
� Jim hits the table. 吉姆打击桌子。
� Lily pushes/pulls the door. 莉莉推/拉门。
� I kicks the ball. 我踢球。
� He cuts apple. 他切苹果。
� Jim opens the book. 吉姆打开书。
①注：一个意义完整的句子，其首字母要大写，如是陈述句，常以句号结尾（.），如是疑
问句常以问号（?），如是感叹句常以感叹号（!）结尾。② I 是一个代词（即代替名词的词），具体请参阅代词一节。③ Runs 是 run 的第三人称单数形式，这在以后的学习中会讲解。④ The/a/an 是冠词，具体请参阅冠词一节。
18� She throws a stone. 她扔石子。
� Jack rubbs the glass. 杰克擦玻璃。
二、描述对象的属性及身份：
（句型③）描述对象的属性：对象（名词/代词）+系动词（be）+属性（形
容词），即：主语+谓语+表语。如：
� I am① fat. 我胖。
� Tom is tall. 汤姆高。
� The sheep is white/black. 这只羊是白/黑色的.
� He is kind. 他善良。
� The man is strong. 这个男人强壮。
� She is pretty. 她漂亮。
� The food is sweet/bitter. 食物是甜/苦的。
� The water is cold/hot. 水是冷/热的。
（句型④）描述对象的身份：对象（名词/代词）+系动词（be）+另一个对
象（名词/代词），即：主语+谓语+表语。如：
� I am a teacher. 我是个老师。
� Tom is a student. 汤姆是个学生.
� It is a dog/fish. 那是一条狗/鱼。
� She is a driver. 她是名司机。
� Lily is a professor. 莉莉是位教授。
� This is a desk/bed. 这是一张桌子/床。
� That is a tree. 那是一颗树。
① Am/is/was/are/were 是 be 的不同形式，这在以后的学习中会讲解。
三、描述对象与对象间静态的关系：
（句型⑤） 对象（名词）+系动词（be）+介词+另一个对象（名词/代词），
即：主语+谓语+介词+介宾①。如：
� I am in② the room. 我在屋子里。
� The cat is on the desk. 猫在书桌上。
� The dog is under the table. 狗在桌子下。
� I am with③ you. 我和你在一起。
� It is of④ importance. 它很重要。
☆ I am about⑤ to do my homework. 我就要去做我的家庭作业了。
①严格意义上来说，句型④是句型⑤的省略形式（即介词为 as，省略了）但为方便分析这
里就不深入讲解了。②
介词 in 指出了人物对象 I 与其所在地对象 room 之间的空间位置关系。③
介词 with 指出了人物对象 I 与其处于相同时间和地点的人物对象 you 之间的关系。④
介词 of 指出了对象 It 与其内在品质对象 importance 之间的关系；相对来说这个 of 指出
的这种关系可能比较难理解，不过随着学习的深入你会慢慢理解的。⑤
介词 about 的原意是“在…周围”；在本例中其用的是引申意思，当你处于某一事件的周
围时，引申的意思就是你即将要做某事了；英语中引申用得非常广泛，四种基本词类都有
引申意义，在学习中请注意。
20第三节第三节第三节第三节 简单句作名词性句子成分简单句作名词性句子成分简单句作名词性句子成分简单句作名词性句子成分
在英语中简单句本身所表达的就是一个事件对象，因而它可以在五种简单
句句型中用作主语、动宾、介宾和表语四种名词性成分；而且可以根据情况采
用相应的省略形式，这一问题将在下面的章节中具体讲解。
第三章第三章第三章第三章 英语造句英语造句英语造句英语造句
英语造句是应用英语语法规则构造句子的一个过程。在本章中我将以对象
的思想为基础，和大家一起进一步学习五种基本简单句句型，以及如何利用这
五种基本简单句句型构成各种各样的复合句（由于本章涉及到其它一些语法规
则，所以请结合后面的相关章节一起阅读）。
1.1.1.1. 玛丽走路。
分析①：玛丽(Mary)是一个对象，走路（walk）是其动作，因而我们可以用
句型①来描述“玛丽走路”这一事件对象，即，Mary walks②③.
进一步分析：我们先看下面一个图：
(图 2)
我们称圆形的对象为 O，（A）（B）分别为出发点和终点，箭头指出对象 O
的移动方向。
（1）如果我们仅仅描述 O 移动了（即发生位移了），你可以用句型①来描
述，即：O moves. （O 移动了）。{move（移动）是一个动作，是 O 这个对象的
动态反映}
（2）如果 O 是滚动的，那么可以用 roll（滚动）这个更具体的动词来表示
move，即：O rolls. (O 滚动了)。 ｛move 和 roll 都是对象 O 的动态反映，但 roll
①分析是一个重新还原对象、对象的属性、身份以及其与其它对象关系的过程，所以认识
理解对象对于分析非常重要。②
本句的谓语应用的现在一般时，walks 是 walk 的第三人称单数形式，具体信息请参阅时
态一节。③
○试练：我跑。{I run.} ■火车移动。{The train moves.} ■他们说话。{they speak.}
（A） （B）
22比 move 更具体，更能体现其运动方式。｝
（3）如果 O 是流动的，那么可以用 flow（流动）这个更具体的动词来表示
move，即：O flows. (O 流动了)。
（4）如果 O 是走动的，那么可以用 walk（走动）这个更具体的动词来表
示 move，即：O walks. (O 走动了)。
（5）如果 O 是跑动的，那么可以用 run（跑动）这个更具体的动词来表示
move，即：O runs. (O 跑动了)。
（6）如果 O 是爬动的，那么可以用 crawl（爬动）这个更具体的动词来表
示 move，即：O crawls. (O 爬动了)。
（7）如果 O 是从高处掉下来的，那么可以用 fall（落下）这个更具体的动
词来表示 move，即：O falls. (O 落下)。
从上面的分析中我们可以看到 move 是英语中的最基本的一般动词，但其只
能反映对象的位置移动（即位移），而 roll/flow/walk/run/crawl/fall 这些动词等是
其具体形式。
换句话说在实际运用我们会将一系列动作（move）看成是一个整体，用一
个复合动词表示（如 roll/flow/walk/run/crawl/fall 等）①。
2.2.2.2. 约翰砍树。
①☆探讨。我们在日常生活中经常运用到复合的概念，例如，当我们说“我吃饭”时，“吃”
其实就是一个复合词，因为吃这个动词包含了一系列的动作：把（饭）用（筷子或其它餐
具）送到你口中，然后再嚼，最后吞下。显然你吃其它东西也会有相似的动作，比如说吃
蛋糕、吃苹果，而且因为吃这种动作在日常生活中发生的非常多，所以我们在用语言表达
与“把（饭）用（筷子或其它餐具）送到你口中，然后再嚼，最后吞下”相似的一系列动
作时，就用“吃”这个复合动词来表达这一意思。个人认为古汉语与英语有很多相似之处，
两者应用的复合词都非常多，使得表达非常简洁。如：春风又`绿江南岸，明月何时照我还？
（王安石《泊般瓜州》）（“绿”，使……变成绿色。）纵江东父老怜而`王(wàng)我，我何面
目见之？（《史记"项羽本纪》）（“王我”，即使我做君王。）项伯杀人，臣活之。（“活之”，使他活。）
我们现在再来看现在网络上非常流行一句话：一会 Q 我。（Q：用 QQ 发信息联系某人，
所以说 Q 也是一个复合词）
分析：约翰（John）是一个对象，砍（cut）是其动作，树（tree）是另一个
对象，“约翰砍树”描述了对象的动作及其与其它对象的动态关系，因而我们可以
句型②来描述这一事件对象，即，John cutts the① tree②.
3.3.3.3. 安迪矮。
分析：安迪(Andy)是一个对象，矮（short）是其属性，因而我们可以用句型
③来描述“安迪矮”这一事件对象，即：Andy is③ short④.
4.4.4.4. 马丁是农民。
分析：马丁（Martin）是一个对象，农民（farmer）是其身份，因而我们可
以用句型④来描述“马丁是农民”这个事件对象，即，Martin is a farmer⑤.
5.5.5.5. 杯子在箱子里。
分析：杯子（cup）是一个对象，箱子（box）是另一个对象，在...里（in）
表明了两者之间的静态空间位置关系，因而我们可以用句型⑤来描述“杯子在箱
子里”这一事件对象，即，The cup is in⑥ the box⑦.
6.6.6.6. 屋顶上有一只鸟。
① The 是一个冠词，具体信息请参阅冠词一节。②
○试练：吉姆拉门。{Jim pulls the door} ■她喝水。{She drinks water. } ■我读书。{I reada book. } ■他开车。{He drives a car. } ■鲍伯打扫房间。{Bob cleans the room.}③
☆当你对时态有一个比较深入的理解之后，你就会发现系动词 be（is 是其的一种形式这
一）是没有实际意义的，只是一个功能词，其只不过反映了谓语的“时“，当这个其反映
的“时”为可推知信息时，be 通常是可以省略的（因为没有存在的必要了）。在汉语中我
们不通过变化谓语动词来反映“时”所以也不存在与 be 类似的系动词，这也就是为什么汉
语中有“这个孩子可爱”类似的句子，而英语一定会在孩子和可爱之间加上一个系动词 be的原因，因而也不会出现 The child lovely 类似的句子。其实如果英语的谓语不反映“时”
的话像 The child lovely. The cake on the desk 类似的句子是可以被理解和接受的。④
○试练：这条狗是黑色的。{The dog is black. } ■他年轻。{He is young} ■这房子小。{Theroom is small} ■丹尼不错。{Denny is good} ■天气糟糕。{The weather is awful.} ■这些
女孩漂亮。{The girls are beatiful.}⑤
○试练：她是个工人。{She is a worker. } ■这是只老虎。{It is a tiger. } ■杰克是医生。
{Jack is a doctor.} ■他是名运动员。{He is an athlete.}⑥ In 是一个介词，具体请参阅介词一节。⑦
○试练：石头在桥下。{The stone is under the bridge.} ■画在墙上。｛The pitcure is｝■布
覆盖在桌面上。｛The cloth is over the table.｝■他来自中国。｛He is from China.｝
24分析：鸟（bird）是一个对象，屋顶（roof）是另一个对象，上（on）表
明两者之间的静态空间位置关系，因而我们可以用句型⑤来描述“屋顶上有一只
鸟”这一事件对象，即，A bird is on the roof. 但根据英语的习惯通常会这样表达：
There is a bird on the roof. ｛there 可以看成是一个语气词，用来引起别人的注意，
没有实际意义，且句子的谓语 is 提到了主语的前面①。｝
7.7.7.7. 人们说地球是圆的。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）地球是圆的 {可以用句型③来描述，即：The earth is round.}；
2）人们说地球是圆的 {可以用句型②来描述，即：People say that the earth is
round}。
综合 1）2）原句可以表达为：People say that the earth is round②. 其中 the earth is
round 是一个事件对象作 say 的宾语，而 that 只是一个功能词指出其后的句子作
名词性成分。
8.8.8.8. 吉姆善良，他是个科学家。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）吉姆善良 {可以用句型③来描述，即：Jim is kind.}；
2）他是个科学家 {可以用句型④来描述，即：He is a scientist.}。
我们看到 1）2）两个句子的意义相互不受影响，我们称这种句子为平行句，即
1）2）是两个相互平行的句子，在实际应用中我们可以用一个平行连接词 and
将这两个句子连接起来，使句子看起来更加紧凑，即形成：Jim is kind and he is a
scientist.[ 3）] 我们以称类似句 3）的句子为复合句。
①○试练：袋子里有一本书。｛There is a book in the bag.｝■空气里有一股味道。｛There is a
smell in the air.｝■窗户旁边有把椅子。｛There is a chair by the window.｝②
传统语法称 that the earth is round 为宾语从语。
在实际的运用中我们还可以用另一种方式复合 1）2）两个句子，即形成：
Jim, who is a scientist①, is kind. [4）②] 其中的 who 代替的就是 Jim 这个人物对象，
由于 1）2）两个句子是平行句，所以按照英语的习惯在复合后 2）要尽量位于
代词代替的对象之后，且 2)要位于两个逗号的中间。以后我们称与 4）类似的句
子也为复合句③。
9.9.9.9. 我有一台电脑。
分析：我（I）是一个对象，电脑（computer）是一个对象，有（of）表达了
二者之间的静态关系（拥有关系），因而我们可以用句型⑤来描述“我有一台电
脑”这一事件对象，即，I am of a computer. 但在实际运用中因为表达“拥有关系”
的时候非常多，所以常用 have 代替 am of （即 be of）这一串以使表达简洁④。
所以这个句子可以简洁地表达为：I have a computer. 我们称 have 为复合词⑤。
进一步分析：你可能会问 I have a computer 属于哪一种句型呢？严格意义
上来说，将其还原后其属于句型⑤，但为直观简洁，在实际运用中，我们可以
将 have 这个复合词看成一个一般动词，从而可以将 I have a computer 这个句子
归为句型②。从以上的分析我们可以看到，由于复合概念的存在及实际简便的
需要，我们先前的学习到的一般动词的概念和句型②的概念得到了扩展。当然
在以后的学习中你会发现，其实这种扩展也会包括先前学习到的名词，形容词⑥
、
系动词⑦、介词
⑧概念以及①、③、④、⑤几种句型概念，在以后的学习中请注
①传统语法称 who is a scientist 为非限制性定语从句。
② 4）和 3）所表达的意思是一样的。③
具体的复合规则请参阅平行简单句的复合一节。④
根据 be of 的在谓语中的“时”have 会有不同的形式。⑤
具体内容请参阅复合词一章。复合词复合的内容在[]中表示，如：have [be of]。⑥
☆如：skilled [having skill] 熟练的，He is a skilled negotiator. 他是个谈判能手。根据概念
扩展我们将 skilled 这个复合词看成是形容词。⑦
☆如：get [reach the specified state or condition]变得，I get hungry（我饿了），为简便你可
以将 get 这个复合词看成是一个系动词，整个句子看成是句型③，具体分析请看简单句子
分析一节中 I get hungry （我饿了）这个例子。
26意认真体会。
10.10.10.10.海伦是位作家，马克喜欢她。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）海伦是位家作家 {可以用句型④来描述，即：Hellen is a wirter.}；
2）马克喜欢她 {可以用句型②来描述，即：Mark loves her }。
显然 1）2）是两个平行句，所以我们可以用平行连接词 and 将这两个句子连接
起来形成一个复合句，即：Hellen is a writer and Mark loves her.
我们也可以通过另一种方式将这两个平行句复合起来，即形式：Hellen,
whom Mark loves, is a wirter. {whom 代替 Hellen 在第二个平行句中作 loves 的宾
语，采用这种形式的复合形式后，按照习惯其位置提到了第二个平行句的前面。}
★在进一步学习之前，我们有必要先了解一下时态的概念。
我们先来学习“时”即“时间”的概念，大家都知道一个特定的动作或状
态总会存在于一个特定的时间当中。在英语当中这一信息，通常通过谓语动词
的变化体现出来。为方便理解时间的概念，我们先看下图：
过去 现在 将来
如果以现在的时间为观察点，那么我们称现在以前的时间为过去，现在以后的
时间为将来；如果你过去为观察点，那么我们称过去以后的时间为将去将来。
所以理论上说英语中谓语的“时”有四种，即：现在、过去、将来、过去将来。
我们再来学习一下“态”即“状态”的概念，我们知道一个特定的动作或
状态要么处于正在进行状态、要么处于已经完成状态、要么在完成进行状态①
。
在英语中这些信息也通过变化谓语动词表示出来。因而理论上英语中的谓语的
⑧☆如：down [From a higher to a lower place (of sth)]从高处向下，The stone rolled down the
hill（石头滚下山），为简便你也可以将 down 这个复合词看成是一个介词，具体分析请看
简单句子分析一节中 She pulled down a blind（她拉下窗帘）这个例子。①
完成进行状态较难理解，具体请参阅时态一节。
“态”有四种，即一般态（即零态）、进行态、完成态和完成进行态。
“时”与“态”结合在一起，就形成了谓语的“时态”，在传统语法中人们
通常将时态混在一起，使得理解起来非常困难。我们要明白“时”和“态”是
两个相互独立的概念①。当句子谓语的“时”为可推知信息时，“时”是可以省
略的。显然三言二语是无法讲清楚时态的概念的，具体请参阅时态一节。
11.11.11.11. 地上的这本书是红色的。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）这本书是红色的{可以用句型③来描述，即：The book is red.}；
2）这本书在地上{可以用句型⑤来描述，即：The book is on the floor}；
3）隐含信息，即在说话者所处的语境中，这本书不是唯一的（可能有书在床上、
桌子上等，其颜色可能是红色，也可能是其它颜色）,但地上只有这一本书（在
地上是其区别于其它书的特性）。
我想你现在可能遇到困难了，怎么去表达 3）所说的隐含信息呢？因为在地
上是这本书区别于其它书的特征，所以我们要用这一点去限定这本书，使其具
有唯一性。因而你可以这样去表达：（1）The book which is on the floor is red. 在
这个句子中为避免重复 which 代替了 the book；which is on the floor 作为一个整
体放在 the book之后对其起限定作用，使其具有唯一性②（The book which is on the
floor 作为一个整体作* is red 这个句子的主语）。我们称 The book is red 为主句，
which is on the floor 为限定句，限定 the book 这个对象③。
①在以后的学习中我们还会学习主动语态和被动语态，而被动语态也通过变化谓语动词变
化出来。在英语中，谓语的“时”“态”和“语态”是三个相互独立的概念，但都通过变
化谓语动词体现出来。这三者的结合是我们学习的难点。②
传统语法称 which is on the floor 为限制性定语从句。③
注意限定句要尽量靠近其限定的对象，两者之间一般没有逗号。显然如果我们去掉限定
句，那么其限定的对象就会变得不明确。
如果我们在限定句的前后加上逗号那么这个句子就会变成：（2）The book, which is on thefloor, is red. 那么（1）和（2）所包含的信息有区别吗？
28☆我们看到 which 代替了 the book，而且限定句的谓语的“时”与主句“时”
一致①，即都是现在时，因而在这一语境中这两者都属于可推知信息
②，按照英
语的习惯，当信息属于可推知信息时，在不影响原意的情况下，按照一定的规
则这些信息可以省略③。所以原句可以简化为：The book on the floor is red.
12.12.12.12.她讨厌的那个男人是个恶棍。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）那个男人是恶棍 {可以用句型④来描述，即：The man is a devil.}；
2）她讨厌那个男人 {可以用句型②来描述，即：She hates the man }。
显然 2）要限定 1）中的 man 对象，不然 man 这个对象会变得不明确，所以综
合 1）2）可以得到：The man whom she hates is a devil.
我们看到在 The man whom she hates is a devil 这个复合句中 whom 代替的就
是 man 这个对象，因而属于可推知信息，所以按照英语的习惯可以省略，因而
原句可以进一步简化为：The man she hates is a devil.
在英语中（1）和（2）所包含的信息是有区别的：（1）和（2）都包含 1）和 2）两个信息，
但两者的隐含信息是不一样的（1）表明在说话者所处的语境中，book 这个对象不是唯一
的，所以需要用限定句来确定其唯一性，（2）表明在说话者所处的语境中，book 这个对象
是唯一的，所以不需要用限定句来确定其唯一性。
你可能还会问：（3）The book is on the floor and it is red. （注意 and 是一个连词，连接两个
事件对象，其是一个功能词，没有实际意义。）和（1）（2）所包含的信息一样吗？一般来
说，（3）仅含有 1）和 2）两个信息，没有隐含信息。
在以后的学习中我们称含有某个限定对象的的句子为主句，称用来限定这个对象的句子为
限定句（限定句和主句之间具有依附关系，没有限定句，被限定的对象就会变得不明确）。
没有此关系的句子为平行句（平行句之间常用逗号，句号或者平行连接词 and 区别开来）。
根据此概念（2）中的 The book is red 和 which is on the floor 是两个平行句；（3）中的 the bookis on the floor 和 it is red 是两个平行句。
○试析：1）I have a brother who is a teacher. （我有一个当老师的兄弟。隐含信息：我的兄
弟不至一个） 2）I have a brother, who is a teacher. （我有一个兄弟，他是个老师。隐含信
息：我只有一个兄弟） 3）I have a brother and he is a teacher. (我有一个兄弟，他是个老师。
没有隐含意义)限定句与主句的复合及平行句之间的复合规则的具体内容请参阅简单句的复合这一章。④
建议先阅读时态一节，再理解以下内容。④
即可以从语境中推测出来的信息。④
具体规则请参阅简单句的复合省略一章。
☆你可能会问我们先前也讲过一个类似的例子，即 Hellen, whom Mark loves,
is a wirter，其中 whom 代替的就是 Hellen 这个对象，属于可推知信息，因而原
句可以进一步简化为：Hellen, Mark loves, is a wirter 吧？但根据英语的习惯，因
为 whom Mark loves 与 Hellen is a writer 是两个平行句，所以答案是否定的①。
13.13.13.13.她有一幢漂亮的房子。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）她有一幢房子。{可以用句型②②来描述，即：(1)She has a house.}
2）房子漂亮。{可以用句型③来描述，即：(2)It is beautiful.}
所以这个句子可以这样表达：<1>She has a house which③ is beautiful. 因为 which
代替的就是 house，而限定句谓语的时与主句的时一致（都为现在时）所以 which
与 is 都属于可推知信息，因而可以省略，即变成 She has a house beautiful. 但根
据英语的习惯为保持句子紧凑，如果限定句采用省略形式后，仅留下一个词，
通常将这个词置于其限定的对象之前，所以经过再次变化，原句可以变为：She
has a beautiful house.
当然你也可以这样表达这个句子：<2> She has a house and it is beatiful. <3>
She has a house, which is beautiufl. （语境：她仅有一所房子），通常来说我们会
选择<1>。
14.14.14.14.他在河里游泳。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）他游泳。{可以用句型①来描述，即：（1）He swims.}
2）他在河里。{可以用句型⑤来描述，即：（2）He is in the river.}
①从这个例子我们可以看到，虽然一些信息属于可推知信息，但按照英语的习惯还是不可
以省略，但或许在将来的某一天随着英语习惯的发展上面的省略方式有可能会被接受。②
严格意义上来说是句型⑤，但这里已经运用了句型扩展的概念。③ Which is beatiful 用来限定对象 house，不然 house 这个对象会变得不明确。
30所以这个句子可以这样表达：He swims, who is in the river①. 因为 who 代替的
就是 he，而平行句(2)谓语的时与平行句（1）谓语的时一致（都为现在时），所
以 who 与 is 都属于可推知信息，因而可以省略，即变成了：He swims in the river.
（逗号去哪了？根据习惯，逗号一起省略了②）
15.15.15.15.我喜欢游泳。
分析：游泳是一个动作事件对象可以用不定式（to swim）或动名词(swimming)
表示，所以这个句子可以用句型②来表达：I like③ to swim/swimming.
16.16.16.16.他跑向车站。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）他跑。{可以用句型①来描述，即：He runs.}
2）跑的方向是车站。{可以用句型⑤来描述，即：Running is to the station.}
复合 1）2）得：He runs and running is to the station. 我们看到 running 在前面已
经以第三人称形式出现，而 is 的“时”与 run 的“时”一致（都是现在时），所
所以 running 与 is 的“时”都属于可推知信息，因而可以省略，所以原句可以简
①当然我们也可以这样表达：He swims and he is in the river. 不过这种表达方式显然不够简
洁，所以一般不用。
☆我们看到 1）2）发生在同一时间，而在同一时间，一个对象不可能身处两地，所以
从逻辑上讲，2）限定了 1)中 he 对象。②
○试练：她在床上睡觉。{She sleeps on the bed.} ■孩子们在操场上喊着、跑着。{Thechildren shout and run in the playground. } ■她正在房间里写信。{She is writing a letter in theroom}.③ Like [have a feeling that sth/sb is pleasant]是一个复合词，根据一般动词概念的扩展我们将
这个复合词动词看成是一个一般动词。因此这里所运用到的句型也运用到了扩展概念。
☆我们看到复合词的概念一方面可以使句子简洁，另一方面也丰富了句子的表达方
式。了解复合词复合的内容有以下几点好处：1）由于复合内容中的一些信息可以与外界
取得联系，如果我们能够了解复合的内容，这样就可以弄清楚这些联系的来龙去脉，从而
使我们更好地分析、理解句子。2）可以使我们更好的了解一个单词含义的本质。在以后
的学习中我们会发现其实复合词也有一个极大的弊端：他是英语单词量这所以庞大的根源
之一。
你可能会问，我什么时候应该去了解一下复合词复合的内容呢？个人建议下面二种情
况下了解其内容：1）当你对这个单词的含义了解不透彻时；2）当这个复合词使你在句子
分析中遇到困难时。
化为：He runs to the station①.
17.17.17.17.汤姆非常高兴。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）汤姆高兴。{可以用句型③来描述，即：（1）Tom is happy.}
2）高兴在一个高的程度。
1）高兴在一个程度。{可以用句型⑤来描述，即：being happy② is in a degree. }
2）程度高。{可以用句型③来描述，即：it is high.}
综合起来：可得到（2）being happy is in a high degree.
因而我们可以得到：Tom is happy which is in a high degree. 其中 which 代替 being
happy 这个状态对象，而（1）与（2）的时态一致，所以 which 与（2）的 is 都
属于可推知信息，因而可以省略，即得到：Tom is happy in a high degree. 而 in a
high degree 因为用得非常多所以在英语中常用 very③这个复合词表示，因而得到,
Tom is very happy. (调整了 very 的语序)
18.18.18.18.我早上看电视。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）我看电视。｛可以用句型②来描述，即：I watch TV｝
2）看是在早上。｛可以用句型⑤来描述，即：watching④ is in the morning.｝
因而我们可以得到：I watch TV which is in the morning. 其中 which 代替 watching
这个动作对象，而（1）与（2）的时态一致，所以 which 与（2）的 is 都属于可
①当然你也可以这样理解这个句子：He runs which (running) is to the station. 按照省略原则
这个句子可以简化为：He runs to the station.② Being happy 是一个用动名词形式表示的状态事件对象，也可以用不定式形式来表示，即：to be happy.③
在以后我学习中你也可以称这个复合词为副词。④
也可以用不定式形式表示这个动作对象，即：to watch.
32推知信息，因而可以省略，即得到：I watch TV in the morning①.
19.19.19.19.我喜欢的这本书很贵。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）这本书很贵。{The book is very expensive.}
2）我喜欢这本书。{I like the book.}
显然 2）要限定 1）中的对象 book，否则 book 这个对象会变得不明确，所以综
合 1）2）得：The book which I like is very expensive. {2）作限定句后，which 代
替了 book，其位置也提到了限定句的最前面。} 我们发现，which 代替了 book，
而 book 这个对象在前面已经出现，所以 which 属于可推知信息，按照英语的习
惯，which 可以省略，即原句可以简化为：The book I like is very expensive. 你可
能会问 like 的“时”与 is 的“时”一致（都是现在时）属于也属于可推知信息，
因而可以采用省略形式，即原句可以变成：The book I liking is very expensive. 但
按照英语的习惯，基于以下几方面的原因：1）I 这个对象属于不可推知信息；2）
采用省略形式后，限定句并没有简化；3）由于这个限定句处于句子内部没有逗
号分隔，采用省略形式后，会使整个句子结构看起来非常松散，所以英语中不
会采用上述省略形式②。
20.20.20.20.我曾经推过他。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）我推他。｛可以用句型②来描述，即：I push him.｝
2）推是在过去。｛可以这样描述：Pushing is③ at the time of the past.｝
综合 1）2）得到：I push him which (pushing) is at the time of the past.
①○试练：晚上气温下降。｛it gets cold at night.｝■莉莉明天结婚。｛Lily’ll get married
tomorrow. *按照习惯 tomorrow 前的 on 省略｝②
○试练：穿越这座森林的这条路非常危险。{The road through the forest is very dangerous.}③
严格意义上来说这里应该用 be，但为方便理解这里就不多说明了。
但根据英语的习惯，为使表达简洁，如果句子主语的动作发生在过去的某
个时间点或时间段，which (doing①) is at/during the time of the past 这一部分可以
省略而通过变化句子的主动词表达出来（即其主动词变成过去式②），我们称经
历过变化后的谓语为谓语的过去一般时。所以原句可以变化省略为: I pushed
him③.
21.21.21.21.他曾经是老师。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息。
1）他是老师。｛He is a teacher.｝
2）是老师这种状态是在过去。{Being a teacher is at the time of past.}
综合 1）2）省略得到：He was④ a teacher.
22.22.22.22.我现在正在奔跑。
分析：根据对象英语语法的规则你可能会这样来表达这个句子：I run which
(running) is at present and which (running) is in progress⑤. (介词 in 指了了动作对象
running 与其所处的状态对象 progress 之间的关系)。
但根据英语的习惯，为使表达简洁，如果句子主语的动作正在进行，将 which
(doing) is in progress 省略，并通过将句子的主动词变成现在分词并在其前面加上
助动词 be 表达出来，并将 be 根据时间和人称作出变化⑥。所以我们可以得到：I
am running⑦.
①在这个例子里 doing 的具体形式是 pushing.
②一般是在动词原形后加 ed，具体请参阅时态一节。
③○试练：我昨天推了他。｛I pushed him yesterday. *which (pushing) is at yesterday of the past.
因为 yesterday 属于不可推知信息，所以最终保留了。｝④ Was 是 be 的过去式。⑤ Which (running) is in progress. (奔跑正在进行中)。⑥ which (running) is at present. 这一部分省略后通过 be 的变化体现出来。具体请参阅时态
一节。⑦
○试练：他昨天 2 点钟的时候在正在踢球。｛He was playing football at 2:00 yesterday. *was是 be 是过去时，在这里体现过去的时间。｝
3423.23.23.23.你的名字叫什么？
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）名字是什么。｛可以用句型④来描述，即：name is what.｝
2）名字是你的。{可以用句型⑤来描述，即：name is of you}
综合 1）2）可以得到：your name is what? {your [of you①]}，但在实际运用中为
强调 what 会将其提前，即形成：What is your name②?
24.24.24.24.那个爸爸是警察是学生是个好孩子。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）那个学生是孩子 {可以用句型④来描述，即：The student is a child.}；
（1）孩子是好的 {可以用句型③来描述，即：a child is good.}
结合 1）（1）得：The student is a good child. <1>
2）那个学生的爸爸是警察 {His/her father is a police. *his [of him]; her [of her]}
显然 2）要限定<1>中的 student 对象，不然 student 会变得不明确，因而综合<1>
2）得到：The student whose father is a police is a good child. {whose [of who]}
25.25.25.25.昨天被杀的那个男的是她叔叔。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）那个男的是她叔叔 {The man is her uncle.};
2）那个男的昨天被杀了 {The man was killed yesterday③.}。
显然 2）要限定 1）中的 man 对象，不然 man 这个对象会变得不明确，因而可
通过前几个例子的分析我们发现，句子的谓语隐含了动作对象的时间和状态信息，使
句子的表达得到了简化。请注意时态的概念在本语法中特别重要，其是学好本语法的基础
之一，因而应该好好理解学习。④
复合词复合的内容会在｛｝中表示。④
具体信息请参阅，句子的种类一节。③
这里用到了被动语态，具体请参阅被动语态一节。按照习惯 yesterday 前的 on 被省略掉
了。
以得到：The man who was killed yesterday is her uncle. 因为 who 代替的就是 man
而 was 的时可以从 yesterday 推测出来，因而 who 和 was 都属于可推测信息，因
而原句可以简化为：The man killed yesterday is her uncle.
26.26.26.26.我知道他正在做什么。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）他正在做什么 {He is doing what.}；
2）我知道他正在做什么 {I know what he is doing.}。
综合 1）2）得到：I know what he is doing. {He is doing what 作 know 的动宾，按
照习惯疑问成分 what 提前了①。
27.27.27.27.她会跳舞。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）她有一种能力。｛She has the ability.｝
2）能力是说跳舞。｛the ability is to dance. (to dance 是一个由动词不定式表示的
动作事件对象作表语)｝
综合起来得到：She has the ability ②which is to dance，省略简化后得到，She has the
ability to dance. 当然你也可以用复合词 can｛has/have the ability to do sth｝来表
达：She can dance③.
28.28.28.28.我为他沏了一杯茶。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）我沏了一杯茶。｛I made a cup of tea.｝
2）茶是给他的。{tea is for him.}
①具体请参阅句子作名词性成分一节。
② Which is to dance 这个句子用来限定对象 ability，否则这个对象会变得不明确。③
传统语法称 can 为情态动词，具体信息请参阅情态助动词一节。
36复合省略 1）2）得到：I made a cup of tea for him. 将 him 提前后 for 也可以省
略，即：I made him a cup of tea.
29.29.29.29.我把她弄哭了。
分析：我做了她哭了这件事①，即：I made that she cried. 因为 that 后的句子
的“时”与 made 的时一致，因而属可推测信息，按照英语的习惯，that 后的句
子采用不定式形式的省略形式，所以可以变化为：I made she to cry. 但通常会将
she 变成宾格形式，将 to 省略掉，即变成：I made her cry②.
30. 我看到他正在踢足球。
分析：通过理解我们得到以下信息
1）我看到他下在踢足球。｛可以用句型②来描述，即：I see that he is playing football.
这里的 that 为功能词，没有实际意义，其作用是指出其后的句子（he is playing
football 这个事件对象）作为一个整体，作名词性成分③④
，如果 that 后的句子作
宾语，that 通常可以省略。｝
我们还发现 he is playing 这个事件对象的时与 see 的时一致，因而 is 属于可
省略信息，经过进一步简化我们得到：I see him playing football. {he 由主格变成
了宾格 him.}
31.31.31.31.正在唱歌的那个男生很聪明。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
①你可以这样理解：你可能会说“我做了个玩具”，这里的“她哭了”也是一个对象，相
当于“玩具”这个对象。②
○试练：我使她高兴。｛I made her happy. *to be 省略了。｝③
具体信息请参阅句子作名词性成分及作名词性成分时的省略一章。④
○试练：我听到一个孩子正在哭。{I hear a child crying. *a child crying=that a child is crying.因为 is 的时与 hear 的时一致，因此属于可推测信息，所以省略了。} ■我说他是个好人。
｛I said (that) he was a good guy.｝■我喜欢打篮球。｛I like playing basketball. *playingbasketball 是一个用动名词表示的动作事件对象，作 like 的宾语｝■她想离开。｛She wants toleave. *to leave 是一个用动词不定式表示的动作事件对象，作 want 的宾语｝■真奇怪他是
个男生。｛It is strange that he is a boy.｝■我喜欢和她在一起。｛I like to be with her.｝
1）那个男生很聪明。{The boy is quite smart.}
2）他正在唱歌。{He is singing.}
显然 2）要限定 1）中的 boy 对象，不然 boy 会变得不明确，因而可以得到：The
boy who is singing is quite smart. 我们看到 who 代替的就是 the boy，而限定句 is
的时与主句的时一致，所以 who 和 is 都属于可推测信息，因而可以省略，所以
原句可以简化为：The boy singing is quite smart.
32.32.32.32.他身高耳长。
分析：通过理解我们得到以下信息
1）他高。｛可以用句型③来描述，即（1）He is tall.｝；
2）他的耳朵长。｛可以用句型③和⑤复合描述，即（2）his ears are long.｝
综合得到：He is tall and his ears are long. 我们可以看到（2）的时与（1）的时一
致（现在时），所以 are 属于可推知信息，因而可以省略，（1）、（2）这两个平行
句复合省略后得到：He is tall, his ears long. 但这种方式并不简洁，我们可以用另
一种方式来表达，即：He is tall with long ears. {平 1：He is tall; 平 2: who (he) is
with long ears①.}
33.33.33.33.汤姆背对着我站着。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）汤姆站着。{（1）Tom stands.}
2）他的背对着我。｛（2）His back is to me｝
将（1）（2）两个平行句复合省略得：Tom stands, his back is to me. 但这种形
式多在书面语上出现，一种更常见的表达方式是：Tom stands with his back to me.
{平 1：Tom stans. 平 2：which (Tom stands) is with that his back is to me. 两者复
①通过上面的分析我们发现，只要我们弄清楚了要陈述的对象等，一个事件对象是可以有
多种表达方式的。
38合省略后形式最终形式
①。}
34.34.34.34.吉米给他女朋友买了一辆新车。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）吉米买了辆车。{可以用句型②描述，即：Jimmy bought a car. }
2）车是新的。{可以用句型③描述，即：a car is new. }
3）车是给女朋友的。{可以用句型⑤描述，即：a car is for girl-friend.}
4）女朋友是他的。{可以用句型⑤描述，即：girl-friend is of him.}
复合省略以上句子得：Jimmy bought a new car for his girl-friend. (运用了复合词
his {of him})。
实际上这个句子还可以进一步简化，按照习惯如果将 for his girl-friend 移至
bought 后，for 也可以省略，即：Jimmy bought his girl-friend a new car②.
35.35.35.35.她离开教堂后，就下雨了。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）天下雨。{It rained.}
2）天下雨是在她离开教堂之后。{That it rained was after she left the church.}
复合 1）2）省略得：After she left the church, it rained. 由于 left 的时和 rained 的
时一致，所以 left 的时可以省略，即本句还可以变为：After her leaving the church,
it rained. （但由于省略后，并没有进一步简化句子，所以不推荐使用③④。）
①○试练：她正在打扫房间，门开着。｛She is cleaning the room with the door open.｝
②○试练：吉米昨天用 10000 英镑给他女朋友买了辆新车。{Jimmy bought his girl-friend a
new car for 10,000 pounds yesterday. }③
性价比不高，所以不推荐使用，但句子本身是对的。但原句如果是这样的：离开教堂后，
她笑了 （after she left the church, she smiled.）。因为 she 重复出现，而 left 的时和 smiled 的
时一致，因而这两者都属于可推知信息，因而可以省略，即变成 After leaving the church, shesmiled. (因为采用这种省略形式后，句子得到了进一步的简化，所以推荐使用)④
当然你也可以这样表达：After she left the church, there was a rain. ○试练：她离开教堂后，
就下大雨了。{After she left the church, it rained heavily/ a heavy rain came/ a heavy rainstarted. }
36.36.36.36.我明天写信。
分析：写这个动作对象会发生在明天，所以用谓语用将来时，即：I will write
a letter tomorrow.
37.37.37.37.我已经完成工作了。
分析：“已经完成工作”表明我现在自由了，可以不用工作了，也就是说“我
已经完成工作”这个事件对象对现在产生了影响，所以这个句子的谓语要用完
成时，即：I have finished my work.
38.38.38.38.警察正在审问昨天偷了亨利的车的男子。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）警察正在审问男子。{The policeman is questioning the man.}
2）这名男子昨天偷了亨利的车。{The man stole Henry’s car yesterday.}
复合 1）2）得：The policeman is questioning the man who stole Henry’s car yesterday.
你可能会问，从 yesterday 我们可以推测出 stole 的“时”为过去，也就是说 stole
的“时”为可推知信息，而 who 代替的就是 the man 所以，stole 的“时”和 who
都属于可推知信息，那么 who stole Henry’s car yesterday 可以采用省略形式，即
原句可以变为：The policeman is questioning the man stealing Henry’s car yesterday.
这种变化对吗? 初看这种变化好像没有错误，但其实是不对的，因为人们会将
省略后的句子理解为：The policeman is questioning the man who was stealing
Hernry’s car yesterday. (警察正在审问昨天正在偷亨利车的男子)，显然其与你想
要表达的意思是不一样的。这种情况是由于 be 变成 being 后通常省略引起的①，
具体解释请参阅简单句的复合省略这一章②。
①显然如果 2）为：The man was stealing Henry’s car yesterday. 那么上述变化是正确的。
②☆如果你学过传统语法的话以下引自张道真英语语法大全的一段话，或许可以帮助你理
解上述解释。现在分词可起定语从句的作用：
The man driving（=who was driving）the lorry was drunk．The woman holding（=who is
4039.39.39.39.有很多钱的人是快乐的。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）人是快乐的。{People are happy.}
2）人有很多钱。{People have much money.}
显然 2）要限定 1）中的 people 对象，不然 people 会变得不明确，因而综合 1）
2）可以得到：People who have much money are happy. 我们看到 who 代替的就是
people 而 have 的“时”与 are 的“时”一致，因而 who 与 have 的“时”都属于
可推知信息，按照省略规则 have 要变成现在分词 having, 所以原句可以简化为：
People having much money are happy. 你可能会问，这个句子别人会不会理解成
People who are having much money are happy. 显然我们不会遇到这个问题，因而
have“拥有”这个意义上是没有进行态的，所以不会让人们产生这种误解。
40.40.40.40.经常吃奶油的人容易变胖。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）人容易变胖。{People get fat easily.}
2）人经常吃奶油。{People often eat cream.}
显然 2）要限定 1）中的 people，否则 people 会变得不明确，综合 1）2）得：People
who often eat cream get fat easily. 我们看到 who 代替的就是 people 而 eat 的“时”
与 get 的“时”一致，因而 who 与 eat 的时都属于可推测信息，根据省略规则 eat
holding）a baby in her arms is my aunt．Do you see the gentleman standing there？（相当于进
行时态所表示的正在进行的动作）
Anyone driving（=who drives）a lorry must first get a permit．A man living（= who lives）in town rarely sees cows．A girl studying hard will get a good husband．（相当于一般时态所表
示的任何时候都能发生的动作）
The city as appearing（= as it appears）to the tourists is rather queer．The nurse as attendingme was too old．但：I must find out the child who broke my door（而不是 breaking my door）．
（作定语的现在分词和谓语动词必须表示相同的时间，否则只能用定语从句，不能用现在
分词。)
变成现在分词 eating，则原句简化为：People often eating cream get fat easily. 这
个句子会不会让人理解成：People who are often eating cream get fat easily 呢，显
然从 often①及全句的语境推测，人们不可能这样理解这个句子。
41.41.41.41.那个已经完成工作的女孩是我姐姐。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）那个女孩是我姐姐。｛The girl is my elder sister.｝
2）那个女孩已完成工作。｛The girl has finished her work.｝
复合 1）2）得到：The girl who② has finished her work is my elder sister. 你可能会
问 who 代替的就是 the girl, 而 has 的“时”与 is 的“时”一致（都是现在时），
所以 who，和 has 的“时”都属于可推知信息，因而原句可以复合省略为：The girl
having finished her work is my elder sister. 这样对吗？其实这种省略形式的接受
度是非常低的（虽然省略后仍然可以被正确理解，但由于其并没有达到简化句
子的目的，所以一般不被认可）。
42.42.42.42.我还有一间房间要我打扫。
分析：通过理解我可以得到以下信息
1）我有③一间房。{I have a room.}
2）我必须打扫这间房。{I am obligated to clean it.}
复合 1）2）得到：I have a room that/which I am obligated to clean. 当然也可以用
复合词 must[be oligated to]（传统语法称 must 为情态助动词）来简化这个句子，
即变成：I have a room that/which I must clean. 我们看到 that/which 代替的就是
room，所以属于可推知信息，也可以省略，所以原句可以进一步简化为：I have
① Often 一般不会与进行时连用。② Who has finished her work 用来限定对象 girl，否则这个对象会变得不明确。③
当然这个“有”不是拥有的意思。
42a room I must clean. 根据英语的习惯，这个句子还可以再进一步简化，即 must
这个复合词可以去掉，但保留其中的不定式符号 to①，而 I 在前面也已经出现，
所以也可以省略，即形成：I have a room to clean.
43.43.43.43.今天下午要作演讲的老师来自美国。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）这个老师来自美国。(The teacheris from the USA.)
2）她/他今天下午要作演讲。(She/he will make a speech this afternoon.)
显然 2）要限定 1）中的 teacher 对象，不然其会变得不明确，所以综合 1）2）
得：The teacher who will make a speech this afternoon is from the USA. 根据将来时
的另一种理解方式（具体参阅时态一节将来时部分）：我们可以将 will /shall [have
a definite possibility]看成一个复合词 {which (possibility) is to do sth。采用省略形
式后 to 也省略了}②。因为 who 代替的就是 the teacher 属于可推知信息，而根据
英语习惯只要保留 will 这个复合词中不定式符号 to 其本身也可以省略，所以原
句可以进一步简化为：The teacher to make a speech this afternoon is from the USA.
44.44.44.44.他手里拿着一本书向我走来。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）他走。{He came.}
2）走是向我。{coming was to me.}
3）他和一本书在一起。{He was with a book.}
4）书在手里。{a book was in the hand.}
①保留这个 to 的意义在于： 1）使人们不会误认为 to 后的动词就是谓语；2）当人们看到
简化后的句子试图原还句子时，to 会提示人们这里有一个复合动词。{当然这个复合动词
究竟是什么，那是约定俗成的，一般来说就是传统语法中的情态助动词，但这个情态助动
词会根据语境的不同而不同，在以后的学习中，只要你认真分析，也可以很容易根据语境
推测出这个复合词究竟是什么，在这里你只要了解一下就可以了}②
换句话也可以说英语中没有将来时/过去将来时，因为这些时可以用现在/过去时表示。
5）手是他的。{the hand was of him. }
复合省略 1）、2）、3）、4）、5）得：He came to me with a book in his hand①.
45.45.45.45.玛丽正在人行道上慢慢地走着。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）玛丽正在走。{Mary is walking.}
2）走的速度慢。{the speed of walking is slow.}
3) 她的双脚在人行道上。{her feet is on the pavement.}
复合省略 1）、2）、3）得：Mary is walking slowly on the pavement. {the speed of
walking, her feet, 以及 is 都属于可推知信息，所以省略了，且运用了复合词 slowly
[one’s speed is slow]。}
46.46.46.46.狙击手击杀了那个妇女。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）狙击手射击了那个妇女。｛The sniper shot the woman.｝
2）这个事有一个结果（那个妇女死了）｛That the sniper shot the woman was with the
result that the woman was dead.｝
复合省略 1）2）得：The sniper shot the woman with the result that the woman was
dead. 这个句子可以进一步简化，that 后的 woman 在前面已经出现，而 was 的时
与 shot 的时一致，因而两者都属于可推知信息，所以可以省略，按照习惯 with the
result that the woman was 都省略，仅留下 dead， 所以最终简化得到：The sniper
shot the woman.
47.47.47.47.他站在窗户旁边，眼望大海。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
①当然你也可以这样表达：He came to me, a book in hand. 但这种表达方式多用于书面语
中。
441）他站着。{He stands.}
2）他在窗户边上。{He is by the window.}
3）他望着大海。{He watches/is watching the sea.}
复合省略 1）、2）、3）得：He stands by the window, watching the sea.
48.48.48.48.她生病了，真叫我们担心。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）她生病了。｛She is ill.｝
2）她生病这件事使我们担心。{That she is ill worries us.}
所以这句话可以这样表达：That she is ill worries us. ｛That she is ill 是一个事件
对象，其在句子中作主语，that 只是一个标志符号，指出其后的句子作名词性成
分，本身没有意思。｝我们看到 is 的“时”与 worries 的“时”一致（都是现在
时），因而属于可推知信息，按照英语的习惯在这种情况下 that she is ill 这个作
主语的句子可以采用省略形式，即变成：Her being ill worries us. {但这种省略形
式常用于书面语中。具体的省略规则请参阅句子作名词性成分时的省略形式这
一节｝
49.49.49.49.他不可能举起这个袋子。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
他能举起这个袋子这件事{He can raise the bag.}是不可能的，即：That he can raise
the bag is impossible. 按照英语的习惯，因为 that 后的句子含有情态助动词 can，
所以可以采用省略形式，即可以变成：It is impossible for him to raise the bag. {can
省略后保留了不定式符号（显然如果 to 也省略的话，就起不到提示的作用了，
也就让人无法推测了，同时 raise 的位置也会很尴尬）。为平衡句子结构 it 作形
式主语，代替 for him to raise the bag①②.
50.50.50.50.我想要的东西是一辆车。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）东西是一辆车。{The thing is a car.}
2）我想要这个东西。{I want the thing.}
显然 2）要限定 1）中的对象 car，不然其会变得不明确，所以复合 1）2）可以
得到：The thing which I want is a car. 按照习惯这个句子可以用复合词 what [the
thing which]进一步简化为：What I want is a car.
51.51.51.51.我来这里是为了帮助你。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）我来这里。{ I come here. *按照英语的习惯 here 前的介词常省略③，这里省略
了 to.}
2）我来这里是为了帮助你。{That I come here is for to help you. *that 后的句子可
以采用省略形式，而按照英语的习惯不定式前的介词常省略，所以原句可以简
化为：My coming here is to help you}
综合 1）2）原句可以表达为：My coming here is to help you. 当然我们也可以这
样来表达原句：I come here, which is <for> to help you. {which（代替事件对象 I
come here）和 is 的“时”属于可推知信息，可以省略，所以原句可以简化为：I
come here to help you. *注意采用省略形式后按照习惯逗号去掉了，但 I come here
与 to help you 仍是两个平行句。}
①具体的省略规则请参阅句子作名词性成分时的省略形式这一节。
②○试练：我的建议是你应该呆在家里在。{My advice is that you should stay at home. *可以
省略 should 保留 to，原句可以变为：My advice is for you to stay at home.}③
英语中有很多习惯性省略，如常用地点（home）和时间（today，tomorrow）对象前的介
词常省略{主要原因是这些对象在日常生活中运用的非常多，而其前的介词也非常容易被推
测出来}，以后请注意总结类似的情况。
4652.52.52.52.我没有时间修理这辆自行车。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）我没有时间。{I don’t have time.}
2）在这个时间里我能修理自行车。{I can repair the bike in/during the time.}
显然 2）要限定 1）中的 time 对象，否则其会变得不明确，所以综合 1）2）得：
I don’t have time in/during which I can repair the bike. which, I, can,都属于可推测
信息，因而原句可以进一步简化为：I don’t have time to repair the bike. {按照习惯
如果 which 代替的是 time, place, way, 采用省略形式后，其前的介词也可以省略
（否则介词移至限定句的句尾），因而 in/which 省略了}，当然原句也可以这样
表达：I have no time to repair the car.
53.53.53.53.我们将在这条河上建一座桥。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）我们将建一座桥。{We will build a bridge. }
2）这座桥将横跨这座桥。{a bridge will be over the river}
综合 1）2）我们得到：We will build a bridge, which will be over the river. 平行句
2）谓语的“时”与 1）谓语的“时”一致（即都是将来时）所以 2）的时属于
可推测信息，因而可以省略，根据省略规则，原句可简化为：We will build a bridge
over the river. {注意简化后，逗号省略了①} 当然我们也可以用复合词 bridge
[build a bridge over sth]来表达原句，即：We will bridge the river.
54.54.54.54.让我们出去喝一杯吧。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）让我们出去。{Let’s go out.}
①虽然逗号是分隔平行句的标志，但并不是所有的平行句之间都有逗号。请在以后的学习
中注意。
2）出去的目的是为喝一杯。{which is for having a drink. Which 代替 1)这个事件
对象。}
综合 1）2）得：Let’s go out for a drink. {根据英语的习惯 having 属于可推知信息
①，所以省略了}
我告诉了他如何操作这台机器。
55.55.55.55.我不知道该做什么。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）我该做什么。{I should do what.}
2）我不知道我该做什么。{I don’t know I should do what}
但按照英语的的习惯事件对象 1）作 know 的宾语后，其中的不疑问代词 what
应提前，即原句要变成：I don’t know what I should do. 显然，I, should 都属于可
推知信息，因而原句可以进一步简化为：I don’t know what to do.
当然我们也可以通过另一种方式来理解表达这个句子，即：
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息。
1）我不知道事情。{I don’t know the thing}
2）这个事情是我应该做的。{I should do the thing.}
显然，2）要限定 1）中的 thing 对象，所以综合 1）2）得：I don’t know the thing
which I should do. 运用复合词 what[the thing which]得到：I don’t know what I
should do，进一步简化得到：I don’t know what to do②.
56.56.56.56.工作完成后，我回家了。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）我回家了。{I went home.}
①属于经常性和常识性的可推知信息。
②○试练：我已经告诉如何操作这台机器了。{I’ve told him how to operate this machine.}
482）工作完成。{The work was done. }
3）我回家是在工作完成之后。{which was after the work was done.}
综合 1）2）3）得：After the work was done, I went home. 按照省略规则 was 属
于可省略信息，在书面语中，这个句子可以进一步简化为：The work done, I went
home. {注意 after 也可以省略。}
57.57.57.57.她爸爸是个有名的作家，很善良。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）她爸爸很善良。{Her father is very/quite kind.}
2）他是个有名的作家。{He is a famous writer. }
综合 1）2）我们可以得到：Her father is very/quite kind and he is a famous writer. 当
然也可以这样表达：Her father is very/quite kind, who is a famous writer. 或者：Her
father, who is a famous writer, is/quite kind. 由于 who, is 都属于可推知信息，因而
这个句子可以进一步简化为：Her father, a famous writer, is very/quite kind. {传统
语法称 a famous writer 为 her father 的同位语。}
58.58.58.58.她睡在床上，电视开着。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）她睡着。{She is sleeping.}
2）她的身体在床上。{Her body is on the bed.}
综合 1）2）得：She is sleeping on the bed. {Her body 和 is 都属于可推知信息，所
以可以省略}
3）电视开着。{The TV is on.}
综合 1）2）3）得：She is sleeping on the bed and the TV is on. 当然也可以复合为：
She is sleeping on the bed, which is with that the TV is on. {which 代替 she is
sleeping on the bed 这个事件对象} 因为 which、第二个 is 和第三个 is 都属于可
推知信息，所以原句可以进一步省略为：She is sleeping with the TV on. {传统语
法称 with 部分为 with 的复合结构}
59.59.59.59.她发出指令要求他们立即工作。
分析：通过理解我们可以得到以下信息
1）她发出指令。{She gave the order.}
2）指令是他们须立即工作。{The order was that they should work instantly.}
综合 1）2）得：She gave the order which was that they should work instantly. 因
which，was 属于可推知信息，所以原句可以简化得：She gave the order that they
should work instantly. 因 should 属于可推知信息，所以原句可以进一步简化为：
She gave the order for them to start work instantly.
从上面的学习中我们发现，要运用五种基本简单句句型构造各种各样的复
合句，我们还需要掌握一些复合省略规则。只要你认真学习下面章节中的复合
省略规则，仔细揣摩每一个例子分析，相信不久你就可以很轻松构造各种简洁
明了的句子了。
50第第第第四四四四章章章章 例子分析例子分析例子分析例子分析
本章将遵循从易到难的原则分析更多的例子，以加深你对对象英语语法的
理解①（由于本章涉及到其它一些语法规则，所以请结合后面的相关章节一起阅
读）。
第一节第一节第一节第一节 简单句子分析简单句子分析简单句子分析简单句子分析
1111． TheTheTheThe telephonetelephonetelephonetelephone isisisis bybybyby thethethethe window.window.window.window. 电话在窗户那儿。
分析：
主句：The telephone is by② the window.
2222． IIII amamamam fromfromfromfromChina.China.China.China. 我来自中国。
分析：
主句：I am from③ China.
3333． HereHereHereHere comescomescomescomes thethethethe taxitaxitaxitaxi!!!! 出租车来了!!!!
分析：
主句：the taxi comes! ④
4444． MyMyMyMy namenamenamename isisisis David.David.David.David. 我的名字叫大卫。
①通过分析我们可以弄懂句子的来龙去脉。
②介词 by 指出了对象 telephone 与其邻近对象 window 之间空间位置关系。
○试析：The apple is on the table. 这个苹果在桌子上。■The present is in the drawer. 礼物在
箱子里。■The chair is behind a tree. 椅子在一颗树后。■The dog is under the desk. 狗在书
桌下。■The house is near the school. 房子在学校边上。■The moat is about/round/around thecity. 护城河环绕着这座城市。■The mirror is above the washbasin. 镜子在脸盆之上。■Thebridge is above the river. 桥在河上。■I am at the market. 我在市场。The table is beside thebed. 桌子在床边。{beside [at the side of sb/sth]}③
介词 from 指出了人物对象 I 与其起源地对象 China 之间的关系。
○试析：a wind from the north 从北方刮来的风。■ a letter from my sister 我姐来的信
■ I had a phone call from Mary. 我接到了玛丽的电话。④
注意 here 只是一个语气词，起加强语气的作用，而且在这种情况下如果主语的语主语不
是代词的话，主句的谓语要提前。
分析：
主句：name is David.
限定句：MyMyMyMy [of[of[of[of me]me]me]me]①=name is of ②me.
5555． IIII havehavehavehave aaaa boxboxboxbox ofofofof matches.matches.matches.matches. 我有一盒火柴。
分析：
主句：I have a box.
限定句：of matches=which (box) is of③ matches.
6666． IIII likelikelikelike totototo readreadreadread novelsnovelsnovelsnovels.... 我喜欢读小说。
分析：
主句：I like to read novels④.
7777． TheTheTheThe importantimportantimportantimportant thingthingthingthing isisisis totototo savesavesavesave lives.lives.lives.lives. 救人要紧。
分析：
①注意复合词复合的内容在中括号中表示。
②介词 of 指出了对象 name 与其所有者对象 me 之间的关系，因为 of me 这样的词片在英
语中用得非常多，所以为使句子看起来更简洁就造了一个复合词 my 代替它，代替后按照
英语的习惯其位置提到了其限定的对象之前。
○与 My 相似的复合词：ours[of us], your[of you]，his[of him]，her[of her]，their[of them]；its[of it]。○of +名词（拥有者对象），如果 of 表所属关系，且拥有者对象是有生命的那么 of+名词可
以变为“名词’s” 并将其置于其所限定的对象之前，这叫名词的所有格形式（其实就是一
种简化形式）。如：the leg of the dog，因为 dog 为有生命的对象且 of 在这里表所属关系所
以可以将 of the dog 省略为 the dog’s，并将其置于其限定的对象 leg 之前，最终变成了 thedog’s leg。③
介词 of 指出了对象 box 与其填充/构成对象 matches 之间的关系。
○试析：a bottle of water 一瓶水 ■a sheet of paper 一张纸 ■2 kilos of potatoes 2 千克
土豆 ■a bar of chocolate 一块巧克力。④ to read novels 是一个动词不定式短语表示的动作事件对象，作 like 的宾语。在第二章中
我们提到过动名词也可以表示动作事件对象，那这里的动作事件对象也可以用动名词表示
吗？答案是可肯定的，而且两者所表达的意思也没有区别，即原句也可转变成：I like readingnovels.
○试析：I want to see the headmaster. 我想见校长。{由 to see the headmaster 表示的动
作事件对象作 want 的宾语}
52主句：The thing is to save lives①.
限定句：important=which (thing) is important.
8888． ItItItIt waswaswaswas aaaa horrible,horrible,horrible,horrible, uglyuglyuglyugly picture.picture.picture.picture. 那是一幅可怕的、丑陋的照片。
分析：
主句：It was a picture.
限定句 1：horrible=which (picture) was horrible.
限定句 2：ugly=which (picture) was ugly②.
9999． IIII sawsawsawsaw aaaa picturepicturepicturepicture inininin thethethethe windowwindowwindowwindow ofofofof aaaa shopshopshopshop nearnearnearnear thethethethe hospital.hospital.hospital.hospital. 我在医院附近一
家店铺的橱窗里看见了一张照片。
分析：
主句：I saw a picture.
限定句：in...hospital=which (picture) was in...hospital.
主句：picture was in the window.
限定句：of a shop...hospital=which (window) was of a...hospital.
主句：window was of a shop.
限定句：near the hospital=which (shop) was near③ the hospital.
10101010． SheSheSheShe isisisis thethethethe beautifulbeautifulbeautifulbeautiful girlgirlgirlgirl IIII knowknowknowknow andandandand whowhowhowho cancancancan playplayplayplay thethethethe piano.piano.piano.piano. 她是我认识的
一个会弹钢琴的漂亮女孩。
分析：
① To save lives 是一个由动词不定式表示的动作事件对象，在本句中作表语。
○试析：It's easy to do that.做这件事很容易。{为避免头重脚轻 it 代替了 to do that 作形
式主语，而将句子真正的主语放在了句尾。} ■The only thing I could do was to leave. 我
唯一能做的就是离开。■The duties of a postman are to deliver letters and newspapers. 邮递员
的任务就是投递信和报纸。■It is fun playing with children. 和孩子们一起玩真好。②
限定句采用省略形式后，horrible 和 ugly 的位置都提到了其限定的对象之前。③
介词 near 指出了对象 shop 与其空间位置上接近对象 hospital 之间的关系。
主句：She is the girl.
限定句 1: beautiful=who (girl) is beautiful.
限定句 2: I know=whom (girl) I know.
限定句 3：who can play the piano=who (girl) can play the piano①.
11111111． WhatWhatWhatWhat wewewewe needneedneedneed isisisis food.food.food.food. 我们需要的是食物。
分析：将 what[thewhat[thewhat[thewhat[the thingthingthingthing which]which]which]which]代入原句得：The thing which we need is food.
主句：The thing is food.
限定句：we nee which (thing)②③.
12121212． TheTheTheThe girlgirlgirlgirl whosewhosewhosewhose mothermothermothermother isisisis MaryMaryMaryMary isisisis crying.crying.crying.crying. 那个妈妈叫玛丽的女孩在哭。
分析：
主句：The girl is crying.
限定句：whosewhosewhosewhose④ [of[of[of[of whom]whom]whom]whom]mother is Mary=mother of whom (the girl) is Mary.
主句：mother is Mary.
限定句：of girl=who (mother) is of the girl.
13131313． HeHeHeHe isisisis thethethethe manmanmanman withwithwithwith aaaa scarscarscarscar onononon hishishishis face.face.face.face. 他就是那个脸上有条伤疤的男人。
①我们可以看到，如果一个对象有多个限定句限定它，那么最后确定的对象是这许多限定
句的交集。②
按照复合规则 which 应该放在句子的前面，但这里为了使句子更容易理解，所以将其位
置还原了。③
○试析以下相关高考真题：
■(2010 北京卷) I want to be liked and loved for I am inside.A. who B. where ●C. what D. how■(2008 北京卷) The companies are working together to create they hope will be thebest means of transport in the 21st century.A. which B. that ●C. what D. who■(2005 江西卷) The way he did it was different we were used to .A. in which B. in what ●C. from what D. from which④
○试析：He is the boy whose father is in prison. 他就是父亲在坐牢的那个男孩。■Thehouse whose door has a glass panel is big. 那座门上襄着玻璃板的房子很大。■This is the penwhose point is broken. 这就是那只笔头破损的笔。
54分析：
主句：He is the man.
限定句：with a scar on his face=who (the man) is with a scar on his face.
主句：The man is with① a scar.
限定句：on his face=which (scar) is on his face.
主句：scar is on face.
限定句：hishishishis [of[of[of[of him]him]him]him]=which (face) is of him.
14141414． HeHeHeHe cutscutscutscuts thethethethe carrotscarrotscarrotscarrots withwithwithwith aaaa knife.knife.knife.knife. 他用刀切胡萝卜。
分析：
主句：he cuts the carrots.
限定句：with a knife=which (cutting) is with②③ a knife.
15151515． HeHeHeHe isisisis talkingtalkingtalkingtalking withwithwithwith aaaa friend.friend.friend.friend. 他正和一位朋友谈话。
分析：
①介词 with 指出了事物对象 scar 与人物对象 man 的所属关系。
○试析：a tall gentleman with a grey beard 留有灰白胡须的高个先生 ■a book with agreen cover 带有绿封皮的皮 ■a man with a gun 带枪的男人。■Tobacco is taxed in mostcountries, along with alcohol. 除酒之外, 烟草在多数国家都要徵税。■She was washing hercar with great care. 她在仔细地洗车。{平 1：she was washing her car. 平 2：with greatcare=who (she) was with great care. 在意义上平 2 限制平 1。*当然你也可以这样理解，主：
she was washing her car. 限：which (washing) was great care. 两种理解方式都是正确的。}②
严格意义上来说这个句子应该这样分析，平行句 1：He cuts the carrots；平行句 2：He iswith a knife. 但为分析简洁我们采用主句和限定句的分析方式。{with 间接指出使用的工具
为 knife.}③
介词 with 指出了动作对象 cutting 与其执行时所使用的工具 knife 之间的关系。
○试析：Fix the two pieces together with glue. 把这两块用胶水粘起来。■ We eat with afork. 我们用叉子吃饭。■He made us laugh with his jokes. 他以笑话引我们发笑。■ThePresident is very popular with Jewish voters. 总统很受犹太选民的欢迎。{with 保留了其古英
语意义，相当于 toward/towards/to} ■Be careful with the glasses. 小心玻璃杯。{ with 保留
了其古英语意义，相当于 toward/towards/to } ■I am really angry with her. 对她我真的很生
气。{with 保留其古英语意义，相当于 against. *angry: having a strong feeling against someonewho has behaved badly, making you want to shout at them or hurt them. *which (feeling) iswith/against sb}
主句：he is talking.
限定句：with a friend=which (talking) is with①② a friend.
16161616． IIII willwillwillwill comecomecomecome tomorrow.tomorrow.tomorrow.tomorrow. 我明天来。
分析：
主句：I will come.
限定句：tomorrow=which (coming) will be on③ tomorrow.
17171717． WhenWhenWhenWhen hehehehe sawsawsawsaw her,her,her,her, hehehehe waved.waved.waved.waved. 他一看见她就摆了摆手。
分析：
主句：he waved.
限定句：WhenWhenWhenWhen [at[at[at[at thethethethe timetimetimetime atatatat which]which]which]which] he saw her=which (waving) was at the
time at which he saw her.
主句：waving was at ④the time.
限定句：at which (time) he saw her
①严格意义上来说这个句子应该这样分析，平行句 1：He is talking；平行句 2：He is with a
friend. 但为分析简洁我们采用主句和限定句的分析方式。{with 间接的地指出谈话的另一
方为 friend}②
介词 with 指出了 friend 是 talking 这个动作的共同执行者（另一执行者）。
○试析：Have you been fighting with your brother again? 你又跟你兄弟打架了吧? ■
The police communicate with each other by radio. 警察通过无线电互相联络。■Do you agreewith me about the need for more schools? 关于多建一些学校一事, 你同意我的意见吗? ■
They've decided to spend more time together. 他们决定多在一起。{together [with each other]}③
介词 on 指出了动作对象 coming 与其发生的时间对象 tomorrow 之间的关系，按照英语的
习惯这个限定句只保留了 tomorrow（因为 will be 可以从 will come 这部分推测出来，而按
照习惯常用时间对象前的介词常省略，所以仅保留了 tomorrow）。
○试析：He arrived yesterday. 他昨天到了。■Are you doing anything tonight? 你今天晚上
有事吗? ■Are you going into town this afternoon ? 你今天下午进城吗？Phil is cominghome for a visit next month. 菲儿下月回家玩。④
介词 at 提出了动作对象 waving 与其发生的时间对象 time 之间的关系。
○试析：I will phone you the moment I arrive. 我一到就打电话给你。{I will phone you at themoment at which I arrive.} ■That was a mistake. We'll never do it again. 那是个错误，我们不
会再犯了。{never [not at any time]. *again [another time]} ■They seldom/often/sometimes goout. 他们不常/经常/有时出门。
56主句：he saw her
限定句：at time=which (seeing) was at time.
18181818． IIII arrivedarrivedarrivedarrived afterafterafterafter hehehehe left.left.left.left. 我在他走后到的。
分析：
主句：I arrived.
限定句：after he left=which (arriving) was after① he left.
19191919． Peter,Peter,Peter,Peter, thethethethe headmasterheadmasterheadmasterheadmaster ofofofof thethethethe school,school,school,school, isisisis kind.kind.kind.kind. 这所学校的校长彼得很善良。
分析：
平行句 1：Peter is kind.
平行句 2： the headmaster of the school=who (Peter) is the headmaster of the
school.
主句：Peter is the headmaster.
限定句：of the school=who (the headmaster) is of the school②.
20202020． ItItItIt alwaysalwaysalwaysalways payspayspayspays totototo telltelltelltell thethethethe truth.truth.truth.truth. 说实话总是不吃亏的。
分析：
主句：It③ pays to tell the truth.
限定句：alwaysalwaysalwaysalways [at[at[at[at allallallall thethethethe time]time]time]time]=which (paying) is at all the time.
主句：paying is at the time.
①介词 after 指出了动作对象 arriveing 与事件对象 he left 之间的后前时间关系。这个句子还
有另外一种理解方式。平行句 1：I arrived. 平行句 2：after he left=which (I arrive) was afterthat he left. {介词 after 指出了事件对象 I arrive 与事件对象 he left 之间的后前时间关系。这
两种理解方式都是正确的。}○试析：You shoud do it before you forget. 趁早动手, 免得忘了。②
传统语法称 the headmaster of the school 为 peter 的同位语。
○试析：Yesterday I met Lily, a friend of my brother’s. 昨天我遇到了我弟弟的朋友莉莉。
■He tells me that his brother John is a world-famous doctor. 他对我说, 他的兄长约翰是一位
世界闻名的医生。{注意这里的 John 是一个省略的限定句：John=who (brother) is John. }③ To tell the truth 是一个动作事件对象，作主语，由于其较长所以由代词 it 代替了。
限定句：all=which (time) is all①.
21212121． IIII boughtboughtboughtbought thethethethe oldoldoldold carcarcarcar becausebecausebecausebecause itititit waswaswaswas cheap.cheap.cheap.cheap. 因为便宜，我买了这辆旧车。
分析：
平行句 1：I bought the old car.
主句：I bought the car.
限定句：old=which (the car) was old.
平行句 2：because[forbecause[forbecause[forbecause[for thethethethe reasonreasonreasonreason that]that]that]that] it was cheap=which (I bought the old
car) was for the reason that it was cheap.
主句：That I bought the old car was for the reason.
限定句：that it was cheap=which (the reason) was that it was cheap②.
22222222． HeHeHeHe waswaswaswas inininin prisonprisonprisonprison forforforfor tentententen years.years.years.years. 他在监狱中蹲了十年。
分析：
主句：He was in prison.
①注意在实际运用中一般来说不会有 which (time) is all 这样的句子，all 一般会放在 time 的
前面。在下面的分析中我们要注意这样一个问题，即：有些分析出来的句子在实际使用中
通常会使用省略形式，所以其完整形式通常不会在实际运用中出现，按照习惯有些句子甚
至可能被认为是错误的。如：My elder brother is a good guy. 我哥哥是个好人。在我们分析
这个例子时，就会出现这样一个句子：who (brother) is elder. 但按照英语习惯这个句子是不
被接受的，因为传统语法认为 elder 只能作前置定语。
○试析：To see is to believe. 百闻不如一见。■To error is human. 犯错是人之常情。■To dothat implies taking responsibility. 做那事意味着承担责任。■It takes ten people to encircle thebig tree. 这颗大树要十个能才能抱得住。②
介词 for 指出了事件对象 I bought the old car 与其相对应的对象（原因事件对象）it wascheap 之间的关系[我们看到因为按照英语习惯 that 后的句子/不定式不能作介词的宾语（其
实能作宾语，只不过是介词通常省略），使得 for the reason that 这一部分看起来非常臃肿，
在以后的分析中为方便我会打破这一规定，但请你在平时的学习中遵守这一规定]。○注意 as, since 与 because 有类似的意思。 试析：As she's been ill she'll need some help. 她
由于生病需要些帮助。■Since we've no money we can't buy a new car.因为我们没钱, 没法买
新汽车。Thanks to the bad weather, the match had been cancelled. ■多亏这个倒霉天气, 挺好
的比赛取消了。■The train was delayed because of bad weather. 因为天气不佳，火车晚点了。{because [for the reason]. *because of=for the reason of}
58限定句：for ten years=which (being in prison) was for① ten years.
23232323． HeHeHeHe crawledcrawledcrawledcrawled forforforfor 111155550000 metres.metres.metres.metres. 他爬行了 111155550000米。
分析：
主句：he crawled.
限定句：for 150 metres=which (crawling) was for② 150 metres.
24242424． TTTThesehesehesehese presentspresentspresentspresents areareareare forforforfor memememe.... 这些礼物都是给我的。
分析：
主句：presents are for③ me.
限定句：presents=which (presents) are these④.
25252525． HeHeHeHe drivesdrivesdrivesdrives carefully.carefully.carefully.carefully. 他开车很小心。
分析：
主句：He drives.
限定句：carefullycarefullycarefullycarefully [in[in[in[in aaaa waywaywayway thatthatthatthat isisisis carefull]carefull]carefull]carefull]=which (driving) is in a way that is
carefull.
主句：driving is in⑤ a way.
①介词 for 指出了状态对象 being in prison 与其持续的时间对象 ten years 之间的关系。
○试析：Tom saw him for the first/last time. 汤姆第一次/最后一次见他。■I have seen her(for) many times/twice. 我见过她好多次/二次。②
介词 for 指出了动作对象 crawling 与其移动的距离对象 150metres 之间的关系。
○试析：We walked about half a mile. 我们走了大约半公里。{about 前面省略了 for}■Theriver has risen (by) one meter. 河水上涨了一米。{which (extent) is by one meter}■The pricehas risen by 5%. 价格上涨了 5%。③
介词 for 指出了事物对象 presents 与其相对应的对象[目标对象（受益者）] me 之间的关
系。
○试析：These chairs are for the main office. 这些椅子是配给总公司的。■ Someone lefta message for Vicky. 有人给维姬留了信息。■The academy provides training for youngmusicians. 学院为年轻的音乐家提供培训。■I bought him a car. 我给他买了辆车。{=Ibought a car for him. 注意 for 常省略。}④
在实际运用中采用省略形式后，通常不会出现这样的句子。⑤
介词 in 指出了动作对象 driving 与其执行方式对象 way 之间的关系。
○试析：Bill run quickly/swiftly. 比尔跑得飞快。■She speaks Chinese well. 她中文讲
限定句：that (way) is carefull.
26262626． IIII dodododo notnotnotnot likelikelikelike you.you.you.you. 我不喜欢你。
分析：
主句：I do like you.
限 定 句 ： do① not[innot[innot[innot[in aaaa waywaywayway thatthatthatthat isisisis negativenegativenegativenegative]]]]=which (liking) is in a
way...negative.
主句：liking is in② a way.
限定句：that (way) is negative.
27272727． HeHeHeHe waswaswaswas veryveryveryvery angry.angry.angry.angry. 他非常生气。
分析：
主句：He was angry.
限定句：very[invery[invery[invery[in aaaa highhighhighhigh degree]degree]degree]degree] =which (being angry) was in③ a high degree.
主句：being angry was in a degree.
限定句：high=which (degree) is high④.
28282828． SheSheSheShe foundfoundfoundfound itititit difficultdifficultdifficultdifficult totototo answeransweransweranswer thethethethe question.question.question.question. 他发现回答这个问题很困
难。
得不错。{well [in a good, right or satisfactory manner /way]} ■The issue will be resolved in amanner that is fair to both sides. 这个问题将会以一种对双方公平的方式解决。{manner=way}■Perhaps they could sit down and discuss things in a civilised fashion. 或许他们可以坐下来，
以一种文明的方式讨论这些事情。⑤ do 是一个助动词，没实际意思，只起加强语气的作用。⑤
介词 in 指出了动作对象 liking 与其执行方式对象 way 之间的关系。⑤
介词 in 指出了状态对象 being angry 与其程度对象 degree 之间的关系。④ Very 和 very much 这个复合词的意思相差不大，如：She likes Beethoven very much. 她很
喜欢贝多芬的作品。
○还有几个复合词和 very 很相似：quite, fairly, pretty, even。试析：The girl sang quite a longsong. 这女孩儿唱了一首很长的歌。{quite [in some degree]} ■The book is rather heavy. 这
本书有些重。{rather [in some degree]} ■Sally drives fast, but Olive drives even faster. 萨莉开
车开得很快, 奥利夫开得更快。
60分析：
主句： She found it...question=She found that it was difficult to answer the
question①.
29292929． TheTheTheThe firefirefirefire isisisis reportedreportedreportedreported controlledcontrolledcontrolledcontrolled.... 据报道大火已被控制。
分析：
主句：The fire is reported controlled=That② the fire is controlled is reported.
30303030． TheTheTheThe traintraintraintrain totototo arrivearrivearrivearrive isisisis blue.blue.blue.blue. 要到达的那辆列车是蓝色的。
分析：
主句：The train is blue.
限定句：to arrive=which (the train) will arrive.
31313131． HeHeHeHe waswaswaswas aaaa dirtydirtydirtydirty manmanmanman inininin anananan oldoldoldold coatcoatcoatcoat withwithwithwith aaaa cigarettecigarettecigarettecigarette inininin hishishishis mouth.mouth.mouth.mouth. 这个男人
脏兮兮的，穿着一件旧外套，嘴里叼着一支烟③。
分析：
主语：He was a man.
限定句 1：dirty=who (man) was dirty.
限定句 2：in an old coat=who (man) was in④ an old coat.
主句：man was in a coat.
限定句：old=which (coat) was old.
① That 后的句子（其主语为 to answer the question。It 为形式主语）作 found 的宾语且采用
了省略形式（因为其谓语为 be 而根据 found 我们可以推测出这个 be 的实际形式是 was，所以采用了省略形式）。
○试析：He feels it his duty to help others. 他认为帮助别人是他的责任。② That 后的句子采用了省略形式，省略后为避免头重脚轻把 contrlled 放到了句尾。③
其实这个句子还可以这样拆分：平行句 1：He was a dirty man. 平行句 2: in a old coat=who(he) was in an old coat. 平行句 3：with a cigarette in his mouth=who (he) was with a cigarette inhis mouth.不管怎么理解，原句所表达的意思都是一样的。④
介词 in 指出了人物对象 man 与事物对象 coat 的空间位置关系。
限定句 3：with a...mouth=who (man) was with...mouth.
主句：man was with① a cigarette
限定句: in his mouth=which (cigarette) was in his mouth.
主句：cigarette was in mouth.
限定句：his[ofhis[ofhis[ofhis[of him]him]him]him]=which (mouth) was of him.
32323232． IIII amamamam sleepingsleepingsleepingsleeping withwithwithwith thethethethe windowwindowwindowwindow open.open.open.open. 我在睡觉窗户开着。
分析：
平行句 1：I am sleeping.
平行句 2：with the window open=which (I am sleeping) is with② that the
window is open③.
33333333． JackJackJackJack stoodstoodstoodstood withwithwithwith hishishishis handshandshandshands inininin hishishishis pockets.pockets.pockets.pockets. 杰克站着，手放在口袋里。
分析：
平行句 1：Jack stood.
平行句 2：with his hands in his pockets=which (Jack stood) was with that his
hands were④ in his pockets.
①介词 with 指出了人物象 man 与其附属物对 cigarette 象之间的关系。
○试析：②
介词 with 指出了事件对象 I am sleeping 与其同时同地存在的事件对象 the window is open之间的关系。后者在句子中作 with 的宾语且采用了省略形式{因为 is 的“时”与 am 的“时”
一致，省略后可以推测出来）。
○试析：I was with Sylvia at the time. 那时候我和西尔维亚在一起。■She was knitting,with the television on. 她在织衣，电视在旁开着。■ She stood with her back to me. 她站着
背对着我。{with that her back was to me.} ■He lay face down on the bed. 他面朝下躺在床
上。{平行句：face down=his face was down. 当然你也可以将这个句子变成：He lay on the bedwith his face down.}■( 2005 北京卷) I couldn’t do my homework with all that noise __________.●A. going on B. goes on C. went on D. to go on③
注意复合后 with 前面逗号也省略了。④
因为 were 可以从 stood 推测出来所以 that 后的句子采用了省略形式。在以后的学习中你
会发现其实 with 也是可以省略的。
6234343434． IIII sitsitsitsit onononon thethethethe grass.grass.grass.grass. 我坐在草地上。
分析：
平行句 1：I sit
平行句 2：on the grass=with my buttocks on the grass=which (I sit) is with that
my buttocks are on the grass①.
35353535． SheSheSheShe danceddanceddanceddanced inininin thethethethe room.room.room.room. 她在房里跳舞。
分析：
平行句 1：She danced.
平行句 2：in the room=with her body in the room=which (she danced) was with
that her body was in the room②.
36363636． IIII lookedlookedlookedlooked atatatat thethethethe picture.picture.picture.picture. 我看着那幅画。
分析：
主句：I looked.
限定句：at the picture=which (looking) was at③ the picture.
①你可能会问第二个平行句采用省略形式后怎么只保留了 on the grass 呢？其实我们可以
看到 which is with that my buttocks (臀部) are 这一部分是完全可以通过前面的 sit 推测出来
的（人坐的时候大部分时候是臀部在某物之上，所以才将那些可推测的信息省略掉了）。
○试析：He sat in the grass. 他坐在草丛里。{with that his body was in the grass} ■ Thedog sleeps on the floor. 狗睡在地板上。{with that its body was on the foor} ■ Ships sail onthe sea. 轮船在海上航行。{with that their bodies are on the sea} ■ The plane is flying abovethe clouds. 飞机正在云层上面飞行。{with that its body is above the clouds} ■We continuedup the mountain on horseback. 我们骑着马继续上山。{平 1：we continued up the mountain. 平
2：on horseback=who (we) were on horseback. }②
通过分析我们发现平行句 2 实际上对平行句 1 中的动作对象 dancing 起到了限定作用{身体（body）的位置自然会决定跳舞（dance）的位置}。所以为方便分析我们可以将平行句
2 看成一个限定句（虽然不准确，但不影响原意的表达）即：in the room=which (dancing) wasin the room. {介词 in 指出了动作对象 dancing 与其发生地点对象 room 之间的关系。} 以后
遇到类似的情况请注意。
○试析：He was skiing in Switzerland. 他在瑞士滑雪。■She lay on the beach and read herbook. 她躺在海滩上读书。■He spends all her free time painting. 他把闲暇时间都花在绘画
上。{painting 之前省略了 in. *which (spending) is in painting.}③
介词 at 指出了动作对象 looking 与其方向对象 picture 之间的关系。{最准确的说话当然
37373737． HeHeHeHe toldtoldtoldtold thethethethe newsnewsnewsnews totototo everybodyeverybodyeverybodyeverybody inininin thethethethe village.village.village.village. 他把那消息告诉了全村的
人。
分析：
主句：He told the news.
限定句：to everybody in the village=which (telling) was to...village.
主句：telling was to① everybody.
限定句：in the village=who (everybody) was in the village.
38383838． IIII waswaswaswas bornbornbornborn inininin thethethethe yearyearyearyear 1632163216321632，inininin thethethethe citycitycitycity ofofofof YorkYorkYorkYork inininin thethethethe northnorthnorthnorth ofofofof England.England.England.England. 我
1632163216321632年出生在英国北部的约克郡。
分析：
主句：I was born.
限定句 1：in the year 1632=which (bearing) was in the year 1632.
主句：bearing was in the year.
限定句：1632=which (year) was 1632.
限定句 2：in...England=which (bearing) was in...England.
主句：bearing was in the city.
限定句 1：of York=which (city) was of② York.
是：with my sight at the picture}○试析：He gazed at the beautiful girl. 他目不转睛地看着那个漂亮女孩。■ What are
you shooting at? 你（用枪）打什么呢? ■ The mugger thrust at his victim with a knife. 抢劫
者用刀子向受害人刺去。{which (thrusting) was with a knife. 介词 with 指出了动作对象
thrusting 与其执行时所使用的工具对象 knife 之间的关系。}①
介词 to 指出了动作对象 telling 与其方向对象 everybody 之间的关系。
○试析：She was addicted to rock music. 她热衷于摇滚乐。■She had an addiction toalcohol. 她嗜酒。{addiction [The quality or condition of being addicted]} ■In time he came tolove her. 他终于爱上了她。{in time he came (to) to love her. *to love her 这个不定式表示的动
作事件对象作介词 to 的宾语，但按照习惯不定式前的介词常（必须）省略。}③
介词 of 指出了对象 city 与其具体形式对象 York 之间的关系。
64限定句 2： in the north of England=which (city) was in the north of
England.
主句：city was in the north.
限定句：of England=which (north) was of England.
39393939． TheTheTheThe buildingbuildingbuildingbuilding wherewherewherewhere IIII livelivelivelive isisisis newnewnewnew。我居的那幢房子是新的。
分析：
主句：The building is new.
限定句：wherewherewherewhere [in[in[in[in which]which]which]which]=I live in which (the building).
主句：I live.
限定句：in the building=which (living) is in① the building.
40404040． HeHeHeHe liveslivesliveslives wherewherewherewhere thethethethe climateclimateclimateclimate isisisis mild.mild.mild.mild. 他住在一个气候温暖的地方。
分析：
主句：He lives.
限定句：wherewherewherewhere② [in[in[in[in aaaa placeplaceplaceplace inininin which]which]which]which] the climate is mild=which (living) is in a
①介词 in 指出了动作对象 living 与其发生地点对象 building 之间的关系。注意根据情况 in
可能会是其它介词。
○试析：Shanghai is the city where I was born. 我出生的那座城市是上海。■This is the placewhere I hid the key. 这就是我藏钥匙的地方。■She moved to the city, where jobs are available.她搬到了城里，在那里工作好找。
■(2008 安徽卷) All the neighbor admire this family _________the parents are treating theirchild like a friend.A. why ●B. where C. which D. that②
从分析中我们可以看出一个复合词复合的内容在不同的情况下可能会有所变化，如，Thebuilding where I live is new.（where[in which]）; He lives where the climate is mild. (where [in aplace in which])。 请在以后的分析中多注意。
○试析：put it where you found it. 把它放在原来的地方。
■(2010 重庆卷) Today, we will begin we stopped yesterday so that no point will be leftout.A. when ●B. where C. how D. what■(2010 全国卷 II ) — Have you finished the book？— No. I’ve read up to _____ the children discover the secret cave.A. which B. what C. that ●D. where
place in which the climate is mild.
主句：living is in a place.
限定句：in which (place) the climate is mild.
主句：the climate is mild.
限定句：in place=which (the climate) is in place.
41414141． SitSitSitSit whereverwhereverwhereverwherever youyouyouyou like.like.like.like. 您愿意坐在哪儿都行。
分析：
主句：Sit=you sit.
限定句：whereverwhereverwhereverwherever [in[in[in[in anyanyanyany place]place]place]place] youyouyouyou likelikelikelike=which (sitting) is in any place you
like.
主句：sitting is in place.
限定句 1：any=which (place) is any.
限定句 2：you like=which/that (place) you like①.
42424242． InInInIn mymymymy opinion,opinion,opinion,opinion, hehehehe isisisis aaaa goodgoodgoodgood teacher.teacher.teacher.teacher. 依我看他是个好老师。
分析：
主句：he is a teacher.
限定句 1：good=who (teacher) is good.
限定句 2：in mymymymy [of[of[of[of me]me]me]me] opinion=which (he is a good teacher) is in opinion of
me.
主句：That he is a good teacher is in② opinion.
限定句：of me=which (opinion) is of me.
①○试析：Anywhere she goes, he goes too. 不论她去哪儿，他也去哪儿。
②介词 in 指出了 he is a good teacher 这个事件对象与其存在的地点（想法）对象之间的关
系（即这个事件对象存在于我的想法中）。
6643434343． HeHeHeHe pushedpushedpushedpushed thethethethe doordoordoordoor open.open.open.open. 他把门推开了。
分析：
平行句 1：He pushed the door.
平行句 2：open=which (he pushed the door) was with the result that the door
was open①.
主句：That he pushed the door was with the result.
限定句：that the door was open=which (result) was that the door was open.
44444444． SheSheSheShe putputputput thethethethe bookbookbookbook onononon thethethethe table.table.table.table. 她把书放在桌子上了。
分析：
平行句 1：She put the book.
平行句 2：on the table=which (she put the book) was with the result that the
book was on the table.
主句：That she put the book was with the result.
限定句：that the book was on the table=which (result) was that the book
was on the table②.
45454545． IIII getgetgetget hungry.hungry.hungry.hungry. 我饿了。
分析：将 getgetgetget [[[[reachreachreachreach thethethethe specifiedspecifiedspecifiedspecified statestatestatestate orororor conditionconditionconditioncondition]]]]代入原句得： I reach being
hungry.
①平行句 2 采用省略形式后按规则应该保留 with the result that the door was open, 但显然其
还有省略的余地，所以按照英语的习惯在不影响原意的情况下通常只保留最重要的信息。
英语中类似的省略非常多，请注意。
○试析：I scraped the walls clean. 我把墙擦乾净了。■The bus was cut in half/in two bythe train. 公共汽车被火车撞成两截。■He stepped in a puddle. 他踏进了水坑。{which waswith the result that his feet were in a puddle} ■The flight was delayed as a result of fog. 因有
雾该航班误点。{which (the flight was delayed) was as a result of fog.}②
平行句 2 采用省略形式后只留下 on the table 了。
○试析：He placed the books in order on the shelf. 他把书按顺序摆在书架上。{which was withthe result that the book were in order and (were) on the shelf} ■The light is on. 灯开着。
主句：I reach being hungry①.
46464646． SheSheSheShe appearsappearsappearsappears totototo havehavehavehave manymanymanymany friends.friends.friends.friends. 她好像有很多朋友。
分析：将 appearappearappearappear [[[[givegivegivegive thethethethe impressionimpressionimpressionimpression ofofofof]]]]代入原句得：She gives the impression of to
have many friends.
主句：She gives the impression.
限定句：of to have many friends=which (impression) is of② that she has many
friends.
47474747． SheSheSheShe pullpullpullpulledededed downdowndowndown aaaa blindblindblindblind.... 她拉下窗帘。
分析：将 downdowndowndown [[[[FromFromFromFrom aaaa higherhigherhigherhigher totototo aaaa lowerlowerlowerlower placeplaceplaceplace (of(of(of(of sthsthsthsth))))]]]]代入原句得：She pulled a
blind from a higher place to a lower place.
主句：she pulled a blind.
限定句 1：from a higher place=which (pulling) was from a higher place.
主句：pulling was from③ a place.
限定句：higher=which (place) was higher.
限定句 2：to a lower place=which (pulling) was to④ a lower place.
① being hungry (the specified state or condition)是一个状态对象，作宾语。传统语法认为这
里的 get 是一个系动词，但通过分析我们发现其实 get 这个动词是一个复合词。
○试析：He kept silent. 他保持沉默。■He looks tired. 他看起来很累。■The cloth feels soft.这布手感很软。■They soon became angry. 他们过了一会就生气了。■The stew tastes salty.炖肉尝起来很咸。■The rumor proved false. 这谣言证实有假。■please keep your room tidy.请保持房间干净。{keep [make sb/sth stay]} ■she remained silent. 他保持沉默。■He carrysthe flag under his clothes. 他把旗子夹在衣服里带着。{ carry [make sb/sth stay at/under/on/in aplace and take (him/it) from place to place]} ■Marcia hides the pictures in her desk drawer. 玛
西娅将画藏在她书桌的抽屉里。② That 后的句子采用了不定式的省略形式。
○试析：It seems that you object to the plan. 你好象反对这个计划。③
介词 from 指出了动作对象 pulling 与其出发点对象 place 之间的关系。严格意义上来说因
为 pull [make sth move by drawing it]是一个复合词，所以这里的限定句应该是：which(moving) was from a place，而下面的限定句应该是 which (moving) was to a place, 但为方便
就不再拆分了，以后遇到类似的情况请注意。④
介词 to 指出了动作对象 pulling 与其方向对象 place 之间的关系。
68主句：pulling was to a place.
限定句：lower=which (place) was lower①.
48484848． HeHeHeHe threwthrewthrewthrew thethethethe bookbookbookbook intointointointo thethethethe fire.fire.fire.fire. 他把书扔进火里。
分析：将 into[tointo[tointo[tointo[to thethethethe insideinsideinsideinside ofofofof sth]sth]sth]sth]代入原句得：He threw the book to the inside of the
fire.
主句：He threw the book.
限定句：to the inside of the fire=which (throwing) was to the inside of the fire.
主句：throwing② was to the inside.
①○试析：we hiked down from the peak. 我们从山峰上徒步向下走。{此句中 the higher place
已经被 the peak 具体化了} ■ He sat down. 他坐了下来。{隐含 with the result that he/hisbuttocks was/were on a lower place. 如果这个句子是：He sat down on the bed. 他坐在床上，
那么 on the lower place就被 on the bed具体化了。} ■ The sun went down below the horizon.太阳落山, 消失于地平线下。{which was with the result that the sun was below the horizon}■ He tripped and fell down. 他绊倒了在地上。{隐含 which was with the result that he was ona lower place. 通常情况下 place 会是 ground 所以通常会把 on the ground 这一部分省略掉而
仅留下 down。注意英语中通常会省略一些共知的信息。}○up 与 down 是相对立的，试析：He climbs up the steps. 他爬上梯子。{up [from a lower toa higher place (of sth)]} ■ The sun came up. 太阳升起来了。{隐含 with the result that thesun was above the horizon} ■Turn the oven up to 220. 将烤炉调到 220。{显然这个句子省略
了很多可推知信息：turn the oven up to 220=turn the swith of the oven up to 220. *turn [(causesth to) move round a point or an axis] *which (moving) is from a lower place. which(moving) isto a higer place . (higer place 被 220 具体化了) } ■He's growing up fast. 他长得很快。■Jim'sup in his bedroom. 吉姆在他的卧室里。{up [in a higher palce]} ■She was up a laddermending the roof. {up [on/in a higher place (of sth) ]. *平行句之 1：who (she) was mending theroof. *你可能会问是不是可以在 ladder 之前加上 on 呢？答案是肯定的。} ■Traffic isbuilding up on the road. 来往的车辆在道路上越聚越多。{which is with the result that thevehicle are up}○以后我们称类似于 up/down 的词为介词复合词，他们看起来和介词很相似，但其实只是
其复合的内容以介词开头（其中的内容可以根据情况具体化或省略）。下面是一些常用的
介词复合词：
into [to the inside of sth]; ■onto [to the surface/top of sth]; ■across/over/past/through [fromone side to the other side (of sb/sth)]; ■between [in or into the space which separates twoplaces, people or objects]; ■among [in the midst of sb/sth]；■outside [on or to the outer orexternal side (of sb/sth)]；■inside [on or to the inner side of (sb/sth)]; ■within [in the inner partor parts (of sb/sth)]; ■during [from the beginning to the end of a period of time]; ■ since[during the time between a particular time and now]; ■ until [during the time between now andthe time at which]②
因为 throw [make sth move/go through the air by moving the arm]是一个复合词，所以从严
限定句：of the fire=which (inside) was of the fire.
49494949． TheTheTheThe doordoordoordoor clickedclickedclickedclicked shut.shut.shut.shut. 门嗒一声关上了。
分析：
平行句 1：the door clicked.
平行句 2：shut=which (the door) got shut①.
50505050． TheTheTheThe scarfscarfscarfscarf isisisis aroundaroundaroundaround herherherher neck.neck.neck.neck. 她脖子上围着围巾。
分析：
主句：The scarf is around② neck.
限定句：herherherher [of[of[of[of her]her]her]her]=which (neck) is of her.
51515151． wewewewe paidpaidpaidpaid aboutaboutaboutabout aaaa dollardollardollardollar.... 我们付了大约一美元。
分析：
格意义上来说这里的限定句应该是: which (moving/going) was to the inside。○试析：She fell into a deep sleep. 她沉沉入睡了。{=she fell to the inside of a deep sleep (withthe result that she was in a deep sleep). 显然这里运用了 fall 与 into 的引申意义，我们可以看
到，这个句子隐含一个结果对象，虽然这个结果没有显性表达出来，但人们可以意会到，
类似的情况很多，请注意。} ■Tom cut the cake into pieces. 汤姆把蛋糕切成了片。{with theresult that the cake was in pieces} ■We turned the bedroom into an office. 我们把卧室改成了
办公室。{with the result that the bedroom was an office}。○onto 与 into 相似，试析：I watched a dog jump onto the table. 我看到狗跳到了桌子上。{onto=to the surface/top of sth. With the result that the dog was on the table.}①
按照省略规则 getting 应该保留，但因为其很容易被推测出来所以实际运用中被省略掉
了。显然这个句子也可以这样表达：The door clicked and got shut.○试析：The new part clicked into place. 新零件嗒一声就装好了。{with the result that it
was in place} ■ She picked his jacket up off the floor. 她从地上捡起了他的夹克。{with theresult that his jacket was up and off the floor.}②
介词 around 指出了对象 scarf 与环绕对象 neck 之间的空间位置关系。注意 around, round,about 三个介词所表达的空间关系是一样的（即某物环绕着另一物），但具体用法（特别是
引申用法）有所不同。
○试析：The earth moves round the sun. 地球绕着太阳转。{its orbit is round the sun} ■
I found an English garden all about me. 在我四周环绕着一个英式花园。■We are about toleave. 我们即将动身。{这里运用的是介词 about 的引申意义，当一个人物对象 we 在一个
动作对象 to leave 周围时，其引申意义就是这个人即将做某事，而且按照英语的习惯 about也可以省略(如：I am to start=I am about to start.The students are to meet at the school gate tomorrow 明天学生们将在学校大门口集会。)}
70主句：we paid=we paid the money①.
限定句：about a dollar=which (the money) was about② a dollar.
52525252． TheyTheyTheyThey namednamednamednamed thethethethe childchildchildchild John.John.John.John. 他们给孩子取名叫约翰。
分析：将 namenamenamename [give[give[give[give aaaa namenamenamename totototo sb/sth]sb/sth]sb/sth]sb/sth]代入原句得：They gave a name John to the
child.
主句：The gave a name.
限定句 1：John=which (name) was John.
限定句 2：to the child=which (giving) was to the child.
53535353． IIII gavegavegavegave anananan appleappleappleapple totototo Tom,Tom,Tom,Tom, whowhowhowho gavegavegavegave itititit totototo hishishishis mother.mother.mother.mother. 我给了汤姆一个苹果，
他把它给了他妈妈。
分析：
平行句 1：I gave an apple to Tom.
主句：I gave an apple.
限定句：to Tom=which (giving) was to③ Tom.
平行句 2：who (Tom) gave it to his mother.
主句：Tom gave it.
限定句：to his mother=which (giving) was to his mother.
①显然 the money 属于可推知信息，所以按照习惯省略了。
○试析：His life with her was full of great happiness. 他与她一起生活的那段时间很快
乐。{during which he was with her. *during which he was 属于可推知信息，所以省略了。} ■Her mother did not approve of her friendship with Ahmed. {friendship [state of being friends]}②
这里应用的是 about 的引申意义。
○试析：It is a film about the Spanish Civil War. 这是一场关于西班内战的电影。■Shedrove for about ten miles. 她开车行驶了大约十英里。■Books were scattered about the room.书散在房里。The children were rushing about. 孩子们到处乱跑。{about someplace，而
someplace 这个对象可能是可推知信息，或没必要提及所以省略了（也可以说是没有具体化）}■ She's upset about missing the party. 她因错过了聚会而心烦。③
介词 to 指出了动作对象 giving 与其方向 Tom 之间的关系。
主句：giving was to mother.
限定句：hishishishis [of[of[of[of him]him]him]him]=which (mother) was of him①.
54545454． HeHeHeHe lookedlookedlookedlooked likelikelikelike anananan elephant.elephant.elephant.elephant. 他看起来像一头象。
分析：将 looklooklooklook [[[[givegivegivegive thethethethe impressionimpressionimpressionimpression ofofofof beingbeingbeingbeing orororor doingdoingdoingdoing sthsthsthsth]]]]代入原句得：He gave the
impression of being like an elephant.
主句：He gave the impression.
限定句：of being like an elephant=which (impression) was of② being like an
elephant③.
55555555． TTTTheyheyheyhey looklooklooklook alikealikealikealike inininin appearanceappearanceappearanceappearance.... 他们从外表看起来像。
分析：将 looklooklooklook [[[[givegivegivegive thethethethe impressionimpressionimpressionimpression ofofofof beingbeingbeingbeing orororor doingdoingdoingdoing sthsthsthsth]]]]代入原句得：They give the
impression of being alike in appearance④.
主句：They give the impression.
限定句：of being alike in appearance=which (impression) is of being alike⑤ in
appearance.
56． HeHeHeHe speaksspeaksspeaksspeaks inininin aaaa loudloudloudloud voice.voice.voice.voice. 他大声说话。
①注意 I gave an apple to Tom 还可以表达为 I gave Tom an apple (省略了 to)。传统语法认为
第二种表达方式中 Tom 是间接宾语, an apple是直接宾语, 这种间接宾语和直接宾语同时出
现的情况叫双宾语,或宾补，但通过分析我们发现，其实第二种表达方式不过只是省略了介
词 to。由于双宾语的概念将原本简单的概念复杂化了，所以本语法不采用这一概念。
在口语中这个句子通常会这样表达：I gave an apple to Tom and he gave it to his mother.②
介词 of 指出了对象 impression 与其具体的形式对象 being like an elephant 之间的关系。③
注意 being like an elephant=that he was like an elephant.（因为 he 在前面已经出现了，所以
采用形式后 he 省略了。注意传统语法认为：that 后的句子是不能作介词的宾语的，即不会
有类似 the impression was of that he was like an elephant，但其实通过后面的学习你会发现，
这一规则源于省略）④ being alike in appearance=that they are alike in appearance.⑤ which (being alike) is in appearance：介词对象 in 指出了状态对象 being alike 与其存在的
属性（方面、地点）对象 appearance 之间的关系。
○试析：The building was like a prison in appearance. 这座建筑的外观像监狱. ■Aluminiumis low in density. 铝的密度较低。■The river is 200 miles in length. 这条河长 200 米。■He istwo metres in height. 他身高二米。■The car is 2 metres in width 这辆车宽 2 米。
72分析：将 speakspeakspeakspeak [utter[utter[utter[utter words]words]words]words]代入原句得：He utters words in a loud voice.
主句：He utters words.
限定句：in a loud voice=which (words) are in a loud voice.
主句：words in① voice.
限定句：loud=which (voice) is loud.
57575757． HeHeHeHe learnedlearnedlearnedlearned EnglishEnglishEnglishEnglish bybybyby listeninglisteninglisteninglistening totototo thethethethe radio.radio.radio.radio. 他通过听广播学习英语。
分析：
主句：he learned English.
限定句：by listening to the radio=which (learning) was by② listening to the
radio.
58585858． WeWeWeWe gogogogo bybybyby car.car.car.car. 我们开车去
分析：
主句：we go.
限定句：by car=which (going) is by③ driving a car.
59595959． ThereThereThereThere waswaswaswas aaaa manmanmanman inininin thethethethe bigbigbigbig room.room.room.room. 有一个男人在这间大房间里。
①介词 in 指出了事物对象 words 与其属性对象 voice 之间的关系。
○试析：he writes a message in code 他用密码写了一条消息。■printed in italics, capitals, etc用斜体字﹑大写字体等印刷的。■Is the film in colour or black and white? 这胶卷是彩色的
还是黑白的? ■He spoke to me in English. 他用英语跟我说话。{speak [utter words]. *which(words) were in English.}②
介词 by 指出了动作对象 learning 与其执行方式对象 listening to the radio 之间的关系。
○试析：You switch the radio on by pressing this button. 按这个按钮就能开收音机。■You canremove the battery cover by pressing down the button on the back. 按下后面的键你就可以取
下电池盖。■She earns her living by selling insurance. 她靠卖保险为生。■By using theInternet you can do your shopping from home. 在家你就可以通过网络购物。③
介词 by 指出了动作对象 going 与其执行方式 driving a car 之间的关系。注意这个限定句
采用省略形式后了只保留了 by car （因为这是生活常用语，即使省略了人们也很容易推断
出来）。
○试析：May I pay by cheque? 我可以用支票付款吗? {by giving you cheque} ■You canreserve the tickets by phone. 你可以通过电话订票。{by making a phone call} ■It's quicker togo by the country route. 抄小路会快些。{by taking the country route}
分析：
主句：a man was in the room.
限定句：big=which (the room) was big①.
60606060． OnOnOnOn thethethethe tabletabletabletable inininin frontfrontfrontfront ofofofof it,it,it,it, theretheretherethere waswaswaswas aaaa deaddeaddeaddead flower.flower.flower.flower. 在他面前的桌子上放
着一朵枯萎的花。
分析：
主句：A flower was on the table.
限定句 1：dead=which (flower) was dead.
限定句 2：in front of it=which (table) was in front of it.
主句：table was in front②.
限定句：of it=which (front) was of it③.
61616161． IIII mademademademade himhimhimhim cry.cry.cry.cry. 我弄得他哭了。
分析：
①传统语法称这个为 there be 句型，以下引自牛津牛津高阶英汉双解词典（第四版）：
(there ) is used in place of a subject with be, seem, appear, etc, esp when referring to sb/sth forthe first time (there)与 be﹑seem﹑appear 等动词连用代替主语, 尤在首次提及某人[某事物]时使用。
本语法认为在这种句型是一种强调结构，there 只是一个功能词，放在句子主语的位置，而
句子本身的主语后移了，其本身没有意思。
○试析：I don’t want there to be any misunderstanding between us. 我不希望我们之间有任何
误解。■It was too late for there to be any taxis. 太晚了不会有出租车了。■Would you likethere to be a picture on the wall？在墙上贴张画怎么样。■There being a bus stop so near theschool is a great advantage. 离学校不远就有一个公交站，这真是方便。■There being notingelse to do, we went home. 没什么事要做的我们就回家了。
○注意, there 后的结构常倒装，但若主语是人称代词，则不倒装，如：There you are. 你在
这啊。②
注意在实际运用中 in front of 和 in the front of 是有区别的，前者指某物的前面，后者指
某物的前部。③
原句调整了句子成分的顺序。
○试析：“I am so tired,” she said.“我非常累，”她说。{She said “I am so tired.”“I am so tired作动宾。在直接引语中，常见直接引语（重要信息）置前}
74主句: I made him cry=I made that① he cried.
62626262． TheTheTheThe reasonreasonreasonreason forforforfor thethethethe disasterdisasterdisasterdisaster waswaswaswas engineengineengineengine failurefailurefailurefailure.... 那场灾难是由引擎故障引
起的。
分析：
主句：The reason was engine failure.
限定句：for the disaster=which (the reason) was for② the disaster.
63636363． PrivatizationPrivatizationPrivatizationPrivatization isisisis beneficialbeneficialbeneficialbeneficial inininin thatthatthatthat itititit promotespromotespromotespromotes competition.competition.competition.competition. 私营化是有益
的，因为它能促进相互竞争。
分析：
平行句 1：privatization is beneficial.
平 行 句 2 ： in that...competition=which (privatization is benefical) is in③
that...competition.
64646464． NowNowNowNow thatthatthatthat youyouyouyou mentionmentionmentionmention it,it,it,it, IIII rememberrememberrememberremember thethethethe incident.incident.incident.incident. 经你一提,,,, 我想起那件
事了。
①功能词 that 指出了句子 he cried 是一个名词性成分，由于主句的谓语动词为 make，按照
习惯其采用省略形式后 to 也要省略，类似的动词还有 have, let, get。○试析：The cold weather caused the plants to die. 天气寒冷冻死了植物。■ I’ll have the
gardener plant some trees. 我要让园丁种些树。■ Let the work be done immediately. 工作要
马上完成。■She got her fingers caught in the door. 她的手指让门给夹了。②
介词 for 指出了 resaon（原因对象）与其相对应的对象（结果对象）disater 之间的关系。
○试析：I have good reason to believe that he is lying. 我有充分的理由认为他说谎。■Policeare investigating the causes for/of the explosion. 警方正在调查爆炸的原因。■She isresponsible for this mess. 是她把这弄得这么乱的。{responsible [to be the cause for sth]} ■■■■
She blamed him for the failure of their marriage/blamed the failure of their marriage on him. ■
她把他们婚姻的失败归咎于他。{Blame [say sb/sth is the cause for sth]/[put the cause for sthon sb/sth]}。③
介词 in 指出事件对象 Privatization is beneficial 与其原因对象 it promotes competition 之间
的关系（注意这是个特例，that 后的句子作了介词 in 的宾语）。
○试析：I’ll take an umbrella in case it rains. 我会带上雨伞，以防下雨。■Her claim wasdisallowed on the ground(s) that she had not paid her premium. 她要求赔款遭到拒绝, 原因是
她事先没有交纳保险费。
分析：
平行句 1：I remember the incident.
平行句 2：nownownownow thatthatthatthat① [for[for[for[for thethethethe reasonreasonreasonreason that]that]that]that] you mention it=which (I remember
the incident) is for the reason that you mention it.
主句：That I remember is for the reason.
限定句：that you mention it=which (reason) is that you mention it.
65656565． SheSheSheShe escapedescapedescapedescaped forforforfor fearfearfearfear thatthatthatthat hehehehe wouldwouldwouldwould killkillkillkill her.her.her.her. 因害怕被他杀，她逃走了。
分析：
平行句 1：She escaped.
平行句 2：for fear that=which (she escaped) was for fear that he would kill her.
主句：That she escped was for fear.
限定句：that he would kill her=which (fear) was that he would kill her.
66666666． IIII amamamam gladgladgladglad totototo meetmeetmeetmeet you.you.you.you. 见到你很高兴。
分析：
平行句 1：I am glad.
平行句 2：to meet you= which (I am glad) is for② that I meet you.
67676767． HeHeHeHe waswaswaswas luckyluckyluckylucky totototo passpasspasspass thethethethe examination.examination.examination.examination. 他很幸运通过了考试。
①请将 now that 看成是一种固定结构，英语中有很多类似的固定结构。显然我们也可以分
析这种固定结构的起源，now 其实是一个名词，that 是一个功能词指出其后的句子作名词
性成分。不过有些固定结构由于其经过了许多引申变化，从而使得研究其来源非常困难，
在这种情况下我们就视其为一个整体（即看成一个复合词）。②
介词 for 指出了事件对象 I am glad 与其原因事件对象 I see you 之间的关系（原因对象采
用了省略形式，按照英语的习惯不定式前的介词通常省略，所以 for 也省略了）。你可能会
问怎么这里采用了不定式形式的省略形式，而不是 I am glad for meeting you. 其实这只是英
语的一种习惯问题，在类似的结构{sb+be（或 feel 等）+表示感情色彩的形容词+for that}中 that 后的句子通常采用不定式的省略形式。
○试析：I'm glad he's feeling better 他身体好些了, 我很高兴。{=I am glad for that he is feelingbetter } ■we are sorry to leave 我们为离出而难过。{=we are sorry for that we have to leave}
76分析：将 luckyluckyluckylucky [of[of[of[of goodgoodgoodgood luck]luck]luck]luck] 代入原句得：He was of good luck to pass the
examination.
主句：He was of① luck.
限定句 1：good=which (luck) is good.
限定句 1：to pass the examination=which (luck) is to pass the examination.
68686868． HeHeHeHe isisisis eagereagereagereager totototo win.win.win.win. 他渴望赢。
分析：将 eager [of intense desire]代入原句得：He is of intense desire to win.
主句：He is of desire.
限定句 1：intense=which (desire) is intense.
限定句 2：to win=which (desire) is to win.
69696969． SSSShehehehe isisisis fivefivefivefive yearsyearsyearsyears ofofofof age.age.age.age. 他五岁。
分析：
主句：She was of② age.
限定句：five years=which (age) is five years.
70707070． IIII havehavehavehave aaaa lotlotlotlot ofofofof workworkworkwork totototo dodododo 我有很多事情要做。
分析：
主句：I have a lot.
限定句：of work to do=which (lot) is of work to do.
①介词 of 指出了 luck 这个事件对象与人物对象 he 之间的所属关系。
○试析：You are free to go home. 你可以回家了。{free [of freedom]} ■ We are likely toarrive in time. 我们可能会及时到达。{likely [of a high probability]} ■He is able to speakJapanese. 他会说日语。{able [of the ability]} ■I advised him to leave London. 我建议他离开
伦敦。{advise [give a advice to sb]} ■I have promised to do all I can to help. 我已经承诺尽全
力帮忙。{promise [make a promise]} ■I intend to spend the night there. 我打算今天晚上在这
过夜。{intend [have sth in sb’s mind as a plan or purpose]}②
介词 of 指出了 age 这个属性对象与人物对象 she 之间的所属关系。
○试析：Pamela is two years old. 帕米拉二岁大。{old [ of age]} ■She was seen as a womanof great determination. 人们认为她是个果断的女人。
主句：lot is of work
限定句：to do=I① must do which (work)
71717171． IIII havehavehavehave aaaa carcarcarcar totototo bebebebe repaired.repaired.repaired.repaired. 我有一辆要修的车。
分析：
主句：I have a car.
限定句：to be repaired=which (car) has to be repaired②.
72727272． IIII wantwantwantwant anananan opportunityopportunityopportunityopportunity totototo saysaysaysay it.it.it.it. 我想有机会说。
分析：将 opportunityopportunityopportunityopportunity [suitable[suitable[suitable[suitable time]time]time]time]代入原句得：I want a suitable time to say it.
主句：I want a time.
限定句 1：suitable=which (time) is suitable.
限定句 2：to say it=at which (time) I can say it③.
主句：I can say it.
限定句：at time=which (saying) is at time④.
①由于 I 这个对象在前面已经出现了，所以按照英语的习惯为避免重复在采用了不定式的
省略形式后 for me 就省略了。②
你可能会想为什么不省略成 to repair 呢？显然按照英语的习惯如果省略成 to repair 那么
其会被理解为 I have to repair a car, 而 to be repair 通常会被理解为 a car have to be repairedby sb else (即修车的是不是我，而是别人)，注意区别。③
按照省略规则 at 应该保留，但按照英语习惯，当限定的对象是 way, time, place 时，且这
些对象作介宾时，限定句采用省略形式后介词常不保留（因为这些介词很容易被推测了来。
通过前面的学习后我们也发现英语的原则是：在不影响原意的情况下，能省则省）。
○试析：He has no place to live. 他没地方可住。■That's the way to do it. 那样做才对
■I like the way you have done your hair. 我喜欢你头发的样式。■I have no time to do myhomework. 我没有时间做家庭作业。④
☆探讨探讨探讨探讨
下面的一个句子来自 David Hawkes 译的英文版红楼梦：Thither, having chosen a suitable dayon which to commence his journey, and having first taken his leave of Jia Zheng, he nowrepaired to take up his duties. 我们看到限定 day 的限定句：on which to commence his journey在采用省略形式后还保留了 on which（按照省略原则是可以省略的）。根据这一点我们也可
以得到：I have a knave (with which) to cut the paper. 但在实际使用中，这种形式用得很少（但
同时它也向我们展示了这里的不定式其实就是一个限定句的省略形式）。
○试析：He will give me a paper to write on. 他会给我一张纸写字。
7873737373． IIII sawsawsawsaw himhimhimhim walkwalkwalkwalk acrossacrossacrossacross thethethethe road.road.road.road. 我看到他过马路。
分析：
主句：I saw him walk across the road=I saw that① he walked acrossed the road.
74747474． WeWeWeWe considerconsiderconsiderconsider himhimhimhim aaaa goodgoodgoodgood teacher.teacher.teacher.teacher. 我们认为他是一个好老师。
分析：
主 句 ： We consider him a good teacher=We consider him to be a good
teacher=We consider that② he is a good teacher.
75757575． HeHeHeHe isisisis saidsaidsaidsaid totototo bebebebe aaaa goodgoodgoodgood teacher.teacher.teacher.teacher. 据说他是个好老师。
分析：
主句：He is said to be a good teacher=That he was a good teacher is said=It③ is
said that he is a good teacher.
76767676． HeHeHeHe waswaswaswas thethethethe firstfirstfirstfirst totototo come.come.come.come. 他是第一个来这儿的。
分析：
主句：He was the first.
限定句：to come=who (the first④) came.
①功能符号 That 指出了 I walked across the road 这个句子是一个整体，是名词性成分，作
saw 的宾语，又因本句其强调“看到他过马路这个事实”而不强调“看到他过马路这一过
程”，所以其省略后谓语的第一部分变成了不定式（省略后 walk 的“时”通过 saw 体现出
来）。
○试析：I saw Mary playing basketball. 我看到玛丽在打篮球。{that Mary was playingbasketball} ■Listen! Do you hear someone calling for help. 听！你听到有人在呼救吗？②
功能符号 that 指出了 He is a good teacher这个句子是一个整体，是名词性成分，作 consider的宾语，并采用了省略形式，注意其中 to be 可以保留也可以省略。
○试析：We found him dishonest. 我们认为他不诚实。③
为了避免句子头重脚轻，用 it 代替了 he is a good teacher 这个作名词性成分的句子，并
将 it 放在了句子主语的位置上，而将主语本身 he is a good teacher 放在了句子后面，我们
称 it 为形式主句。显然 it 能和其代替的事件对象可以分开，而功能词 that 不能。注意 he isa good teacher 采用了省略形式，且其原来谓语的第一部分变成了不定式。④ First 是一个人物对象（严格来说应该是 first person, 而 first 是一个限定句）。注意按照英
语的习惯限定句 who came 采用省略形式后，其原来谓语的第一部分变成了不定式（如果
限定的对象前面有序数词，通常限定句会采用不定式的省略形式）。
77777777． WeWeWeWe areareareare goinggoinggoinggoing totototo cleancleancleanclean thethethethe classroom.classroom.classroom.classroom. 我们打算打扫教室。
分析：
主句：we are going.
限定句：to clean the classroom=which (going) is to① to clean the classroom.
78787878． TheTheTheThe planeplaneplaneplane leavesleavesleavesleaves ShanghaiShanghaiShanghaiShanghai forforforfor BeijingBeijingBeijingBeijing atatatat 12.35.12.35.12.35.12.35. 飞机于 12121212时 35353535分自上海
飞前往北京....
分析：
主句：The plane leaves Shanghai.
限定句 1：for Orly=which (leaving) is for② Beijing.
限定句 2：at 12.35=which (leaving) is at③ 12.35.
79797979． IIII wateredwateredwateredwatered thethethethe flowers.flowers.flowers.flowers. 我给这些花浇水。
分析：将 water[sprinklewater[sprinklewater[sprinklewater[sprinkle waterwaterwaterwater onononon sth]sth]sth]sth]代入原句得 I sprinkled water on the flowers.
平行句 1：I sprinkled water.
平行句 2：on the flowers=which (I sprinkled water) was with the result that the
water was on the flowers.
主句：That I sprinkled water was with the result.
限定句：that the water was on the flowers=which (the result) was that the
water was on the flowers④.
①介词 to 指出了动作对象 going 与其方向对象 to clean the room 之间的关系。当然这里用
的引申意义。(注意不定式前的介词常省略，本例中省略了 to。显然分析中的句子在实际运
用中也不会出现，而会将 be going to 看成一种固定结构，用来表将来)②
介词 for 指出了动作对象 leaving 与其相对应的对象（目的地对象）Beijing 之间的关系。③
介词 at 指了了动作对象 leaving 与其发生的时间对象 12.35 之间的关系。④
从我们的分析中可以看到，复合词的使用可以使英语的表达变得非常简洁。复合词也是
随着表达的需要在不断的发展的，如 I google the word 我用 google 查这个词，其实 google就是新造出来的一个复合词: google[search sth by using google]，再比如说 fax, phone,facebook (please facebook me!)。假如 QQ 在美国很流行的话，我相信他们一定会说，pleaseqq me! (qq[get in touch with sb via qq]), 总之英语中的复合词是异常强大的，因而理解复合
8080808080． ItItItIt willwillwillwill getgetgetget hothothothot soon.soon.soon.soon. 它马上就变热了。
分析：
主句：It will get hot.
限定句：soonsoonsoonsoon [within[within[within[within aaaa shortshortshortshort time]time]time]time]=which (getting hot①) will be within② a short
time.
主句：getting hot will be within time③.
限定句：short=which (time) will be short.
81818181． HeHeHeHe leftleftleftleft asasasas soonsoonsoonsoon asasasas hehehehe heardheardheardheard thethethethe news.news.news.news. 他一听到这事儿就走了。
分析：
主句：He left.
限定句： asasasas soonsoonsoonsoon asasasas [at[at[at[at thethethethe momentmomentmomentmoment atatatat which]which]which]which] ④he heard the news=which
的概念非常重要。
○试析：I oiled the old lock. 我给这把旧琐上了油。■ He fenced his land with barbedwire. 他用布满倒钩的铁丝把他的土地围起来。■Number the pages from one to ten. 将这些
页从 1 编号到 10。{numbel [give a number to sth]} ■Beneath each of the following sentencesthere are four choices marked A, B, C and D. 句子下面有分别标有 A，B，C，D 的四个选项。
{mark [make a mark on sth with sth} ■Government troops have forced the rebels to surrender.政府军已逼得叛军投降。{force [make sb/sth do sth (by) using force]} ■The meal cost us $30.这顿饭花了我们 30 美元。⑥ Getting hot 是一个状态变化对象。⑥
注意 within [in the interior of (sth)]这里就看成一个整体，不拆分了。⑥ Time 是不可数名词，但当其被限制后就变为可数了，所以这里没有 a。④
我们将 as soon as 看成一种固定结构/习语（即看成复合词），为方便就不追根溯源了（英
语中有大量固定结构/习语，请平时多积累）。
○有些复合词如 directly 和 immediately，其意义相当于 as soon as，如：I will come directly Ihave finished. 我一做完就来。They phoned immediately they reached home. 他们到家后马上
打了电话。上两例的分析方法类似，这里不重复了。
○试析：John's success has nothing/something to do with good luck. 约翰的成功与运气无关/有关。{have nothing/something to do with 是习语，do [be connected]. *which(nothing/something) is connected with good luck. } ■I want it typed right away, please. 请立
刻把它打印出来。{right away 是习语，将其看成是一个固定结构/习语（复合词），相当于
without hesitation/delay} ■“Can I have a word with you?” “Of course.” 我能和你谈谈吗？当
然可以。{将 of course 看成一个固定结构/习语（复合词）其意义相当于 certainly。}
(leaving) was at① the moment at which he heard the news.
主句：leaving was at the moment.
限定句：at which (the moment) he heard the news.
主句：he heard the news.
限定句：at the moment=which (hearing) was at the moment.
82828282． IIII wantwantwantwant totototo seeseeseesee himhimhimhim thethethethe minuteminuteminuteminute/moment/moment/moment/moment hehehehe arrives.arrives.arrives.arrives. 他一来到我就要见他....
分析：
主句：I want to see him.
限定句：the minute/moment he arrives=which (seeing) is at the minute/moment
at which he arrives②.
主句：Seeing is at the minute/moment.
限定句：at which (the minute/moment) he arrives.
主句：he arrives.
限 定 句 ： at the minute/moment=which (arriving) is at the
minute/moment.
83838383． ByByByBy thethethethe timetimetimetime thisthisthisthis letterletterletterletter reachesreachesreachesreaches youyouyouyou IIII willwillwillwill havehavehavehave leftleftleftleft thethethethe country.country.country.country. 你接到这封
信时,,,, 我已离开这个国家了。
①介词 at 指出了动作对象 leaving 与其发生的时间对象 moment 之间的关系。注意一个与
as soon as 同义的复合词：once。○试析：Once he goes, we can clean up. 他一走，我们就能清理。
(2007 福建卷) You will be successful in the interview you have confidence.A.before ●B.once C.until D.though②
注意这个限定句采用省略形式后，大量已知/易推测出来的信息都被省略了，所以我们在
平时的学习中应该多尝试去挖掘这些信息，弄清句子的来龙去脉，从而最大程度上避免死
记硬背。
○试析：The instant I saw him, I knew he was the man from China. 一看到那个男人，我就知
道他来自中国。■The day he arrived, it rained. 他到达的那天是雨天。■Every time I come, heis reading. 我每次来，他都在读书。■Next time you come, please bring your composition. 你
下次来，请带来你的作文。
82分析：
主句：I will have left the country.
限定句：by the time this letter reachers you=which (leaving) is by the time at
which this letter reaches you.
主句： Leaving is by① the time.
限定句：at which (time) this letter reaches you.
主句：letter reachs you.
限定句 1：this=which (letters) are this.
限定句 2：at time=which (reaching) is at time.
84848484． YouYouYouYou ttttellellellell usususus howhowhowhow youyouyouyou escaped.escaped.escaped.escaped. 你告诉我们你是怎样脱逃的。
分析：将 howhowhowhow [the[the[the[the waywaywayway inininin whichwhichwhichwhich]]]]代入原句得：You tell us the way in which you
escaped.
主句：you tell the way.
限定句 1：us=which (telling) is to② us.
限定句 2：in which (way) you escaped.
主句：you escaped.
限定句：in way=which (escaping) was in way③.
85858585． SheSheSheShe walkedwalkedwalkedwalked pastpastpastpast thethethethe shop.shop.shop.shop. 她走过那家商店....
分析：将 pastpastpastpast [from[from[from[from oneoneoneone sidesidesideside totototo thethethethe otherotherotherother sidesidesideside ofofofof sth]sth]sth]sth]代入原句得：She walked from
one side to the other side of the shop.
主句：She waked.
①介词 by 的愿意是在...附近，这里同 before 的意思相同。
②注意这里的 to 常省略。
③这个句子还可以这样理解：将 how you escaped 看成一个整体，作 tell 的宾语。
限定句 1：from one side=which (walking) was from① one side②.
主句：walking was from side.
限定句：one=which (side) was one.
限定句 2：to the other side of the shop=which (walking) was to③ the other side
of the shop.
主句：walking was to the side.
限定句 1：other=which (side) was other.
限定句 2：of the shop=which (side) was of the shop.
86868686． JimmyJimmyJimmyJimmy waswaswaswas bornbornbornborn ininininWashingtonWashingtonWashingtonWashington,,,, nownownownow livinglivinglivingliving inininin China.China.China.China. 吉米出生在华盛顿，
现在在中国生活。
分析：
平行句 1：Jimmy was born in Washington.
主句：Jimmy was born.
限定句：in Washington=which (bearing) was in④ Washington.
平行句 2：now living in China=who⑤ (Jim) lives in China now⑥.
主句：Jim lives.
①介词 from 指出了动作对象 walking 与其出发点对象 one side 之间的关系。
②当然这后面还省略了 of the shop，但为方便这里就不分析了。
③介词 to 指出了动作对象 walking 与其方向对象 other side 之间的关系。
④介词 in 指出了动作对象 bearing 与其发生地对象 Washington 之间的关系。
⑤因为平行句 2 的主语代替的就是平行句 1 的主语 Jimmy，所以其复合后，省略了主语，
且其原来谓语的第一部分变成了现在分词 living. 注意平行句 2 可以放在代替的对象之后，
也可以放在代替的对象之前，即：1）Jimmy, now living in China, was born in Washington. 2）
Now living in China, Jimmy was born in Washington. 3）Jimmy was born in Washington, nowliving in China. 所表达的意思是一样的。
英语中相关句子成分一般会循序就近原则紧密相连，但出于某些需要，句子成分的位置可
以作相应调整，请在学习中注意。
试析：I am a student, loving English. 我是一个学生，喜欢英语。⑥
从 now 这个词我们可以推测出 live 的时为现在时，所以采用了省略形式。
84限定句 1：in China=which (living) is in China.
限定句 2：nownownownow [at[at[at[at thethethethe presentpresentpresentpresent time]time]time]time]=which (living) is at the present time.
主句：living is at the time.
限定句：present=which (time) is present.
87878787． TheTheTheThe lamplamplamplamp isisisis oneoneoneone metermetermetermeter aboveaboveaboveabove thethethethe floor.floor.floor.floor. 这盏灯离地有 1111米高。
分析：
平行句 1：The lamp is above the floor.
平行句 2：one meter=the distance between them being one meter=the distance
between them is one meter①.
主句：The distance is one meter.
限定句：between=which (distance) is between② them.
88888888． TheTheTheThe twotwotwotwo houseshouseshouseshouses stoodstoodstoodstood 500500500500 metresmetresmetresmetres apart.apart.apart.apart. 这两所房子相距 500500500500米。
分析：
平行句 1：The two houses stood.
平行句 2：500 metres apartapartapartapart [separated[separated[separated[separated bybybyby aaaa distance]distance]distance]distance]③=which (houses) were
separated by a distance of 500 metres.
主句：house were separated.
限定句：by a distance of 500 meteres=which (separating) was by a distance
of 500 meteres.
①通常类似的平行句只保留数量。
○试析：They build their homes 4m above the river=they build their homes onononon aaaa placeplaceplaceplace 4m abovethe river. 他们把家建在离河 4 米高的地方。■One of the pictures is worth 50,000. 其中的一
幅画值 50,000 元。{worth [of a value]}② Between [in the space that separates two things, people, or places]也是一个复合词，这里就不
再分解了。③○试析：Apart from you and me/You and me apart, I don't think there was anyone there under
thirty. 除你和我之外，我想那里没有人是三十岁以下的。
主句：separating was by a distance.
限定句：of 500 meteres=which (distance) was of 500 meteres.
89898989． TheTheTheThe seaseaseasea isisisis 2222 milesmilesmilesmiles awayawayawayaway fromfromfromfrom thethethethe hotel.hotel.hotel.hotel. 大海距旅馆 2222英里。
分析：将 awayawayawayaway [at[at[at[at thethethethe endendendend ofofofof aaaa distance]distance]distance]distance]代入原句得：The sea is at the end of a
distance 2 miles from the hotel.
主句：The sea is at the end.
限定句：of a distance 2 miles from the hotel=of a distance of 2 miles from the
hotel=which (the end) is of a distance of 2 miles from the hotel.
主句：the end is of a distance.
限定句 1：of 2 miles=which (distance) is of 2 miles.
限定句 2：from the hotel=which (distance) is from the hotel①.
90909090． IIII knowknowknowknow whywhywhywhy youyouyouyou left.left.left.left. 我知道你离开的原因。
分析：将 whywhywhywhy [the[the[the[the reasonreasonreasonreason forforforfor which]which]which]which]代入原句得：I know the reason for which you
left.
主句：I know the reason.
限定句：for which=That you let was for② which (reason)③.
①介词 from 指出了事物对象 distance 与其起源地（开始点）对象 hotle 之间的关系。
○试析：Kate is away on holiday. 凯特外出度假。■ She was sitting ten feet away from themicrophone. 她坐在离麦克风 10 英尺远的地方。■ Christmas is a week away. 圣诞节还有
一个星期就到了。■The mouse ran away from the cat. 老鼠跑开猫。{away [to the end of adistance]} ■ Don't go away. 不要走开。〓■He went out of the office. 他走出办公室。{out[away from the inside (of sth)]} ■ She opened the door and ran out into the garden. 她开门出
去跑进了花园。■ She opened her suitcase and took out a pair of shoes. 她打开手提箱，拿出
了一双鞋。■ Children were out playing in the snow. 孩子们在雪地里玩。{out [in the open air]}■a mile east of here. 从这里向东一英里。* robbed of one's dignity. 剥夺了尊严。{这里的
of 保留了其古英语意义，相当于 away, away from。}○off 与 away 意义相似，试析：The town is still five miles off. 那小城尚在五英里以外。 {off[at the end of a distance]} ■He took his coat off. 他脱掉了外套。{with the result that his coatwas off.} ■The plane took off. 飞机起飞了。{with the result that the plane was off}②
介词 for 指出了事件对象 you left 与其原因对象 reason 之间的关系。
8691919191． VolleyballVolleyballVolleyballVolleyball isisisis interestinginterestinginterestinginteresting totototo watch.watch.watch.watch. 打排球看起来很有意思。
分析：
主句：Volleyball is interesting to watch←①To watch volleyball is interesting.
92929292． HeHeHeHe letletletlet memememe useuseuseuse hishishishis computer.computer.computer.computer. 他允许我用他的电脑。
分析：将 let[givelet[givelet[givelet[give permissionpermissionpermissionpermission totototo sb/sth]sb/sth]sb/sth]sb/sth]代入原句得：He gave permission use his
computer to me.
主句：He gave permission.
限 定 句 1 ： use his computer=to use his computer=that I could use his
computer=which (permission) was that I could use his computer②.
限定句 2：to me=which (giving) was to me.
93939393． IIII telltelltelltell himhimhimhim howhowhowhow totototo cutcutcutcut thethethethe cake.cake.cake.cake. 我教他如何切蛋糕。
分析：将 how[thehow[thehow[thehow[the waywaywayway inininin which]which]which]which]代入原句得：I tell him the way in which to cut the
cake.
主句： I tell the way.
③当然简单一点你也可以将 why you left 看成一个整体，作 know 的宾语。
①注意←的右边是左边的正常语序。
■按照英语的习惯（为避免头重脚轻），当一个及物动词的不定式和它的宾语（也可以是
介宾）一起用作句子的主语时，这个不定式可以移到句尾，而把不定式的宾语变为句子的
主语，它同时也是不定式意义上的宾语。。。。
○试析：To write the letter took him a long time. 他写这封信花了很长时间。{The letter tookhim a long time to write.} ■To read newspapers is interesting. 这报纸读起来很有趣。
{Newspapers are interesting to read.} ■To teach these children are very hard. 这些学生很难
教。{These children are very hard to teach.} ■To land on the moon is expensive. 登月很昂贵。
{The moon is expensive to land on. } ■He is hard to work with．和他一起工作很难。{It is hardto work with him.} ■To talk to her is nice. 和她谈话是愉快的。{She is nice to talk to. 注意
her 从宾格变成主格了}■(2008 全国 I 卷) I like getting up very early in summer. The morning air is so good ______.A. to be breathed ●B. to breathe C. breathing D. being breathed②
按照习惯这个限定句采用省略形式后，不定式符号 to 也省略。
○试析：My boss allows me to use the telephone. 老板允许我使用电话。■ I asked Jamesto clean the toilet. 我叫詹姆斯去打扫洗手间。{ask [give a request to sb/sth]} ■ He orderedthe gate to be opened. 他命令把大门打开。
限定句 1：in which to cut the cake=in which (way) he can cut the cake.
主句：She can cut the cake.
限定句：in way=which (cutting) is in way.
限定句 2：him=to him=which (telling) is to him.
94949494． WeWeWeWe cancancancan leaveleaveleaveleave wheneverwheneverwheneverwhenever you'reyou'reyou'reyou're ready.ready.ready.ready. 你什么时候准备好我们就可以动身。
分析：
主句：we can leave.
限定句：wheneverwheneverwheneverwhenever [at[at[at[at anyanyanyany timetimetimetime atatatat which]which]which]which] you are ready=which (leaving) is at
any time at which you are ready.
主句：leaving is at time.
限定句 1：any=which (time) is any.
限定句 2：at which (time) you are ready.
主句：you are ready.
限定句：at time=which (being ready) is at time.
95959595． IIII watchedwatchedwatchedwatched herherherher asasasas sheshesheshe combedcombedcombedcombed herherherher hair.hair.hair.hair. 她梳头的时候我一直看着她。
分析：
主句：I watched her.
限定句：asasasas [during[during[during[during thethethethe timetimetimetime atatatat which]which]which]which] she combed her hair=which (watching)
was during the time at which she combed her hair.
主句：watching was durning① the time.
限定句：at which (time) she combed her hair.
主句：she combed hair.
① During 是一个介词复合词这里就不拆分了。
88限定句 1：at time=which (combing) was at time.
限定句 2：herherherher [of[of[of[of her]her]her]her]=which (hair) was of her①.
96969696． WeWeWeWewwwwaitaitaitait untiluntiluntiluntil thethethethe rainrainrainrain stops.stops.stops.stops. 我们等到雨停了再说吧。
分析：
主句：We wait
限定句：untiluntiluntiluntil [during[during[during[during thethethethe timetimetimetime betweenbetweenbetweenbetween nownownownow andandandand thethethethe timetimetimetime atatatat which]which]which]which] the rain
stops=which (waiting) is during the time between now and the
time at which the rain stops.
主句：waiting is during the time.
限定句： between...stops=which (time) is between now and the time at
which the rain stops.
主句：time is between now and the time.
限定句：at which (time) the rains stops.
主句：the rains stops.
限定句：at time=which (stopping) is at time②.
①○试析：I can learn while I work. 我可以边工作边学习。{ while [during the time at which]}
■ The soles are leather, while the uppers are canvas. 鞋跟是皮的，而鞋面是帆布的。■ I'mspeaking as your employer. 我以雇主的身分和你说话。{who (I) is as your employer. 介词 as指出了人物对象 I 与其身份对象 employer 之间的关系} The news came as quite a shock to us.这消息震惊了我们。 ■ The problem is regarded as serious. ｛That the problem is as a seriousproblem is regarded｝ ■ They entered the building disguised as cleaners. 他们化装成清洁工
人的模样进入大楼。■■■The joy of giving as secret Santa is much sweeter when the gift isanonymous.②
注意 till 和 until 的意思是一样的。
○试析：We danced until dawn. 我们跳舞一直跳到天亮。■I was up until three o'clock tryingto get it finished! 为完成任务，我一直熬到了凌晨三点。■I haven't asked him yet/as yet 我还
没有问他。{ yet/as yet [until now/then] }■(2007 天津卷) It is difficult for us to learn a lesson in life ________ we’ve actually had thatlesson.●A. until B. after C. since D. when
97979797． TheTheTheThe liquidliquidliquidliquid turnedturnedturnedturned greengreengreengreen andandandand thenthenthenthen brown.brown.brown.brown. 那液体先变成绿色,,,, 又变成棕色
了....
分析：
平行句 1：The liquid turned green.
平行句 2：thenthenthenthen [after[after[after[after that]that]that]that] brown=after that the liquid turned green, the liquid
turned brown.
主句：the liquid turned brown.
限定句：after that the liquid turned green=which (that the liquid turned
brown) was after that the liquid turned green.
98989898． We'veWe'veWe'veWe've beenbeenbeenbeen waitingwaitingwaitingwaiting herehereherehere sincesincesincesince twotwotwotwo o'clock.o'clock.o'clock.o'clock. 我们从二点开始在这里一直等
到现在。
分析：
主句：We’ve been waiting.
限定句 1：here=which (waiting) is in① here.
限定句 2： sincesincesincesince [during[during[during[during thethethethe timetimetimetime betweenbetweenbetweenbetween aaaa particularparticularparticularparticular timetimetimetime andandandand now]now]now]now] two
o'clock=which (waiting) is during the time between two o'clock and
now.
主句：waiting is durint the time.
限定句：between...now=which (time) is between...and now②.
99999999． SheSheSheShe runsrunsrunsruns asasasas IIII dodododo (run).(run).(run).(run). 她像我一样跑。
分析：
① Here 前的介词常省略。②
○试析：I haven't played rugby since I left university. 自从大学毕业后我就再也没踢过橄榄
球了。
90主句：She runs.
限定句：asasasas [[[[inininin thethethethe waywaywayway inininin which]which]which]which] I run=which (running) is in① the way in which
I run.
主句：running is in the way.
限定句：in which (way) I run.
主句：I run.
限定句：in way=which (running) is in way②.
100100100100．HowHowHowHow fastfastfastfast cancancancan sheshesheshe run?run?run?run? 她能跑多快????
分析：将 howhowhowhow [in[in[in[in whatwhatwhatwhat degreedegreedegreedegree]]]]和 fastfastfastfast [in[in[in[in aaaa waywaywayway thatthatthatthat isisisis fastfastfastfast]]]]代入原句得：in what
degree can she run in a way that is fast? (为方便分析我们将句子还原为陈
述句分析)
主句：She can run.
限定句：in a way that is fast in what degree=which (running) is in a way that is
fast in what degree.
主句：running is in a way.
限定句：that (way) is fast in what degree.
主句：way is fast.
限定句：in what degree=which (being fast) is in what degree.
主句：being fast is in degree.
限定句：what=which (degree) is what.
101101101101．WeWeWeWe areareareare waitingwaitingwaitingwaiting forforforfor thethethethe rainrainrainrain totototo stop.stop.stop.stop. 我们正在等着雨停下。
分析：
①介词 in 指出了动作对象 running 与其执行方式对象 way 之间的关系。
②○试析：Think as I think. 像我这样去想。
平行句 1：We are waiting.
平行句 2：for the rain to stop=which (we are waiting) is for① that the rain may
stop.
102102102102．IIII stayedstayedstayedstayed sosososo thatthatthatthat IIII couldcouldcouldcould seeseeseesee you.you.you.you. 我留下来以便能见到你。
分析：
平行句 1：I stayed.
平行句 2：sosososo thatthatthatthat② [for[for[for[for thethethethe purposetpurposetpurposetpurposet that]that]that]that] I could see you=which (I stayed) was
for③ the purpose that I could see you.
主句：That I stayed was for the purpose.
限定句：that I could see you=which (purpose) was that I could see you.
103103103103．TheyTheyTheyThey hadhadhadhad aaaa wonderfulwonderfulwonderfulwonderful holiday,holiday,holiday,holiday, despitedespitedespitedespite thethethethe badbadbadbad weather.weather.weather.weather. 尽管天气不好 ,,,,
他们的假日还是过得极为愉快....
分析：
平行句 1：They had a wonderful holiday.
①介词 for 指出了事件对象 we are waiting 与其目的对象 the rain may stop 之间的关系。That
后的句子采用省略形式(for the rain to stop)后省略掉了一个重复的 for。○试析：For sales to increase, we must lower our prices. 我们必须降低价格，以促进销售。{forthat sales may increase} ■ I paid ten dollars for the ticket. 我花十美元买了这张票。{forgetting the ticket} ■She called to her father for help. 她向父亲喊叫求救。{for getting help}■ Shall we go for a drink this evening? 今晚我们去喝酒好吗? {for having a drink}②
这里的 that 也是可以省略的。
○试析：■They left early to catch the train. 为赶火车他们早早出发了。{which (they left early)was for to catch the train. } ■Mail your package early so as to ensure its timely arrival. 早点寄
出你的包裹以便保证它能及时寄到。■I arrived early in order to get a good seat. 为了找个好
位置，我来得很早。He is still looking for a job. 他仍在找工作。{which (he is still looking)getting a job. *因为getting很容易推测出来，所以常省略。} ■Are you waiting for the bus? 你
在等车吗？③
介词 for 指出了事件对象 I stayed 与其目的对象 purpose 之间的关系。注意一个与 so that意义相同的复合词 in order that. 试分析下面二个例子：He left early in order that he wouldarrive on time. 他早早动身好按时到达。I gave you a map so you wouldn't get lost. 我给你一
张地图, 这样你就不会迷路了。
92主句：The had a holiday.
限定句：wonderful=which (holiday) was wonderful.
平行句 2：despitedespitedespitedespite [not[not[not[not affectedaffectedaffectedaffected bybybyby sth]sth]sth]sth]① the bad weather=which (they had a
wonderful holiday) was not affected by the bad weather.
主句：That they had a wonderful holiday was affected.
限定句1：notnotnotnot [in[in[in[in aaaa waywaywayway thatthatthatthat isisisis neglect]neglect]neglect]neglect]=which (affecting) was in a way that
is neglect
主句：affecting was in a way.
限定句：neglect=which (way) was neglect.
限定句 2：by the bad weather=which (affecting) was by the bad weather.
主句：affecting was by the weather.
限定句：bad=which (weather) was bad.
104104104104．ThoughThoughThoughThough theytheytheythey lacklacklacklack officialofficialofficialofficial supportsupportsupportsupport theytheytheythey continuecontinuecontinuecontinue theirtheirtheirtheir struggle.struggle.struggle.struggle. 他们虽然
没有得到官方的支持,,,, 但仍继续奋斗....
分析：
平行句 1：they continue their struggle.
主句：they continue struggle.
限定句：theirtheirtheirtheir [of[of[of[of them]them]them]them]=which (struggle) is of them.
平行句 2：thoughthoughthoughthough② [not[not[not[not affectedaffectedaffectedaffected bybybyby sth]sth]sth]sth] they lack official support=which (they
①复合词复合的内容有时候比较难推测出来。（建议多使用英汉双解或英英词典）
②注意其后是没有功能词 that 的。其实平行句 2 也可以采用省略形式，即变成：(though)
lacking official support, they continue their struggle. (因为即使没有 though 这个复合词，我们
也可以根据句子的意思推断出这层含义) 试分析以下相似的例子：1）He still argues, thoughhe knows he's wrong. [He still argues, (though) knowing he's wrong.] 虽然他知道错了，可仍在
争辩。2）Even though it was raining, she walked to work. [Even though it raining, she walked towork.] 即使下雨，她也要走着去工作。(Though) having failed many times, he didn't lost heart.有很多次失败，他没有灰心。(其实这就是句子作名词性成分时省略规则的应用) You won't
continue their struggle) is not affected by that they lack official
support.
主句：That they continue their struggle is affected.
限定句 1：notnotnotnot [in[in[in[in aaaa waywaywayway thatthatthatthat isisisis neglect]neglect]neglect]neglect]=which (affecting) is in a way that
is neglect.
主句：affecting is in a way.
限定句：that (way) is neglect.
限定句 2：by that they lack official support=which (affecting) is by that
they lack official support.
105105105105．TheTheTheThe churchchurchchurchchurch isisisis closeclosecloseclose totototo thethethethe school.school.school.school. 教堂离学校很近....
分析：将 closeclosecloseclose [of[of[of[of aaaa shortshortshortshort distancedistancedistancedistance measuredmeasuredmeasuredmeasured fromfromfromfrom sthsthsthsth totototo sth]sth]sth]sth]代入原句得：The
church is of a short distance measured from the church to the school.
主句：The church is of a distance.
限定句 1：short=which (distance) is short.
限定句 2：measured...school=which (distance) is measured from...school.
主句：distance is measured.
限定句 1：from the church=which (measuring) is from① the church.
限定句 2：to the school=which (measuring) is to② the school.
106106106106．HerHerHerHer comingcomingcomingcoming encouragedencouragedencouragedencouraged us.us.us.us. 她的到来鼓舞了我们。
分析：
move that stone, howeverhoweverhoweverhowever [in/to[in/to[in/to[in/to whateverwhateverwhateverwhatever degree]degree]degree]degree] strong you are. 不管你力气多大, 也休想搬
动那块石头。(however 前面省略了 though)④
介词 from 指出了动作对象 measuring 与其起点地对象之间的关系。④
介词 to 指出了动作对象 measuring 与其目标方向对象之间的关系。
94主句: Her coming encouraged us =That she came① encouraged us.
107．IIII heardheardheardheard thethethethe ringingringingringingringing ofofofof thethethethe phonephonephonephone.... 我听到电话响了。
分析：
主句：I heard the ringing of the phone=I heard that the phone was ringing②.
①功能词 that 指出了句子 she came 是一个名词性成分，在句子中作主语，根据名词性成分
的省略规则，因为这个句子的主语对象 she 是一个有生命的对象，所以其采用了所有格形
式 her, 而其谓语 came 为过去时，所以其谓语的第一部分 came 变成了现在分词 coming, 最
后形成了 her coming 这种形式。
○试析：Mary’s being ill made her mother upset. 玛丽病了，使她妈妈很着急。■His smokingmade his family angry. 他抽烟使他一家人非常生气。■He did not mind me using his computer.他不介意我用他的电脑。
○在下列情况下采用省略形式作名词性成分的句子的逻辑主语必须用名词的普通格或人
称代词宾语：
1）无生命名词：The baby was made awake by the door suddenly shutting. 这个婴儿被猛烈的
关门声吵醒。
2）有生命名词但表示泛指意义：Have you ever heard of women practicing boxing? 你听说过
妇女练拳击吗？
3）两个以上的有生命名词并列: Do you remember your parents and me telling about this? 你
记得你父母和我都告诉过你这事吗？② That 后的句子作名词性成分，又因为其谓语的“时”可以从 heard 推测出来，所以采用
了省略形式。介词 of 指出了动作事件对象 ringing 与其执行者对象 phone 之间的关系{which(ringing) was of the phone}。当然这个句子也可以这样表达：I heard the phone ringing.○试析：■The killing of the innocent children shocked us. 无辜小孩被杀震惊了我们。{ Thatthe innocent children were killed shocked us=The innocent children’s being killed shockedus=The killing of the innocent children shocked us. which (killing) was of the children, 介词
of指出了动作对象 killing与其宾语对象 children之间的关系。显然第三种表达方式最简单。}■The possession of a passport is essential for foreign travel. 去国外旅行需持有护照。{possession=possessing; possession of a passport=possessing of a passport=possessing passport}■ fear of the dark 怕黑 {fear=fearing} ■ the forging of a banknote 伪造钞票 ■He spoiledmy enjoyment of the film by talking all the time. 他一直说话, 影响了我看电影的兴致。
{enjoyment= enjoying} ■Cheers greeted the arrival of the Queen. 一片欢呼声欢迎女王莅临。
{arrival=arriving} ■ the cancellation of the meeting 会议取消 {cancellation=canceling} ■
supporters of the project 方案的支持者 {supporter: one who supporters sth=one supportingsth=one supporting of sth} ■ I am glad of your help. 非常感谢你的帮忙。{glad [ofappreciation (of sth)]. *Appreciation= appreciating} ■Are you sure of your facts? 你能肯定你
的资料属实吗? {sure [in a state of not doubting (of sth)]. } ■■■You're sure to fail if you doit that way. 你那样做一定失败。{sure [definitely in a state (of sth)]}■Are you frightened ofspiders? {frightened [in a state of fear (of sth)]} ■■■Her parents are very proud of her. 她的
父母为她感到自豪。{proud [in a state of feeling satisfaction (of sth)]} ■■■I am weary ofhearing about your problems. 我听腻了你那些麻烦事。{in state of dislike of sth}
○从上面的例子中我们可以看到，介词 of 可以指出动作对象与主语对象的关系，也可
以指出动作对象与其宾语对象的关系。
108108108108．IfIfIfIf youyouyouyou havehavehavehave finishedfinishedfinishedfinished eatingeatingeatingeating youyouyouyou maymaymaymay leaveleaveleaveleave thethethethe table.table.table.table. 你要是吃完了,,,, 就可
以离席了。
分析：
主句：you may leave the table.
限定句 ifififif [on[on[on[on thethethethe conditionconditionconditioncondition that]that]that]that] you have finished eating=which (you may
leave the table) is on① the condition that you have finished eating②.
109109109109．HeHeHeHe wokewokewokewoke totototo findfindfindfind everybodyeverybodyeverybodyeverybody gone.gone.gone.gone. 他醒来后发现竟然所有的人都走了。
分析：
平行句 1：He woke.
平行句 2：to find everybody gone=he found that everybody was gone③.
110110110110．WhenWhenWhenWhen walkwalkwalkwalkinininingggg thethethethe streetstreetstreetstreet,,,, IIII sawsawsawsaw him.him.him.him. 当我在街上走时，我看到他了。
分析：
主句：I saw him.
限定句：whenwhenwhenwhen walking in the street=when I was walking in the street④⑤.
①介词 on 提出了事件对对象 you may…tale 与其条件事件对象 you have…eating 之间的关
系（这里应用的是 on 的引申意义）。②
下面几个复合词与 if 有相似的用法：unless, as/so long as/ otherwise/or/or else。○试析：If your hands are cold, you keep them in your pockets. 要是手冷, 就揣在口袋里。■
You'll fail in French unless you work harder. 你要是不再加把劲儿, 法语就考不及格了。■
As long as it doesn't rain we can play. 只要不下雨, 我们就能玩。■We must run, otherwisewe'll be late. 我们得跑着去, 要不就晚了。■You should eat more, or /or else you'll makeyourself ill. 你应该多吃点，否则会生病的。
■(2009 浙江卷) The medicine works more effectively you drink some hot water after takingit. A as B until C although ●D if■( 2010 全国卷卷 I ). The little boy won’t go to sleep _____his mother tells him a story.A. or ●B. unless C. but D. whether③
第二个平行句的主语及谓语的“时”都可以从第一个平行句推测出来，所以采用了省略
形式（又因为第二个平行句是一个意想不到的事件，所以采用了不定式的省略形式）。④
因为 when 后的句子的主语和谓语的时可以从 I saw her 推测出来，所以采用了省略形式。
○按照英语的习惯，在不影响表达准确性的前提下，when, whenever, while, as, after, until, till等（表时间）；if, unless, once 等（表条件）；although, though, even if/though 等；as, as if 等；
because, as 等（表原因），这些词根据情况可以省略，其后的句子（这些句子的谓语一般不
96111111111111．HeHeHeHe speaksspeaksspeaksspeaks sosososo fastfastfastfast thatthatthatthat nonenonenonenone cancancancan catchcatchcatchcatch him.him.him.him. 他说话太快， 没人听得明白。
含情动词）可以采用省略形式（注意采用省略形式的前提是这些省略了的信息是一些可推
知信息）。
○试析： Night coming on, they went home.夜幕降临，他们回家了。{when} ■Thisbeing the case, we shall have to change our plan. 如果真是这样我们就要改变计划了。{if} ■
It being Sunday, all the shops were closed. 因为是星期天，所有的商店都关门了。{because}■ The meeting being over, we went home. 开完会后我们都回家了。{after} ■ Weatherpermitting, they will come. 天气允许的话，他们会来。{if} ■ It raining, we stay at home. 因
下雨，我们呆在家里。{because} The plot having thus become known, the Zhang brothers wereforced at once to take the field. 张角闻知事露，星夜举兵。{because} ■Their leader fallen, therebels threw away their weapons and fled. 众贼见程远志被斩，皆倒戈而走。{because/after}■(2008 山东卷) Lucy’s new job paid twice as much as she had made ______ in the restaurant.{when}●A. working B. work C. to work D. worked■(2007 陕西卷) that she didn’t do a good job, I don’t think I am abler than her. {After}A.To have said ●B.Having said C.To say D.Saying○注 1：如果采用省略形式的句子的主语为 it (it 不是形式主语)或其与主句的主语一致，
则主语也可以省略，此时除 because, as (表原因)外，句子前的 when, whenever...as if 可以保
留（可以使表达更明显）。
○试析：Opening the drawer, he took out a revolver. 他打开抽屉，拿出一把左轮手枪。{after}■If possible, he will help you out of the difficulty.如果可能的话,他会帮你摆脱困境。{主语为
it)} ■Whenever free, she often goes shopping. 她有空就去逛商店。■Being sick I didn’tattend the meeting. 我生病了，没有参加会议。■He won't go there with us unless invited. 除
非受到邀请,否则他不会和我们一道去那里。■He stood up as if (he were) to say something.当时他站起来好像要说什么。■He wouldn't solve the problem even if (he were) to take charge.即使他来负责,他也解决不了这个问题。
■(2009 湖南卷) Every evening after dinner, if not ______ from work, I will spend some timewalking my dog.A. being tired B. tiring ●C. tired D. to be tired■(2007 全国卷 I) We all know that, __________, the situation will get worse.
A. not if dealt carefully with ●B. if not carefully dealt withC. if dealt not carefully with D. not if carefully dealt with
■(2008 安徽卷) _______ in the fields on a March afternoon, he could feel the warmth of spring.A. To walk. ●B. Walking C. Walked D. Having walked
■(2008 福建卷) ______ in the queen for half an hour, the old man suddenly realized he had leftthe cheque inthe car.A. Waiting B. To wait ●C. Having Waited D. To have waited■(2007 江西卷)When asked why he went there, he said he was sent there______for a spaceflight.A.training B.being trained C.to have trained ●D.to be trained○注 2：如果主句的谓语动词为表达情绪的词，此时 because，as (表原因)后的句子常采用
不定式的省略形式。如，I rejoiced to get back what I had lost. 东西失而复得，我非常高兴。
■I am glad to see you. 见到你非常高兴。
■从上面的例子中我们可以看到，英语的表达非常简洁，常隐性地表达一些信息（但这些
信息是完全可以推测出来的），如前例：Being sick I didn’t attend the meeting. (because) (因为)我生病了，没有参加会议。在以后的学习中请注意。
分析：
平行句 1：He speaks so fast.
主句：He speaks.
限定句：so fastfastfastfast [in[in[in[in aaaa waywaywayway thatthatthatthat isisisis fast]fast]fast]fast]=which (speaking) is in a way that is
so fast.
主句：speaking is in a way.
限定句：so fast=which (way) is so fast.
主句：way is fast.
限定句：sosososo [in[in[in[in suchsuchsuchsuch aaaa degreedegreedegreedegree]]]]=which (being fast) is in such a
degree.
主句：being fast is in a degree.
限定句：such=which (degree) is such.
平行句 2：that none can catch him=which (he speaks so fast) is with① the result
that none can catch him.
主句：That he speaks so fast is with the result.
限定句：that none can catch him=which (the result) is that none can catch
him.
⑤ Encouraged by its success, Fitzgerald began to devote more time to his writing. 因为它的成
功，菲茨杰拉德开始在写作上投入更多的时间。{这个句子可以有两种理解方式。1）Encouraged by its success=because he was encouraged by its success. *2）平 1：Flizgerald beganto devote more time to his writing. 平 2：who (Flizgerald) was encouraged by its success. 为平
衡句子结构，第二个句子采用省略形式后，提到了句子的最前面。*这两种理解方式都是
正确的，第一种理解方式直观方便，而第二种方式需要我们去推测其中的逻辑关系。}①
介词 with 指出了事件对象 he speaks so fast 与其结果对象 result 之间的关系，按照习惯复
合后 result 常省略。试着分析以下相似的例子： 1）Our country has so much coal that she canexport large quantities. 我们国家的煤炭非常丰富， 可以大量出口。2）There is so rapid anincrease in population that a food shortage is caused. 人口增长如此迅速， 以致造成了粮食短
缺。3）It was very so cold that the river froze.天气寒冷， 河水都结冰了。
98112112112112．HeHeHeHe waswaswaswas lyinglyinglyinglying onononon thethethethe grass,grass,grass,grass, hishishishis handshandshandshands crossedcrossedcrossedcrossed underunderunderunder hishishishis headheadheadhead.... 他躺在草
地上，两手交叉枕在脑后。
分析：
平行句 1：He was lying on the grass.
平行句 2：his hands crossed under his head=his hands were crossed under his
head①.
113113113113．HeHeHeHe isisisis tootootootoo fatfatfatfat totototo movemovemovemove.... 他胖得动不了。
分析：
平行句 1：He is too fat.
主句：He is fat.
限定句：tootootootoo [in[in[in[in aaaa degreedegreedegreedegree thatthatthatthat isisisis excessive]excessive]excessive]excessive]=which (being fat) is in a degree
that is excessive.
主句：being fat is in a degree.
限定句：that (degree) is excessive.
平行句 2：to move=which (he is too fat) is with the result that he is not able to
move.
主句：That he is too fat is with the result.
①其实这个句子也可以这样表达：He was lying on the grass and his hands were crossed under
his head. 我们可以看到 his...his head 这一个平行句谓语的时和 He was lying on the grass 这个平行句谓语的时是一样的，换句话说如果 were 省略的话，其很容易从 was 这部分推测
出来，又因为第二个平行句是对第一个平行句中 he 的补充说明（即两个平行句有所关联），
所以第二个平行句采用了省略形式（通常这种省略多用在书面语中）。
显然我们也可以这样表达这个句子：He was lying on the grass with his hands crossedunder his head. （这种表达方式在口语中很常见）。
○试析：Almost all metals are good conductors, silver being the best of all. 几乎所有的金
属都是良导体，而银则是最好的导体。■ He is going to make a model plane, some old parts tohelp. 借助于一些旧零件，他要做一个飞机模型。■We redoubled our efforts, each manworking like two. 我们加倍努力，一个人干两个人的活。
限定句：that he is not able to move=which (the result) is that he is not able
to move①.
114114114114． ItItItIt waswaswaswas IIII whowhowhowho metmetmetmet himhimhimhim inininin thethethethe park.park.park.park. 是我在公园遇到他的。
分析：将 whowhowhowho [the[the[the[the personpersonpersonperson who]who]who]who]代入原句得：It② was I the person who met him in the
park.
主句：the person is I.
限定句：who (the person) met him in the park.
主句：the person met him
限定句：in the park=which (meeting) was in the park.
115115115115． ItItItIt waswaswaswas inininin thethethethe streetstreetstreetstreet thatthatthatthat IIII sawsawsawsaw him.him.him.him. 我是在街上见到他的。
分析：将 thatthatthatthat [the[the[the[the placeplaceplaceplace inininin which]which]which]which]代入原句得：It③ was in the street the place in
which I saw him.
主句：the palce is in the street.
限定句：in which (place) I saw him.
主句：I saw him.
限定句：in place=which (seeing) was in place.
116116116116．SheSheSheShe hithithithit himhimhimhim onononon thethethethe headheadheadhead withwithwithwith aaaa book.book.book.book. 她用书打他的头。
①按照习惯第二个平行句采用省略形式后只保留 to move（了解了 too...to 太而不能，这个
结构的来龙去脉了吧）
○试析：■He was so angry (that) she couldn't speak. 她气得说不出话来。{which(he...angry) was with the result that she couldn’t speak.} ■②
因为主语 the person who met him in the park 太长所以用 it 代替了。（这是一种强调结构）③
因为主语 the place in which I saw him 太长所以用 it 代替了（这也是一种强调结构）。
○试析：It was because her mother was ill that she didn't go with us. 就是因为她母亲病了，她
才没跟我们一起去。■It was not until last summer that I heard from her. 直到去年夏天我才听
到他的消息。■■■The particles are so small as to be almost invisible. 这些粒子小到几乎看
不到。{将 as 看成是一个复合词：as [which is with the result that]. *which (the...small) is withthe result that it is almost invisible. That 后的采用了不定式的省略形式。}
100分析：
平行句 1：She hit him with a book.
平行句 2：on the head=book was once on the head when she was hitting him①.
117117117117．HeHeHeHe behavedbehavedbehavedbehaved asasasas ifififif nothingnothingnothingnothing hadhadhadhad happened.happened.happened.happened. 他装作若无其事的样子....
分析：
平行句 1：he behaved.
平行句 2：asasasas ifififif [with[with[with[with thethethethe appearanceappearanceappearanceappearance ofofofof ]]]]=which (he behaved) was with the
appearance of that nothing had happened②.
118118118118．PatPatPatPat isisisis moremoremoremore generousgenerousgenerousgenerous thanthanthanthan IIII amamamam 帕特比我大方。
分析：
主句：pat is generous.
限定句：moremoremoremore [in[in[in[in aaaa degreedegreedegreedegree aboveaboveaboveabove thethethethe degree]degree]degree]degree] than [in[in[in[in which]which]which]which] I am=in a degree
above the degree in which I am generous=which (being generous) is in
a degree above the degree in which I am generous.
主句：being generous is in a degree.
限定句：above the degree in which I am generous=which (degree) is above
the degree in which I am generous.
主句：degree is above the degree.
限定句：in which (the degree) I am generous③.
①平行句 2 是对平行句 1 的补充说明（即在打的过程当中书本接触了他的头），采用省略
形式后只保留了最重要的信息。
○试析：She slapped him in the face. 她狠狠地给了他一巴掌。{her hand was once in theface. 对比 She slapped him on the face. (her hand was once on the face) 显然前者比后者打得
要狠（前者表示手陷进去了，而后者表示手仅在表面）。} He's been hit in the leg by a sniper'sbullet. 狙击手的子弹打伤了他的腿部。■I knocked on the door. 我敲门。②
○试析：He looked as if she were made of ice. 她看起来似乎是冰做的。③
注意，如果 more 后面的形容词是单音节/双音节通常会将 more 去掉而在形容词后加 er
119119119119．HeHeHeHe isisisis asasasas talltalltalltall asasasas youyouyouyou are.are.are.are. 他和你一样高。
分析：
主句：he is tall.
限定句：asasasas [in[in[in[in thethethethe degree]degree]degree]degree] asasasas [in[in[in[in which]which]which]which] you are=in the degree in which you are
tall=which (being tall) is in the degree in which you are tall.
主句：being tall is in the degree.
限定句：in which (the degree) you are tall①.
120120120120．TheTheTheThe bookbookbookbook isisisis difficultdifficultdifficultdifficult forforforfor childrenchildrenchildrenchildren totototo understandunderstandunderstandunderstand．孩子们很难理解这本书。
分析：
平行句 1：to understand the book is difficult.
平行句 2 ： for children=which (to understand the book is difficult) is for
③children.
（也有一些不规则变化。具体参阅后面关于形容词和副词的比较级和最高级的相关章节）。
○试析：He is taller than I am. 他比我高。{taller=more tall}。■He is the most carefulstudent in our classs. 他是我们班上最仔细的学生。{most [in a degree above the degree inwhich (anyone else in our class is careful)} ■Jane is the smartest girl in our class. 简是我们班
最聪明的女孩。{smartest=most smart} ■ You love me more than he loves me. 你比他更爱
我。■ He runs fastest of the three. 三个人中他跑得最快。■ He shall have done them moreslowly and more carefully. 他本该算得慢些、细心些。 {slowly [in a way that is slow]. Which(being slow) was more. Which (being carefull) was more} ■I would rather walk than take a bus.我愿意走路而不愿意坐公共汽车。{would rather...than=prefer to. prefer [like sb/sth more thansb/sth}①
○试析：He can run as fast as I can. 他和我跑得一样快。③
介词 for 指出了事件对象 to...difficult 与其对应的对象 children 之间的关系（与函数中的
对应关系相似。实际上 children 就是 understand 这个动作的执行者，所以平行句 2 间接限
制了平行句 1）。注意例中的 for 与下例中的 for 是不一样的：I have a book for you to read=Ihave a book that you can read. {which (reading) is for you，介词 for 指出了动作对象 reading与其执行者对象 you 之间的关系)}○试析：For me to learn music is difficult. 学音乐对我来说很难。■It is good to you to have awalk after supper. 晚饭后散步对你有好处。{That to have a walk after supper is good is to you.to 也指对应关系} ■It's necessary for you to lock the car when you do not use it. 当你不
用车的时候，锁车是有必要的。{for you to...it=that you should lock the car when you do not useit. 因为作名词性成分的句子谓语含有情态助动词所以采用了不定式形式的省略形式。It 代替 for you to...it 在句子中作形式主语。} ■Smoking is a danger to health. 吸烟危害健康。
102121121121121．WeWeWeWe playplayplayplay cardscardscardscards insteadinsteadinsteadinstead ofofofof watchingwatchingwatchingwatching television.television.television.television. 我们玩纸牌，而没看电视
了。
分析：
平行句 1：We play cards.
平行句 2：insteadinsteadinsteadinstead ofofofof [in[in[in[in steadsteadsteadstead① of]of]of]of] watching television=which (playing cards) is
in stead of watching television.
主句：playing cards is in stead.
限定句：of watching television=which (stead) is of watching television②.
从上面的分析我们可以看到，复合词是拆解中的难点，但最终每个句子都
能被拆分成五种基本简单句。
{That smoking is a danger is to health.}■■■According to John you were in Edinburgh last week. 据约翰说, 你上星期在爱丁堡。
{which (you...week) accords to John. 传统语法将：according to 看成是一个介词。}① The place, position, or function properly or customarily occupied by another. 替代：通常成习
惯性地被别人占据的地方、位置或别人所起的作用。{in stead of=in place of}②
○试析：We've no coffee. Would you like tea instead? 我们没有咖啡了. 改喝茶好吗?
第二第二第二第二节节节节 长难句分析长难句分析长难句分析长难句分析
本节将拆分一些长难句①，为不重复前面的内容，同时保持分析简洁，不会
再分析一些细小的知识点。
122122122122．HHHHeeee camecamecamecame ploddingploddingploddingplodding totototo thethethethe inninninninn doordoordoordoor.... 他迈着深重的步伐向旅馆的门走去。
分析：
平行句 1：He came.
平行句 2：plodding to the inn door=who (he) was plodding to the inn door②.
123123123123．WineWineWineWine isisisis mademademademade fromfromfromfrom grapes.grapes.grapes.grapes. 葡萄酒是用葡萄酿制的。
分析： {make [to bring into existence by shaping, modifying, or putting together
material]. *which (material) is from grapes. 物质已发生了化学变化。●试比
较：The earrings are made of gold. *which (material) is of gold. 物质没有发
生化学变化。}
124124124124．There'sThere'sThere'sThere's somethingsomethingsomethingsomething interestinginterestinginterestinginteresting onononon thethethethe frontfrontfrontfront page.page.page.page. 头版上有些有意思的消
息。
分析：{限：which (something) is interesting. ③}
125125125125．ThisThisThisThis isisisis aaaa soon-to-be-publishedsoon-to-be-publishedsoon-to-be-publishedsoon-to-be-published planplanplanplan.... 这个计划即将公布。
分析：{限：which (plan) will be published soon. *限定句采用省略形式后提到了，
其限定的对象之前（注意要加破折号）。④}
①注意下面例句有些来自三国演义的英文版，因为翻译上不是逐句翻译的，所以后面的中
文可能有时候不能完全跟英语对得上。②
平行句 2 是对平行 1 的补充说明。③
如果限定句限定的对象为不定代词，限定句采用省略形式后，其位置一般不作调整。
○试析：Did you notice anything strange about him? 你发现他有什么奇怪的没？■Ihave nothing new to tell you. 我没什么新消息可告诉你。④
○试析：A walking stick is a great help to the old lady. 拐杖对那老太太的帮助极大。{which(stick) is for walking. *限定句采用省略形式后，省略了可推知信息 for。} ■a dirty-lookingboy. 脏男孩。{who (boy) looks dirty} ■faded flowers. 凋零的花朵。{which (flowers) have
104126126126126．SheSheSheShe talkedtalkedtalkedtalked onononon forforforfor twotwotwotwo hourshourshourshours withoutwithoutwithoutwithout stopping.stopping.stopping.stopping. 她不停地讲了两个钟
头。
分析：{on [toward a point lying ahead in space or time]①}
127127127127．ApproachingApproachingApproachingApproaching thethethethe citycitycitycity centre,centre,centre,centre, wewewewe sawsawsawsaw aaaa stonestonestonestone statuestatuestatuestatue ofofofof aboutaboutaboutabout 10101010 metresmetresmetresmetres inininin
height.height.height.height. 接近市中心的时候，我们看到了一座高约十米的雕像。
分析：{这个句子有两种理解方式，且意义一致。1）平：approaching the city
centre=who (we) were approaching the city centre. 2）approaching the city
centere=when approaching the city centere=when we were approaching
centere.②}
128128128128．ComputerComputerComputerComputer technologytechnologytechnologytechnology makesmakesmakesmakes itititit possiblepossiblepossiblepossible forforforfor manymanymanymany peoplepeoplepeoplepeople totototo workworkworkwork fromfromfromfrom
home.home.home.home. 电脑科技使很多人在家工作成为可能。
分析：Computer...home=Computer technology makes that that③ many people may
faded.} ■newly-arrived guests. 刚到不久的客人。{who (guests) have arrived newly.} ■awell-dressed woman. 穿着入时的妇女。{who (woman) is well dressed.} ■their“money is everything” philosophy. 他们的“钱就是一切的哲学”。{which (philosophy) is thatmoney is everything}①
○试析：He paused to take a sip of water, and then went on with his story. 他停下来呷了一
口水, 然后继续讲。■go on coughing. 不停地咳嗽。{on 后省略了 to} ■We will continue(with) the payments for another year. 我们这样的报酬还要再维持一年。{continue [go on(with)]}②
○试析：
(2009 四川卷)________ many times, he finally understood it.A. Told B. Telling C. Having told ○D. Having been told(2009 天津卷)_____ by the advances in technology, many farmers have set up wind farms ontheir land.A. Being encouraged B. Encouraging ○C. Encouraged D. Having encouraged(2009 重庆卷) Michael’s new house is like a huge palace, ______with his old one.A. comparing B. compares C. to compare ○D. compared③
第二个 that 后作主语的句子采用了不定式形式的省略形式。*第一个 that 后作宾语的句
子也采用了省略形式。
○试析：I want nothing more than for him to set up a stable life for himself.{I...himself=I...that that he may set up a stable life for himself. *that 后的句子采用了不定式形
式的省略形式。} ■The present question is that many people consider impossible what is reallypossible if effort is made . 目前的问题是，很多人把其实只要付诸努力就能做到的事情看成
work from home is possible.
129129129129．IsIsIsIs theretheretherethere anythinganythinganythinganything thatthatthatthat IIII cancancancan dodododo forforforfor you?you?you?you? 有什么可以为你做的吗？
分析：{这里的 that 能用 which 代替吗？不行！请参考注释①。}
130130130130．SheSheSheShe takestakestakestakes greatgreatgreatgreat carecarecarecare ofofofof herherherher children.children.children.children. 她精心照看孩子。
是做不到的。{that...made=that many people consider that what is really possible if effort ismade is impossible. 第二个 that 后的句子作 consider 的宾语，但采用了省略形式，且为平衡
句子结构将其主语放到了句尾。}①
○常用 that 不用 which 的几种特殊情况：
1、当主句中的相同对象为 anything, everything, nothing (something 除外), few, all, none, little,some, one 等不定代词时，或者被 every, any, all, some, no, little, few, much，each 等词限制时。
例：Is there anything that I can do for you? 有什么可以为你做的吗？I will tell him all that youtold me at the ball.我要把你在舞会上跟我说的话全都告诉他
2、当主句中的相同对象被形容词的最高级或序数词限制时。例：That is one of the mostinteresting books that are sold in the bookshop. 那是这家书店出售的最有趣的书之一。Thefirst thing that we should do is to get some food. 我们该做的第一件事是弄点吃的。
3、当主句中的相同对象被 the very, the only，the same, the last 限制时。例：My necklace is notthe only thing that's missing. 我的项链不仅是丢掉的东西。
4、当主句中的相同对象为数词时。例：Yesterday I caught two fish and put them in a basin ofwater. Now you can see the two that are still alive. 昨天我捉到了两条鱼，把它们放在一盆水
里。 你可以看到那两条鱼还活着呢。
5、当主句中含有 who 或 which 时，为避免重复，限制句中一般用 that。例：Who is the girlthat is wearing a red coat? 正穿一件红色外套的女孩子是谁？
6、当主句中的相同对象既有人又有物时(看成一个整体对象)。例：The writer and his novelthat you have just talked about are really well known. 你刚才谈起的那位作家以及他的小说确
实很著名。
7、相同的对象在限定句中作表语时，常用 that，而 that 通常也可以省略。例：He is no longerthe man that he was. 他不再是过去的他。
8、当主句的句型为 there+be 结构，相同对象为主语，而且又是物对象时，常用 that。例：
There are two novels that I want to read.我要读的有两本小说。There is no work that can bedone now. 没有什么工作现在能做的了。 9、当相同对象为主句的表语或者为限定句的的表语时，常用 that。例： This is the book that was bought yesterday.这就是昨天买的书。Our school is no longer theschool that it used to be.我们的学校不再是以前的学校了。
○常用 which 不用 that 的几种特殊情况：
1、当相同的对象在限定句中作介宾时。例：This is the room in which Chairman Mao once lived.这就是毛主席曾经住过的地方。
2、当 that 已在主句中出现过时，为避免重复，常用 which。例：Let me show you the novelthat I borrowed from the library which was newly open to us.我来给你看我从新开的图书馆里
借来的那本小说。
3、在限定句中相同的对象后面有其它成分分隔时，通常用which。例：Here is the Englishgrammar which, as I have told you, will help improve your English. 这就是我跟你说过的会有
助于你学好英语的那本英语语法书。
106分析：{care=caring}
131131131131．There'sThere'sThere'sThere's aaaa greatgreatgreatgreat needneedneedneed forforforfor aaaa newnewnewnew bookbookbookbook onononon thethethethe subject.subject.subject.subject. 非常需要有一本这方
面的新书。
分析：{这里的 for 相当于 of（这种情况不常见）①。*need for=need of=needing of .
for/of 指出了动作对象 need/needing 与其宾语对象 book 之间的关系}②
132132132132．SheSheSheShe failedfailedfailedfailed totototo reachreachreachreach thethethethe semi-finals.semi-finals.semi-finals.semi-finals. 她未能进入半决赛。
分析：{不定式前省略了介词 in}
133133133133．HeHeHeHe’’’’llllllll probablyprobablyprobablyprobably bebebebe homehomehomehome bybybyby midnight.midnight.midnight.midnight. 他可能午夜到家。
分析：
平行句 1：He’ll be home by midnight.
平行句 2：probably [which is probable]=which (he’ll be home by midnight) is
probable③.
①因为 for 在这里所指的关系（for/of 指出了动作对象 need/needing 与其宾语对象 book 之
间的关系），已远远偏离其基本意义（即使应用其引申意义也很达到），而其所指的关系完
全是可以用另一个介词（of）表示，以后我们称这一现象为介词错位（称 for 为错位介词）。
介词错位现象不具有普遍性，其仅存在于一些习惯用法中（所以我们也应该遵循这些习惯，
而不应该随便换用介词）。
○试析：■■■A man is helping the police with their enquiries. 有一男子在协助警方进行调
查。{help [give assistance (to sb/sth)]. *with 是一个错位介词，相当于 in} ■Please help meup/down the stairs with this heavy case. 请帮我把这只沉重的箱子搬上/下楼。{Pleasehelp...case=Please help me with/in carrying this heavy case up/down the stairs. *carrying 属于可
推知信息，所以省略了。*也可以这样表达：Please help me (to) carry this heavy case up/downthe stairs. 不定式前省略了 with. }②
○试析：I am in need of a drink. 我需要喝杯饮料。{按照习惯 in need of 中的 of 一般不能
被 for 替换。}■I don't think there's any need for all of us to attend the meeting. 我认为没必要
我们都去参加会议。{need 后面省略了 for/of. *for all of us to attend the meeting=all of usshould attend the meeting} ■We fully recognize the need to improve communications. 我们充
分地认识到需要改善通迅。{不定式前省略了 for/of} ■She said she needed to go out for awalk. 她说需要外出散步。■You needn't stay long. 你不需要呆太久。{传统语法认为这里
的 need 为一个情态助动词。但作者认为其不为情态助动词，这里按照习惯 stay 前面省略
了 to}③
○试析：Interestingly, none of their three children ever married. 有趣的是，他们的三个孩子
中没有一个结过婚。 {interestingly [which is interesting]. *which (none...married) wasinteresting.}
134134134134．YouYouYouYou usedusedusedused totototo smokesmokesmokesmoke aaaa pipe,pipe,pipe,pipe, didn'tdidn'tdidn'tdidn't you?you?you?you? 你过去一向是抽烟斗的,,,, 对不对????
分析：{{{{useuseuseuse [[[[ArchaicArchaicArchaicArchaic .... totototo practicepracticepracticepractice habituallyhabituallyhabituallyhabitually orororor customarily;customarily;customarily;customarily; makemakemakemake aaaa practicepracticepracticepractice of.of.of.of. ]]]]
*use 的这一意思现仅存于过去一般时中。传统语法将 used to 看成一个情态动词，
表达过去经常的或持续的行为, 在疑问句和否定句中通常与 did 连用。如：I used
to live in London. 我过去一直住在伦敦。①}}}}
135135135135．IIII sendsendsendsend youyouyouyou 100100100100 dollarsdollarsdollarsdollars today,today,today,today, thethethethe restrestrestrest totototo followfollowfollowfollow inininin aaaa year.year.year.year. 我今天给你寄了
100100100100美元，余下的一年内给你。
分析：
平行句 1：I send you 100 dollars today.
平行句 2：the rest to follow in a year=the rest will follow in a year②.
136136136136．TheTheTheThe househousehousehouse isisisis expensive,expensive,expensive,expensive, consideringconsideringconsideringconsidering itsitsitsits roofroofroofroof isisisis broken.broken.broken.broken. 考虑到屋顶是坏的，
这座房子有些贵。
分析：
主句：The house is expensive=sb③ thinks the house is expensive.
限定句：considering its roof is broken=if he considers that its roof is broken④.
①○试析：I do the dishes every day, so I'm used to it. 我每天都洗碗，所以我现在已经习惯
了。{use [to habituate or accustom]} ■He quickly accustomed himself to this new way of life.他很快就习惯了这种新的生活方式。②
平行句 2 的时为将来时，且跟平行句 1 的时不一致，所以采用了不定式形式的省略形式。③ Sb 这个对象通常会是 I，所以通常省略。④
传统语法称 considering its roof is broken 为插入语（传统语法认为：插入语在句中有时是
对一句话的一些附加解释、说明或总结；有时表达说话者的态度和看法；有时起强调的作
用；有时是为了引起对方的注意；还可以起转移话题或说明事由的作用；也可以承上启下，
使句子衔接得更紧密一些。其通常与句中其它部分没有语法上的联系，将它删掉之后，句
子结构仍然完整），但通过分析我们发现插入语其实是句子的一部分，只不过是省略的结
果。
○试析：Judging from previous experience, he will be late. 根据以往的经验来看, 他得迟到。
{(by)Judging from previous experience, sb thinks he will be late. 通常 sb thinks=I think, 所以
常省略。By 也经常省略。} ■Strange to say, he hasn’t got my letter up to now. 说来也奇怪，
他到现在还没有收到我的信。■Generally speaking, the weather there is neither too cold inwinter nor too hot in summer. 一般来说，那儿的气候冬天不太冷，夏天不太热。■To be frank,
108137137137137．ToToToTo bebebebe frankfrankfrankfrank，IIII dondondondon’’’’tttt quitequitequitequite agreeagreeagreeagree withwithwithwith you.you.you.you. 坦率地说，我不太同意你
的意见。
分析：{{{{平 1111：totototo bebebebe frank=frank=frank=frank=IIII amamamam frank;frank;frank;frank; 平 2222：IIII dondondondon’’’’tttt quitequitequitequite agreeagreeagreeagree withwithwithwith you.you.you.you. ****传统
语法将 totototo bebebebe frankfrankfrankfrank看成是插入语。}}}}
138138138138．Cyprus,Cyprus,Cyprus,Cyprus, asasasas youyouyouyou know,know,know,know, isisisis anananan islandislandislandisland inininin thethethethe Mediterranean.Mediterranean.Mediterranean.Mediterranean. 如你所知,,,, 塞浦
路斯是地中海的岛国....
分析：将 asasasas [[[[aaaa factfactfactfact whichwhichwhichwhich]]]]代入原句得：Cyprus, a fact which you know, is an island
in the Mediteranean.
平行句 1：Cyprus is an island in the Mediterranean.
平行句 2： a fact which you know=which (Cyprus...Mediterranean) is a fact
which you know①.
139139139139．TheyTheyTheyThey abandonedabandonedabandonedabandoned theirtheirtheirtheir landslandslandslands totototo thethethethe invadinginvadinginvadinginvading forces.forces.forces.forces. 他们丢下了土地﹐遭
侵略军占领。
分析：将 abandonabandonabandonabandon [leave[leave[leave[leave aaaa place,place,place,place, thingthingthingthing orororor personpersonpersonperson forever,forever,forever,forever, givinggivinggivinggiving itsitsitsits ownershipownershipownershipownership totototo sbsbsbsb
else]else]else]else] 代入原句得：They leaved their lands, giving the ownership of the lands
to the invading forces.
平行句 1：They leaved their lands.
平行句 2：giving the ownership of the lands to the invading forces.
I don’t quite agree with you. 坦率地说，我不太同意你的意见。■To tell you the truth, I’m notso interested in the matter. 跟你说实话，我对这件事情的兴趣不大。{which (truth) is that I’mnot so interested in the matter. } ■To sum up，success results from hard work. 总而言之，成
功是艰苦努力的结果。■He's dirty, and what's more he smells. 他很脏, 身上还有味呢。■After their stay, all visitors receive a survival certificate recording their success, that is, whenguests leave the igloo hotel they will receive a paper stating that they have had a taste ofadventure. 在他们逗留之后，所有的游客都会收到一份生存证明记录他们的成功，也就是
说当游客离开小冰屋旅馆时，他们会得到一份证明，表明他们曾尝试过冒险。①
○试析：I'm going there tomorrow, as a matter of fact. 说实话, 明天我要去那里。{which(I...tomorrow) is as a matter of fact}
140140140140．PPPPeopleeopleeopleeople demonstratedemonstratedemonstratedemonstrate againstagainstagainstagainst thethethethe newnewnewnew proposalsproposalsproposalsproposals 人们示威反对新提案。
分析：将 demonstratedemonstratedemonstratedemonstrate [attend[attend[attend[attend aaaa publicpublicpublicpublic rallyrallyrallyrally totototo showshowshowshow thatthatthatthat sbsbsbsb isisisis againstagainstagainstagainst orororor inininin favorfavorfavorfavor ofofofof
sb/sth]sb/sth]sb/sth]sb/sth] 代入原句得：People attend a public rally to show that they are against
the new proposals.
平行句 1：People attend a public rally.
平行句 2：to show that they are against the new proposals.
141141141141．AsAsAsAs herherherher privateprivateprivateprivate secretarysecretarysecretarysecretary hehehehe hashashashas accessaccessaccessaccess totototo allallallall herherherher correspondence.correspondence.correspondence.correspondence. 他是她
的私人秘书,,,, 能接触到她所有的信件。
分析：
平行句 1：he has access to all her correspondence.
平行句 2：as her private secretary=who (he) is as① her private secretary.
142142142142．SheSheSheShe identifiedidentifiedidentifiedidentified thethethethe manmanmanman asasasas herherherher attacker.attacker.attacker.attacker. 她认出那个男人就是袭击过她的
人。
分析：将 identifyidentifyidentifyidentify [recongnize[recongnize[recongnize[recongnize sb/sthsb/sthsb/sthsb/sth andandandand saysaysaysay sb/sthsb/sthsb/sthsb/sth isisisis asasasas sb/sth]sb/sth]sb/sth]sb/sth]代入原句得：She
recongnized the man and said that he was as her attacker.
平行句 1：She recongnized the man.
平行句 2：said that he was as her attacker.
143143143143．IIIItttt rainedrainedrainedrained heavily,heavily,heavily,heavily, causingcausingcausingcausing severesevereseveresevere flooding.flooding.flooding.flooding. 大雨滂沱，洪水泛滥。
分析：
平行句 1：It rained heavily.
平行句 2：causing severe flooding=which (the rain) caused severe flooding②.
①介词 as 指出了人物对象 he 与其身份对象 secretary 之间的关系。
②当然你也可以这样理解，平 1：It rained heavily. 平 2：the rain caused severe flooding. {因
为 the rain 属于可推知信息，所以省略了。}○试析：At the sight, fear seized upon Cheng Yuanzhi, and before he could defend himself, the
110144144144144．AndAndAndAnd hehehehe setsetsetset outoutoutout atatatat onceonceonceonce withwithwithwith hishishishis ownownownown soldiers,soldiers,soldiers,soldiers, reinforcedreinforcedreinforcedreinforced bybybyby aaaa bodybodybodybody ofofofof
fivefivefivefive thousandthousandthousandthousand underunderunderunder ZhouZhouZhouZhou JingJingJingJing①....
分析：
平行句 1：he set out...soldiers.
平行句 2：reinforced...Jing=which (soldiers) were reinforced...Jing②.
145145145145．HisHisHisHis earsearsearsears werewerewerewere long,long,long,long, thethethethe lobeslobeslobeslobes touchingtouchingtouchingtouching hishishishis shouldersshouldersshouldersshoulders.... 他两耳垂肩。
分析：
平行句 1：His eares were long.
平行句 2：the lobes...shoulders=the lobes of his ears touched...shoulders③.
146146146146．TheTheTheThe rebelsrebelsrebelsrebels woreworeworewore theirtheirtheirtheir hairhairhairhair flyingflyingflyingflying aboutaboutaboutabout theirtheirtheirtheir shouldersshouldersshouldersshoulders.... 贼众皆披发。
great saber fell, cutting him in halves. 程远志见了，早吃一惊，措手不及，被云长刀起处，
挥为两段。{显然 cutting 前面省略了可推知信息 Yunchang} ■Somali pirates robbed threeThai fishing ships with 77 sailors on board nearly 1,200 miles off the Somali coast，thefarthest-off-shore attack to date，an officer said Tuesday. {nearly 前省略了可推知信息 at aplace。*the farthest-off-shore attack to date=which is the farthes-off-shore attack to date. *anofficer said Tuesday that Somali pirates...date. that 后的句子作 said 的宾语。} ■Dad, in a hurryto get home beforedark so he could go for a run, had forgotten to wear his safety belt—a mistake75% of the US population make every day.爸爸，急匆匆地在天黑之前赶回家，以便他能出去
跑步，却忘记系安全带— 这是 75% 的美国人每天犯的一个错误。{forgetting to wear one’ssafety belt is a mistake...day. 因为 forgetting...belt 是可推知信息，所以句子采用省略形式后，
它也省略了。} ■A fish that lives in mangrove swamps across the Americas can live out ofwater for months at a time, similar to how animals adapted land millions of years ago, a newstudy shows. 一个最新研究显示，在南美洲的红树沼泽中生活着一种鱼，可以在水外存活
几个月。就好像百万年前动物如何适应陆地生活一样。{the way is similar to...ago. 显然 theway 从上文中可以推测出来，所以句子采用省略形式后，它也省略了。}① And he set out at once with his own soldiers, reinforced by a body of five thousand underZhou Jing. The rebels, seeing help coming, at once attacked most fiercely. 刘焉令邹靖将兵五
千，同玄德、关、张，投青州来。贼众见救军至，分兵混战②
○试析：He was Cao Cao, a Beijuo man, holding the rank of Cavalry Commander. ■ZhangFei stamped toward Dong Zhuo's tent, holding firmly a sharp sword. ■Mr. Henchy, seizing oneof the candlesticks, went to the door to light him downstairs. ■Their study found thattheobromine，found in cocoa，was nearly a third more effective in stopping coughs than codeine，
which was considered the best cough medicine at present. 目前，可卡因是最佳的止咳药物，
可是他们的研究发现在可可粉中包含的可可碱，其疗效又比可卡因几乎高三分之一。③
平行句 2 对平行句 1 中的对象 ear 进行补充说明，且复合后采用了省略形式。
分析：
主句：The rebels wore their hair.
限定句：flying...shoulders=which (hair) was flying...shoulders.
147147147147．TheTheTheThe impactimpactimpactimpact shovedshovedshovedshoved herherherher HondaHondaHondaHonda deeperdeeperdeeperdeeper intointointointo thethethethe snowdrift,snowdrift,snowdrift,snowdrift, submergingsubmergingsubmergingsubmerging it.it.it.it.
冲击力将她的本田汽车淹了在雪堆里。
分析：
平行句 1：The impact shoved my Honda deeper into the snowdrift.
平行句 2：submerging it=which (snowdrift) submerged it①.
148148148148．AtAtAtAt onceonceonceonce roderoderoderode forwardforwardforwardforward ZhangZhangZhangZhang Fei,Fei,Fei,Fei, hishishishis serpentserpentserpentserpent halberdhalberdhalberdhalberd poisedpoisedpoisedpoised totototo strike.strike.strike.strike. 张
飞挺丈八蛇矛直出
分析：
平行句 1：At once...Fei.
平行句 2：his serpent...strike=his serpent halberd being poised to strike=his
serpent halberd was poised to strike②.
149149149149．MyMyMyMy father'sfather'sfather'sfather's familyfamilyfamilyfamily namenamenamename beingbeingbeingbeing Pirrip,Pirrip,Pirrip,Pirrip, andandandand mymymymy ChristianChristianChristianChristian namenamenamename Philip,Philip,Philip,Philip, mymymymy
infantinfantinfantinfant tonguetonguetonguetongue couldcouldcouldcould makemakemakemake ofofofof bothbothbothboth namesnamesnamesnames nothingnothingnothingnothing longerlongerlongerlonger orororor moremoremoremore explicitexplicitexplicitexplicit
thanthanthanthan Pip.Pip.Pip.Pip. 我父亲的姓是皮利普，而我的教名是菲利普。在我幼年时期，
无论是皮利普还是菲利普，我既发不出这么长的音节，又咬字不清，只能
发出皮普。
分析：
①注意省略后，不会引起意义混淆变化才是可接受的。在本例中按照省略的原则 which 代
替的可以是 impact/snowdrift，但从上下文推测，只有 snowdrift 作 submerge 的主语才符合
逻辑，所以我们推测出 which 代替的就是 snowdrift。反之，如果根据上下文推测存在多种
逻辑上的可能，则变化是不成立的（因为这样的省略会引起意义上混淆）。②
平行句 2 对第一个平行句的对象 Zhang Fei 进行补充说明，复合后采用了省略形式，且
being 省略了。
112平行句 1：My...being Pirrip①=My...was pirrip.
平行句 2：my Christian...Philip=my Christian...was Philip.
平行句 3：my infant...Pip.
150150150150．TheTheTheThe nextnextnextnext day,day,day,day, beingbeingbeingbeing thethethethe nineteenth,nineteenth,nineteenth,nineteenth, IIII wentwentwentwent back,back,back,back, havinghavinghavinghaving mademademademade memememe twotwotwotwo
smallsmallsmallsmall bagsbagsbagsbags totototo bringbringbringbring homehomehomehome mymymymy harvestharvestharvestharvest....
分析：
平行句 1：The nex day, I went back.
平行句 2：being the nineteenth.
平行句 3：having made me two small bags to bring home my harvest②.
151151151151．ButButButBut theretheretherethere followedfollowedfollowedfollowed aaaa terrificterrificterrificterrific tempest,tempest,tempest,tempest, thunder,thunder,thunder,thunder, hail,hail,hail,hail, andandandand torrentstorrentstorrentstorrents ofofofof rain,rain,rain,rain,
lastinglastinglastinglasting tilltilltilltill midnightmidnightmidnightmidnight andandandand workingworkingworkingworking havochavochavochavoc onononon allallallall sides.sides.sides.sides. 忽然大雷大雨，加以
冰雹，落到半夜方止，坏却房屋无数。
分析：
平行句 1：there followed...rain←a...rain③ followed.
平行句 2：lasting till midnight=which (a...rain) lasted till midnight.
平等句 2：working...sides=which (a...rain) worked...sides.
152152152152．EmperorEmperorEmperorEmperor Ling,Ling,Ling,Ling, greatlygreatlygreatlygreatly movedmovedmovedmoved bybybyby thesethesethesethese signssignssignssigns ofofofof thethethethe displeasuredispleasuredispleasuredispleasure ofofofof Heaven,Heaven,Heaven,Heaven,
issuedissuedissuedissued anananan edictedictedictedict askingaskingaskingasking hishishishis ministersministersministersministers forforforfor anananan explanationexplanationexplanationexplanation ofofofof thethethethe calamitiescalamitiescalamitiescalamities
andandandand marvelsmarvelsmarvelsmarvels④....
①因为平行句 1 和 2 的谓语的时与平行句 3 谓语的时一致，且和第三个平行句有所关联，
所以采用了省略形式。
一般来说平行句复合时，第一个平行句会采用完整形式，而其它的采用省略形式。但第一
个平行句也可以采用省略形式，而其它的采用完整形式。②
当然你也可以理解为 having 的前面省略了 after。{having harvest=after I had...harvest}③
因为 a…rain 这个主语较长，且是后面二个平行句的主语所以其位置后置了。④ Such were some of various omens. Emperor Ling…marvels. 种种不祥，非止一端。帝下诏
问群臣以灾异之由。
分析：
平行句 1：Emperor Ling issued...edict asking...marvesls.
主句：Emperor Ling issured...edict.
限定句：asking...marvels=which (edict) asked...marvels.
平行句 2：greatly...Heaven=who (Emperor Ling) was greatly moved...Heaven.
153153153153．OneOneOneOne day,day,day,day, whilewhilewhilewhile cullingcullingcullingculling simplessimplessimplessimples inininin thethethethe woods,woods,woods,woods, ZhangZhangZhangZhang JueJueJueJue metmetmetmet aaaa venerablevenerablevenerablevenerable
oldoldoldold gentlemangentlemangentlemangentleman withwithwithwith veryveryveryvery bright,bright,bright,bright, emeraldemeraldemeraldemerald eyeseyeseyeseyes andandandand freshfreshfreshfresh complexion,complexion,complexion,complexion, whowhowhowho
walkedwalkedwalkedwalked withwithwithwith anananan oak-woodoak-woodoak-woodoak-wood staffstaffstaffstaff①....
分析：
平行句 1：One day, while culling...complexion.
平行句 2：who...staff=who (genteleman)②.
154154154154．HeHeHeHe wouldwouldwouldwould climbclimbclimbclimb upupupup intointointointo it,it,it,it, saying,saying,saying,saying, "I"I"I"I amamamam thethethethe SonSonSonSon ofofofof Heaven,Heaven,Heaven,Heaven, andandandand thisthisthisthis isisisis mymymymy
chariot!"chariot!"chariot!"chariot!"
分析：
平行句 1：He...it.
平行句 2：saying, “I...chariot!”=who (he) said, “I...chariot！”
155155155155．WhenWhenWhenWhen weaponsweaponsweaponsweapons werewerewerewere ready,ready,ready,ready, thethethethe troop,troop,troop,troop, nownownownow fivefivefivefive hundredhundredhundredhundred strong,strong,strong,strong, marchedmarchedmarchedmarched
totototo CommanderCommanderCommanderCommander ZhouZhouZhouZhou Jing,Jing,Jing,Jing, whowhowhowho presentedpresentedpresentedpresented themthemthemthem totototo ImperialImperialImperialImperial ProtectorProtectorProtectorProtector LiuLiuLiuLiu
Yan.Yan.Yan.Yan. 共聚乡勇五百余人，来见邹靖。邹靖引见太守刘焉。
① The eldest Zhang Jue was an unclassed graduate, who devoted himself to medicine. Oneday… staff. 那张角本是个不第秀才，因入 山采药，遇一老人，碧眼童颜，手执藜杖。②
○试析：They had no connection with the outside world for more than a thousand years,giving them plenty of time to build more than 1000 huge stone figures, called moat, for whichthe island is most famous . 他们已有一千多年与外界没有联系，这给他们充足的时间来修建
1000 多座巨大的石像，被称为城壕，因为有这个东西这个岛屿极其出名。{which (theyhad...years) gave them...figures.}
114分析：
平行句 1：When...troop marched...Zhou Jing.
平行句 2：now five hundred strong=which (the troop) was now...strong.
平行句 3：who presented...Liu Yan=who (Zhou Jing) presented...Liu Yan.
156156156156．FlourishingFlourishingFlourishingFlourishing hishishishis whip,whip,whip,whip, LiuLiuLiuLiu BeiBeiBeiBei beganbeganbeganbegan totototo hurlhurlhurlhurl reproachesreproachesreproachesreproaches atatatat thethethethe rebels,rebels,rebels,rebels,
crying,crying,crying,crying, "O"O"O"O malcontents!malcontents!malcontents!malcontents! WhyWhyWhyWhy notnotnotnot dismountdismountdismountdismount andandandand bebebebe bound?"bound?"bound?"bound?" 玄德扬鞭大
骂：“反国逆贼，何不早降！”
分析：
平行句 1：Liu Bei...rebels.
平行句 2：Flourishing his whip=who (Liu Bei) was Flourishing his whip.
平行句 3：crying, “...bound?”=who (Liu Bei) cried, “...bound?”
157157157157． “WhoWhoWhoWho sayssayssayssays IIII don'tdon'tdon'tdon't,,,,”protestedprotestedprotestedprotested Trinket,Trinket,Trinket,Trinket, leapingleapingleapingleaping totototo hishishishis feetfeetfeetfeet againagainagainagain andandandand
reachingreachingreachingreaching forforforfor thethethethe boy'sboy'sboy'sboy's leftleftleftleft leg.leg.leg.leg. 小宝反驳道，“谁说我不敢，”说着又跳了起
来，去抓那个男孩的右腿。
分析：
平行句 1：“Who says I don't,”protested Trinket.
平行句 2：leaping to his feet again=who (trinket) leaped to his feet again.
平行句 3：reaching for the boy’s left leg=who (Trinket) reached for the boy’s
left leg①.
158158158158．HisHisHisHis eyeseyeseyeseyes wentwentwentwent fromfromfromfrom thatthatthatthat inaccessibleinaccessibleinaccessibleinaccessible gloryglorygloryglory totototo thethethethe villagevillagevillagevillage andandandand irrigatedirrigatedirrigatedirrigated
fields,fields,fields,fields, fastfastfastfast sinkingsinkingsinkingsinking intointointointo thethethethe twilighttwilighttwilighttwilight....
①○试析：“No...Don't kill her! She's probably one of our people,” said the Little Countess,
supporting herself on Trinket’s shoulder, and hopping to the window on her right foot. ■"I say ahorse at a gallop, Tom," returned the guard, leaving his hold of the door, and mounting nimbly tohis place.
分析：
平行句 1：His eyes...the village and irrigated fields.
平行句 2：fast...twilight=which (the village and irrigated field) fast sunk into
twilight①.
159159159159．AAAA foldedfoldedfoldedfolded piecepiecepiecepiece ofofofof paperpaperpaperpaper inininin oneoneoneone ofofofof themthemthemthem attractingattractingattractingattracting mymymymy attention,attention,attention,attention, IIII openedopenedopenedopened itititit
andandandand foundfoundfoundfound itititit totototo bebebebe thethethethe play-billplay-billplay-billplay-bill IIII hadhadhadhad receivedreceivedreceivedreceived fromfromfromfrom Joe,Joe,Joe,Joe, relativerelativerelativerelative totototo thethethethe
celebratedcelebratedcelebratedcelebrated provincialprovincialprovincialprovincial amateuramateuramateuramateur ofofofof RoscianRoscianRoscianRoscian renown.renown.renown.renown.
分析：
平行句 1：A folded piece of paper in one of them attracting my attention=A
folded piece of paper in one of them attracted my attention②.
平行句 2：I opened it.
平行句 3：found it to be the play-bill I had received from Joe.
平行句 4：relative...renown=which (play-bill) was relative...Joe.
160160160160．ThereThereThereThere hehehehe sits,sits,sits,sits, thethethethe sunsunsunsun goinggoinggoinggoing down,down,down,down, thethethethe riverriverriverriver runningrunningrunningrunning fast,fast,fast,fast, thethethethe crowdcrowdcrowdcrowd
flowingflowingflowingflowing bybybyby himhimhimhim inininin twotwotwotwo streams--everythingstreams--everythingstreams--everythingstreams--everything movingmovingmovingmoving onononon totototo somesomesomesome purposepurposepurposepurpose andandandand
totototo oneoneoneone end--untilend--untilend--untilend--until hehehehe isisisis toldtoldtoldtold totototo "move"move"move"move on"on"on"on" too.too.too.too.
分析：
平行句 1：There he sits until he is told to “move on”too.
平行句 2：the sun going down.
①○试析：We were saying how that the mist rose with a change of wind from a certain quarter
of our marshes, when we came upon a man, slouching under the lee of the turnpike house. ■
Pipeline canals cut into the marshes have brought in saltwater, killing vegetation. ■“Now this isthe thing!” cried he, pouring out a glass of the same in a long stream, skilfully directed from thejug to the tumbler, so as to produce much foam without spilling a drop.②
因为平行句 1 和 2 有关联，又因其谓语的“时”和句 2 的时一致，所以采用了省略形式。
显然如果平行句 1 采用完整形式，那么平行句 1 和 2 之间需要一个联词 and。
116平行句 3：the river running fast.
平行句 4：the crowd flowing by him in two streams①.
平行句 5：everything moving on to some purpose and to one end②.
161161161161．ItItItIt waswaswaswas knownknownknownknown thatthatthatthat sheshesheshe waswaswaswas anananan EnglishEnglishEnglishEnglish ladyladyladylady whowhowhowho hadhadhadhad metmetmetmet Mr.Mr.Mr.Mr. DouglasDouglasDouglasDouglas inininin
London,London,London,London, hehehehe bbbbeeeeinginginging atatatat thatthatthatthat timetimetimetime aaaa widower.widower.widower.widower.
分析：
平行句 1：It was...London.
平行句 2：he being at that time a windower.
162162162162．WhenWhenWhenWhen wewewewe camecamecamecame totototo thethethethe river-sideriver-sideriver-sideriver-side andandandand satsatsatsat downdowndowndown onononon thethethethe bank,bank,bank,bank, withwithwithwith thethethethe waterwaterwaterwater
ripplingripplingripplingrippling atatatat ourourourour feet,feet,feet,feet, makingmakingmakingmaking itititit allallallall moremoremoremore quietquietquietquiet thanthanthanthan itititit wouldwouldwouldwould havehavehavehave beenbeenbeenbeen
withoutwithoutwithoutwithout thatthatthatthat sound,sound,sound,sound, IIII resolvedresolvedresolvedresolved thatthatthatthat itititit waswaswaswas aaaa goodgoodgoodgood timetimetimetime andandandand placeplaceplaceplace forforforfor thethethethe
admissionadmissionadmissionadmission ofofofof BiddyBiddyBiddyBiddy intointointointo mymymymy innerinnerinnerinner confidence.confidence.confidence.confidence.
分析：
平行句 1：When we came to the river-side and sat down on the bank, I resolved
that it was...confidence.
平行句 2：with the water rippling at our feet.
平行句 3：making...that sound=which (that the water rippled at our feet) made it
all more quiet...sound.
163163163163．EvenEvenEvenEven WinifredWinifredWinifredWinifred waswaswaswas carriedcarriedcarriedcarried offoffoffoff totototo London,London,London,London, forforforfor aaaa fewfewfewfew daysdaysdaysdays withwithwithwith herherherher sistersistersistersister
Laura.Laura.Laura.Laura.
①平行句 2、3、4 是和 he sits 这个事件对象共同存在，是对环境的描述（即四者之间有所
关联），且谓语的“时”相同，所以采用了省略形式。
○试析：The old man and I were soon alone in the great hall, the afternoon sun gleaming on thered wine in our tall quaint-shaped glasses. ■The day being sultry, and the window open, thelegs of Mr Mould were on the window-seat, and his back reclined against the shutter.②
注意破折号中的句子无论在什么时候都是平行句。
分析：
平行句 1：Even Winifred was carried off to London.
平行句 2：for a few days with her sister Laura=to be with her sister Laura for a
few days=who (Even Winifred) would be with her sister Laura for a
few days.
164164164164．HerHerHerHer sonsonsonson leftleftleftleft herherherher afterafterafterafter dinner,dinner,dinner,dinner, sittingsittingsittingsitting inininin herherherher easyeasyeasyeasy chair,chair,chair,chair, withwithwithwith herherherher handhandhandhand lyinglyinglyinglying
inininin herherherher husband's,husband's,husband's,husband's, whowhowhowho lookedlookedlookedlooked moremoremoremore wornwornwornworn andandandand sufferingsufferingsufferingsuffering thanthanthanthan sheshesheshe bybybyby far.far.far.far.
分析：
平行句 1：Her daughter left her after dinner.
平行句 2：sitting in her easy chair=who (she) sat in her easy chair.
平行句 3：with her hand lying in her husband's.
平行句 4：who looked...far=who (husband) looked...far.
165165165165．ForgettingForgettingForgettingForgetting allallallall herherherher plans,plans,plans,plans, Tess'sTess'sTess'sTess's oneoneoneone dreaddreaddreaddread waswaswaswas lestlestlestlest theytheytheythey shouldshouldshouldshould overtakeovertakeovertakeovertake herherherher
now,now,now,now, inininin herherherher disorganizeddisorganizeddisorganizeddisorganized condition,condition,condition,condition, beforebeforebeforebefore sheshesheshe waswaswaswas preparedpreparedpreparedprepared totototo confrontconfrontconfrontconfront
themthemthemthem....
分析：
平行句 1：Tess's one dread...confront them.
平行句 2：Forgetting all her plans①=who (Tess) forgot all her plans.
166166166166．"Angel,""Angel,""Angel,""Angel," sheshesheshe saidsaidsaidsaid suddenly,suddenly,suddenly,suddenly, inininin herherherher naturalnaturalnaturalnatural tones,tones,tones,tones, thethethethe insane,insane,insane,insane, drydrydrydry voicevoicevoicevoice ofofofof
terrorterrorterrorterror havinghavinghavinghaving leftleftleftleft herherherher now.now.now.now.
平行句 1："Angel," she said suddenly, in her natural tones.
平行句 2：the insane...having left her now= the insane, dry voice of terror had
①这个平行句应该是放在 tess 之后的，但为了句子结构的平衡，所以放到了最前面。
118left her now.
167167167167．TheTheTheThe plantationplantationplantationplantation whereinwhereinwhereinwherein sheshesheshe hadhadhadhad takentakentakentaken sheltersheltersheltershelter ranranranran downdowndowndown atatatat thisthisthisthis spotspotspotspot intointointointo aaaa
peak,peak,peak,peak, whichwhichwhichwhich endedendedendedended itititit hitherward,hitherward,hitherward,hitherward, outsideoutsideoutsideoutside thethethethe hedgehedgehedgehedge beingbeingbeingbeing arablearablearablearable ground.ground.ground.ground.
分析：
平行句 1：The plantation wherein she had taken shelter ran down at this spot into
a peak.
平行句 2：which ended it hitherward=which (peak)...hitherward.
平行句 3：outside the hedge being arable ground.
168168168168．"Ah,"Ah,"Ah,"Ah, yes,"yes,"yes,"yes," hehehehe said,said,said,said, continuing,continuing,continuing,continuing, "it's"it's"it's"it's hardhardhardhard totototo knowknowknowknow whatwhatwhatwhat waywaywayway totototo bringbringbringbring upupupup
children.children.children.children. NowNowNowNow who'dwho'dwho'dwho'd thinkthinkthinkthink he'dhe'dhe'dhe'd turnturnturnturn outoutoutout likelikelikelike that!that!that!that! """"
分析：
平行句 1："Ah, yes," he said.
平行句 2：continuing, "it's hard...he'd turn out like that! "
169169169169．TrinaTrinaTrinaTrina backedbackedbackedbacked sharplysharplysharplysharply awayawayawayaway fromfromfromfrom thethethethe body,body,body,body, drawingdrawingdrawingdrawing herherherher handshandshandshands upupupup totototo herherherher
veryveryveryvery shoulders,shoulders,shoulders,shoulders, herherherher eyeseyeseyeseyes staringstaringstaringstaring andandandand wide,wide,wide,wide, anananan expressionexpressionexpressionexpression ofofofof unutterableunutterableunutterableunutterable
horrorhorrorhorrorhorror twistingtwistingtwistingtwisting herherherher face.face.face.face.
分析：
平行句 1：Trina backed sharply away from the body.
平行句 2：drawing her hands up to her very shoulders.
平行句 3：her eyes staring and wide.
平行句 4：an expression of unutterable horror twisting her face①.
①○试析：He stood for a moment uncertain, his embarrassment returning. ■The men, with the
exception of Old Grannis, began to smoke, the smell of their tobacco mingling with the odors ofether, creosote, and stale bedding, which pervaded the "Parlors." ■The Choctaws were the firstto sign a removal treaty, which they did in September of 1830.
170170170170．WhenWhenWhenWhen AmeliaAmeliaAmeliaAmelia steppedsteppedsteppedstepped forwardforwardforwardforward totototo salutesalutesalutesalute him,him,him,him, whichwhichwhichwhich sheshesheshe alwaysalwaysalwaysalways diddiddiddid withwithwithwith
greatgreatgreatgreat tremblingtremblingtremblingtrembling andandandand timidity,timidity,timidity,timidity, hehehehe gavegavegavegave aaaa surlysurlysurlysurly gruntgruntgruntgrunt ofofofof recognitionrecognitionrecognitionrecognition....
分析：
平行句 1：When Amelia stepped forward to salute him, he gave a surly grunt of
recognition.
平行句 2 ： which she always did with great trembling and timidity=which
(saluted him①) she always did with great trembling and timidity.
171171171171．ItItItIt maymaymaymay rain,rain,rain,rain, inininin whichwhichwhichwhich casecasecasecase thethethethe hikehikehikehike willwillwillwill bebebebe canceled.canceled.canceled.canceled.
分析：
平行句 1：it may rain.
平行句 2：in which case the hike will be canceled=in which② (it rains) case the
hike will be canceled.
172172172172．HisHisHisHis teethteethteethteeth gleamedgleamedgleamedgleamed whitewhitewhitewhite asasasas hehehehe smiledsmiledsmiledsmiled atatatat her,her,her,her, aaaa pleasantpleasantpleasantpleasant friendlyfriendlyfriendlyfriendly smilesmilesmilesmile ofofofof
recognitionrecognitionrecognitionrecognition....
分析：
平行句 1：His teeth gleamed white as he smiled at her.
平行句 2： a pleasant friendly smile of recognition=which (the smile) was a
pleasant friendly smile of recognition③.
①注意这里的 which 具有特殊性，因为其代表的是 saluted him，且在后面的句子中作谓语
和宾语。
○试析：He cultivated a weather-beaten complexion, and was particularly proud when the skin"peeled" on his nose, which it usually did in the summer-time, during his visits to his home in theextreme north. ■The first labour was to kill the Nemean lion, which he did with his bare hands.■The owner of the paint store also contacted the manufacturers of the paint and asked them tomatch her discount, which they did.②
注意这里的 which 也具有特殊性。可以理解为 case is which 而这个句子采用了省略形式，
且 which 提到了 case 之前。③
也可以这样理解，平 1：His teeth gleamed white as he smiled at her. 平 2：the smile was a
120173173173173．AndAndAndAnd afterafterafterafter aaaa fewfewfewfew furtherfurtherfurtherfurther wordswordswordswords theytheytheythey partedpartedpartedparted,,,, thethethethe reddlemanreddlemanreddlemanreddleman movingmovingmovingmoving
onwardsonwardsonwardsonwards withwithwithwith hishishishis vanvanvanvan,,,, andandandand thethethethe twotwotwotwo womenwomenwomenwomen remainingremainingremainingremaining standingstandingstandingstanding inininin thethethethe road.road.road.road.
分析：
平行句 1：And after a few further words they parted.
平行句 2：the reddleman moving onwards with his van.
平行句 3：and the two women remaining standing in the road.
174174174174．Soldiers,Soldiers,Soldiers,Soldiers, emergencyemergencyemergencyemergency workersworkersworkersworkers andandandand volunteersvolunteersvolunteersvolunteers dresseddresseddresseddressed inininin aaaa rangerangerangerange ofofofof
mud-splatteredmud-splatteredmud-splatteredmud-splattered protectiveprotectiveprotectiveprotective geargeargeargear keptkeptkeptkept shovelingshovelingshovelingshoveling outoutoutout thethethethe muckmuckmuckmuck Thursday,Thursday,Thursday,Thursday, aaaa
processprocessprocessprocess thatthatthatthat oneoneoneone officialofficialofficialofficial saidsaidsaidsaid couldcouldcouldcould taketaketaketake months.months.months.months.
分析：
平行句 1：Soldiers...shoveling out the muck Thursday.
平行句 2：a process...months=which (shoverling out the muck) was a process
that one official said could take months.
175175175175．WheneverWheneverWheneverWhenever IIII metmetmetmet her,her,her,her, whichwhichwhichwhich waswaswaswas fairlyfairlyfairlyfairly often,often,often,often, sheshesheshe greetedgreetedgreetedgreeted memememe withwithwithwith aaaa sweetsweetsweetsweet
smile.smile.smile.smile.
分析：
平行句 1：Whenever I met her, she greeted me with a sweet smile.
平行句 2：which was fairly often=which (that I met her) was fairly often.
176176176176．"I'm"I'm"I'm"I'm notnotnotnot afraid,"afraid,"afraid,"afraid," sheshesheshe answered,answered,answered,answered, withwithwithwith aaaa smile,smile,smile,smile, slippingslippingslippingslipping downdowndowndown herselfherselfherselfherself intointointointo aaaa
chair,chair,chair,chair, besidebesidebesidebeside which,which,which,which, onononon thethethethe floor,floor,floor,floor, stoodstoodstoodstood aaaa sewing-basketsewing-basketsewing-basketsewing-basket fromfromfromfrom which,which,which,which,
DaylightDaylightDaylightDaylight noted,noted,noted,noted, somesomesomesome whitewhitewhitewhite fluffyfluffyfluffyfluffy thingthingthingthing ofofofof lacelacelacelace andandandand muslinmuslinmuslinmuslin overflowed.overflowed.overflowed.overflowed.
分析：
pleasant friendly smile of recognition. {因为 the smile 属于可推知信息，所以省略了}
平行句 1："I'm not afraid," she answered, with a smile.
平行句 2：slipping down herself into a chair
平行句 3：beside...overflowed.
177177177177．HisHisHisHis jacketjacketjacketjacket hunghunghunghung overoveroverover thethethethe backbackbackback ofofofof aaaa wrought-ironwrought-ironwrought-ironwrought-iron chair,chair,chair,chair, thethethethe majormajormajormajor waswaswaswas
cleaningcleaningcleaningcleaning hishishishis gun,gun,gun,gun, grossgrossgrossgross fingersfingersfingersfingers dexterouslydexterouslydexterouslydexterously handlinghandlinghandlinghandling pins,pins,pins,pins, springsspringsspringssprings andandandand rag.rag.rag.rag.
分析：
平行句 1：the major was cleaning his gun.
平行句 2：His jacket hung over the back of a wrought-iron chair.
平行句 3：gross fingers dexterously handling pins, springs and rag.
178178178178．ToToToTo thethethethe left,left,left,left, totototo thethethethe rightrightrightright theytheytheythey dodged,dodged,dodged,dodged, thethethethe chairchairchairchair rockingrockingrockingrocking madlymadlymadlymadly betweenbetweenbetweenbetween
them,them,them,them, sheshesheshe sendingsendingsendingsending outoutoutout shriekshriekshriekshriek afterafterafterafter shriekshriekshriekshriek atatatat everyeveryeveryevery feint,feint,feint,feint, andandandand hehehehe growlinggrowlinggrowlinggrowling
meaninglessmeaninglessmeaninglessmeaningless cursescursescursescurses throughthroughthroughthrough hishishishis hardhardhardhard setsetsetset teethteethteethteeth....
分析：
平行句 1：To the left, to the right they dodged.
平行句 2：the chair rocking madly between them.
平行句 3：she sending out shriek after shriek at every feint.
平行句 4：he growling meaningless curses through his hard set teeth.
179179179179．BabalatchiBabalatchiBabalatchiBabalatchi turned,turned,turned,turned, atatatat timestimestimestimes dozingdozingdozingdozing offoffoffoff andandandand swayingswayingswayingswaying over,over,over,over, thenthenthenthen catchingcatchingcatchingcatching
himselfhimselfhimselfhimself upupupup inininin aaaa greatgreatgreatgreat frightfrightfrightfright withwithwithwith aaaa fewfewfewfew quickquickquickquick turnsturnsturnsturns ofofofof thethethethe handle.handle.handle.handle.
分析：
平行句 1：Babalatchi turned.
平行句 2：at times dozing off.
平行句 3：at times swaying over.
122平行句 4：then catching himself up in a great fright with a few quick turns of
the handle.
180180180180．TheTheTheThe newnewnewnew boyboyboyboy wentwentwentwent offoffoffoff brushingbrushingbrushingbrushing thethethethe dustdustdustdust fromfromfromfrom hishishishis clothes,clothes,clothes,clothes, sobbing,sobbing,sobbing,sobbing,
snuffling,snuffling,snuffling,snuffling, andandandand occasionallyoccasionallyoccasionallyoccasionally lookinglookinglookinglooking backbackbackback andandandand shakingshakingshakingshaking hishishishis headheadheadhead andandandand
threateningthreateningthreateningthreatening whatwhatwhatwhat hehehehe wouldwouldwouldwould dodododo totototo TomTomTomTom thethethethe "next"next"next"next timetimetimetime hehehehe caughtcaughtcaughtcaught himhimhimhim out."out."out."out."
ToToToTo whichwhichwhichwhich TomTomTomTom respondedrespondedrespondedresponded withwithwithwith jeers,jeers,jeers,jeers, andandandand startedstartedstartedstarted offoffoffoff inininin highhighhighhigh feather,feather,feather,feather, andandandand asasasas
soonsoonsoonsoon asasasas hishishishis backbackbackback waswaswaswas turnedturnedturnedturned thethethethe newnewnewnew boyboyboyboy snatchedsnatchedsnatchedsnatched upupupup aaaa stone,stone,stone,stone, threwthrewthrewthrew itititit andandandand
hithithithit himhimhimhim betweenbetweenbetweenbetween thethethethe shouldersshouldersshouldersshoulders andandandand thenthenthenthen turnedturnedturnedturned tailtailtailtail andandandand ranranranran likelikelikelike anananan
antelope.antelope.antelope.antelope.
分析：{To which (the threat). *从前面的句子中我们可以推测出 which 代替的是
the threat.①}
181181181181．OfOfOfOf thethethethe energyenergyenergyenergy thatthatthatthat reachesreachesreachesreaches thethethethe lowerlowerlowerlower atmosphereatmosphereatmosphereatmosphere， 30%30%30%30% isisisis reflectedreflectedreflectedreflected bybybyby
cloudscloudscloudsclouds orororor thethethethe EarthEarthEarthEarth’ssss surface.surface.surface.surface. 在到达低层大气的能量中，有 30%30%30%30%的能量
被云层或地球的表面所反射。
分析：{限：which (30%) is of...atmosphere. *这个限定句应该放在 30%的后面，
但这样主句的主语就会显得太长，造成结构上的不平衡，所以将这一部
分前置了。②}
①○试析：These two causes made him answer in a very low and hesitating voice; whereupon a
gentleman in a white waistcoat said he was a fool. Which was a capital way of raising his spirits,and putting him quite at his ease.■“Oh! how ugly she is!” Which offended her so much that shesaid to the guards: “Make haste and kill all these insolent peacocks who have dared to insult me.”■And next, people begun to yell: "Tom Sawyer! Tom Sawyer! Shut up everybody, and let himgo on! Go on, Tom Sawyer!" Which made him feel uncommon bully, for it was nuts for TomSawyer to be a public character that-away, and a hero, as he calls it.②
○试析：Mostly borrowed from English and Chinese, these terms are often changed into formsno longer understood by nativespeakers. 这些术语，主要从英语和汉语引入，经常会变成不
再被说本族语的人们理解的形式。{平：which (terms) are mostly...Chinese} ■As the only girlin a family of seven children，she often felt like she had “seven fathers” because her sixbrothers，as well as her father，tried to control her. 作为家庭七个孩子中唯一的女孩，她常常
182182182182．RisingRisingRisingRising throughthroughthroughthrough thethethethe roofroofroofroof isisisis thethethethe TowerTowerTowerTower ofofofof thethethethe Sun,Sun,Sun,Sun, insideinsideinsideinside wwwwhichhichhichhich standsstandsstandsstands aaaa
160160160160----footfootfootfoot----talltalltalltall TreeTreeTreeTree ofofofof Life.Life.Life.Life. 穿过屋顶矗立着太阳之塔，在里面有一棵 160160160160
英尺高的生命之树。
分析：{平 1：Rising... Sun. 平 2：inside which (Tower of the Sun) stands...Life. *
为使平 2 和平 1 中的相关成分 Tower of the Sun 联系更紧密，所以平 1 采
用了倒装语序，而平 2 的主语相对较长所以也采用了倒装语序}
183183183183．HeHeHeHe establishedestablishedestablishedestablished thirty-sixthirty-sixthirty-sixthirty-six circuits,circuits,circuits,circuits, thethethethe largerlargerlargerlarger withwithwithwith tentententen thousandthousandthousandthousand orororor moremoremoremore
members,members,members,members, thethethethe smallersmallersmallersmaller withwithwithwith aboutaboutaboutabout halfhalfhalfhalf thatthatthatthat number.number.number.number. 角乃立三十六方，大方
万 余人，小方六七千。
分析：
平行句 1：He established thirty-six circuits.
平行句 2： the larger...members=the larger circuit being with...members=the
larger circuit was with...members.
平行句 3： the smaller...number=the smaller circuit being with...number=the
smaller circuit was with...number①.
有一种感觉，就是她拥有“七个父亲”，原 因是她的六个兄弟和她的父亲都想控制她。{平：
which (she) was as...children.} ■First put forward by the French mathematician Pierre deFormat in theseventeenth century, the theorem had baffled and beaten the finest mathematicalminds, including a French woman scientist who made a major advance in working out theproblem, and who had to dress like a man in order to be able to study at the Ecolabpolytechnique. 这个定理，先是由十七世纪法国数学家皮尔法特提出，曾使一批杰出的数学
大师为难，包括一位法国女科学家，她在解决这个难题方面取得了重大的进展， 她曾女
扮男装为了能够在伊科尔理工学院学习。①
平行句 2、3 都是对平行句 1 中的对象 cirucut 进行补充说明，采用了省略形式。
124○试析：■He is going to make a model plane, some old parts to help.■All that night we were in a great bustle getting things stowed in their place, and boatfuls of thesquire's friends, Mr. Blandly and the like, coming off to wish him a good voyage and a safereturn.■To me he was unweariedly kind, and always glad to see me in the galley, which he kept as cleanas a new pin, the dishes hanging up burnished and his parrot in a cage in one corner.■On arrival, Trinket found the Ho Garden to be the very picture of the old'style gentleman'spleasure'garden, laid out with the most delightful pavilions and walkways, quaint little nooks andexquisitely conceived vistas, interspersed with ornamental rocks in all sorts of fascinating shapesand sizes, the whole ensemble enlivened with the gurgling waters of spring and pond.■A crowd has gathered around them on the steps of the local bakery, young boys and oldtribesmen gawking to see what the fuss is about.■He found himself looking into the face of a remarkably pretty girl, fourteen or fifteen years old,her tresses neatly plaited at both temples.■After a while, the Dhuta deposited them on the ground, and pointed to a towering mountainahead of them, its peak lost in a vista of foggy cloud.■We redoubled our efforts, each man working like two.■The people were sent off in bands, each band between two parties of soldiers, who drove themtorward Changan.■Close to the bank I saw deep pools, the water blue like the sky.■I couldn't help grieving as I looked down at the little boy, his sad, lifeless eyes staring up at me.■He told me I had my elder brother for an example, to whom he had used the same earnestpersuasions to keep him from going into the Low Country wars, but could not prevail, his youngdesires prompting him to run into the army, where he was killed.■They said good-bye to each other, one to go home, the other to go to the bookstore.■The plan was that the two parties should first reach an agreement on the basic principle, thedetails to be worked out later.■Ten students entered for the competition, the youngest a boy of 12.■An air accident happened to the plane, nobody alive.■His voice trembling and his eyes roving, he started to speak.■In 2003, the country took responsibility for the 1988 Lockerbie bombing, which claimed 270lives, mostly American.■He now reveals that Rich kept Israel alive through boycotts by supplying the country with oil,much of it from its archenemies in Iran.■Often I have heard the house shaking with "Yo-ho-ho, and a bottle of rum," all the neighboursjoining in for dear life, with the fear of death upon them, and each singing louder than the otherto avoid remark.■One of the cocks of his hat having fallen down, he let it hang from that day forth, though it wasa great annoyance when it blew.■The four of us agreed on a division of labour, each to translate a quarter of the book.So they stood, each with a foot placed at an angle as a brace, and both shoving with might andmain, and glowering at each other with hate.■"Set her back on the stabboard! Ting-a-ling-ling! Chow! ch-chow-wow! Chow!" His right hand,meantime, describing stately circles--for it was representing a forty-foot wheel.■Whiskers brought another down with a devastating kick from his right foot, the victim cursingand howling in a pool of blood.■Here are the first two volumes，the third one to come out next month．■We finished the hearty meal quickly, our appetites satisfied, our minds at peace.■Budi finished his test confidently, his right hand sore from having written so much, but hismind relieved that it was finally over.■Over the seat of the chair Tess's face was bowed, her posture being a kneeling one in front of it.
■The journey over the intervening uplands and lowlands of Egdon, when she reached them, wasa more troublesome walk than she had anticipated, the distance being actually but a few miles.
■When it came chugging up, they’d gallop alongside it, the passengers leaningout and waving and the engineer sounding the whistle until the train inevitably pulledahead.
■■■■I remember him as if it were yesterday, as he came plodding to the inn door, hissea-chest following behind him in a handbarrow①; a tall, strong, heavy, nut-brownman②; his tarry pigtail falling over the shoulders of his soiled blue coat③; his handsragged and scarred, with black, broken nails; and the sabre cut across one cheek, adirty, livid white④. I remember him looking round the cove and whistling to himselfas he did so, and then breaking out in that old sea-song that he sang so oftenafterwards:-
'Fifteen men on the dead man's chest-Yo-ho-ho, and a bottle of rum!'
in the high, old tottering voice that seemed to have been tuned and broken at thecapstan bars. Then he rapped on the door with a bit of stick like a handspike that hecarried, and when my father appeared, called roughly for a glass of rum. This⑤, whenit was brought to him, he drank slowly, like a connoisseur, lingering on the taste, andstill looking about him at the cliffs and up at our signboard.
我回想起他恍惚就在昨天，当他步履沉重地来到旅店门口时，他的航海用
的大木箱搁在他身后的双轮手推车上。这是个高大。强壮、魁梧、有着栗色皮
肤的人，粘乎乎的辫子耷拉在脏兮兮的蓝外套的肩部，粗糙的手上疤痕累累，
指甲乌青而残缺不全，一道肮脏的铅灰色刀疤横贯一侧面颊。我记得他一面环
顾着小海湾，一面径自吹着口哨，接着嘴里突然冒出了那支水手老调，日后他
也经常地唱：
十五个汉子扒上了死人胸——哟——嗬——嗬，
再来郎姆酒一大瓶！
① his sea-chest followed behind him in a handbarrow.② =he was a tall...man. 因为 he 和 was 属于可推知信息，所以省略。③ his tarry pigtail falling...coat=his tarry pigtail fell...coat. 我们看到分号连结的平行句也可以
采用省略形式。④ the sabre cut was across one cheek. *cheek was a dirty, livid white.⑤ This (rum) 是 drank 的宾语，但为承上启下，所以将其提前了。
126那高亢、苍老、颤动的嗓音仿佛汇入了绞盘机起锚时众人合唱出的破调门。
接着，他用一根自带的像铁头手杖似的木棍子重重地敲门。当我父亲出来后，
他又粗声大气地要来杯郎姆酒。酒送到后，他慢慢地啜饮，像个鉴定家似的，
一面细细地品味，一面还继续打量着四周的峭壁，抬头审视我们的招牌。
■There was no possibility of taking a walk that day. We had been wandering,indeed, in the leafless shrubbery an hour in the morning; but since dinner (Mrs. Reed,when there was no company, dined early) the cold winter wind had brought with it①
clouds so sombre, and a rain so penetrating, that further outdoor exercise was nowout of the question. I was glad of it: I never liked long walks, especially on chillyafternoons: dreadful to me was the coming home in the raw twilight, with nippedfingers and toes, and a heart saddened by the chidings of Bessie, the nurse, andhumbled by the consciousness of my physical inferiority to Eliza, John, andGeorgiana Reed. The said Eliza, John, and Georgiana were now clustered round theirmama in the drawing-room: she lay reclined on a sofa by the fireside, and with herdarlings about her (for the time neither quarrelling nor crying) looked perfectlyhappy.
那天，出去散步是不可能了。其实，早上我们还在光秃秃的灌木林中溜达
了一个小时，但从午饭时起（无客造访时，里德太太很早就用午饭）便刮起了
冬日凛冽的寒风，随后阴云密布，大雨滂沱，室外的活动也就只能作罢了。
我倒是求之不得。我向来不喜欢远距离散步，尤其在冷飕飕的下午。试想，
阴冷的薄暮时分回得家来，手脚都冻僵了，还要受到保姆贝茵的数落，又自觉
体格不如伊丽莎、约翰和乔治亚娜，心里既难过又惭愧，那情形委实可怕。
此时此刻，刚才提到的伊丽莎、约翰和乔治亚娜都在客厅里，簇拥着他们
的妈妈。她则斜倚在炉边的沙发上，身旁坐着自己的小宝贝们（眼下既未争吵
也未哭叫），一副安享天伦之乐的神态。
■The village of Marlott lay amid the north-eastern undulations of the beautifulVale of Blakemore or Blackmoor aforesaid, an engirdled and secluded region, for the
①因为 brought 的宾语很长，所以为使句子结构紧凑，将 with it 提到了前面。
most part untrodden as yet by tourist or landscape-painter, though within a four hours'journey from London.
It is a vale whose acquaintance is best made by viewing it from the summits ofthe hills that surround it - except perhaps during the droughts of summer. Anunguided ramble into its recesses in bad weather is apt to engender dissatisfactionwith its narrow, tortuous, and miry ways.
在前面说过的美丽的布莱克莫尔谷或者叫做黑荒原谷东北部起伏不平的谷
地中间，坐落着马洛特村。布莱克莫尔谷四周环山，是一片幽僻的区域，虽然
离伦敦只有不到四个小时的路程，但是直到现在它的大部分地区都还不曾有过
旅游者或风景画家的足迹。
从环绕在谷地周围的山峦的顶上往下看，这个山谷可以看得最清楚——不
过也许夏天的干旱天气要除开不算。天气不好的时候，没有向导带路而独自漫
游到谷内幽深之处的人，容易对蜿蜒其间的狭窄的泥泞小道产生不满情绪。
■This fertile and sheltered tract of country, in which the fields are never brownand the springs never dry, is bounded on the south by the bold chalk ridge thatembraces the prominences of Hambledon Hill, Bulbarrow, Nettlecombe-Tout,Dogbury, High Stoy, and Bubb Down. The traveller from the coast, who, afterplodding northward for a score of miles over calcareous downs and corn-lands,suddenly reaches the verge of one of these escarpments, is surprised and delighted tobehold, extended like a map beneath him①, a country differing absolutely from thatwhich he has passed through. Behind him the hills are open, the sun blazes downupon fields so large as to give an unenclosed character to the landscape, the lanes arewhite, the hedges low and plashed, the atmosphere colourless. Here, in the valley, theworld seems to be constructed upon a smaller and more delicate scale; the fields aremere paddocks, so reduced that from this height their hedgerows appear a network ofdark green threads overspreading the paler green of the grass. The atmospherebeneath is languorous, and is so tinged with azure that what artists call the middledistance partakes also of that hue, while the horizon beyond is of the deepest
① which (country) was extended like a map beneath him. *因为后面还有一个限定句限定
country 这个对象，所以为使下面一个限定句更接近 country, 将这个限定句的位置提前了
（同时也避免了将 map 看成是被限定的对象）。
128ultramarine. Arable lands arc few and limited; with but slight exceptions① theprospect is a broad rich mass of grass and trees, mantling minor hills and dales withinthe major. Such is the Vale of Blackmoor.
这是一片远离尘嚣的肥沃原野，泉水从不干涸，土地永不枯黄，一道陡峭
的石灰岩山岭在南边形成界线，把汉伯顿山、野牛坟、荨麻岗、道格伯利堡、
上斯托利高地和巴布草原环绕其问。那个从海岸走来的游客，向北面跋涉了二
十几英里的路程，才走完白垩质的草原和麦地。他突然走到一处悬崖的山脊上，
看见一片田野就像一幅地图铺展在下面，同他刚才走过的地方决然不同、不禁
又惊又喜。在他的身后，山峦尽收眼底，太阳照耀着广阔的田野，为那片风景
增添了气势恢弘的特点，小路是白色的，低矮的树篱的枝条纠结在一起，大气
也是清澈透明的。就在下面的山谷里，世界似乎是按照较小的但是更为精巧的
规模建造的；田地只是一些围场，从高处看去，它们缩小了，所以上面的树篱
就好像是用深绿色的线织成的网，铺展在浅绿色的草地上。下面的大气是宁静
的，染上了一层浅蓝，甚至连被艺术家称作中景的部分，也染上了那种颜色，
但是远方的地平线染上的却是浓重的深蓝。这儿的耕地很少，面积不大；这儿
的景物除了很少的例外，只见那些广阔的生长茂盛的大片草地和树木覆盖着大
山中间的山峦和小谷。黑荒原谷就是这种风光。
■It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of agood fortune must be in want of a wife. However little known the feelings or views ofsuch a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed inthe minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered as the rightful property ofsome one or other of their daughters.
"My dear Mr. Bennet," said his lady to him one day②, "have you heard thatNetherfield Park is let at last?"
Mr. Bennet replied that he had not.
①如果将 with but slight exceptions 放在 the prospect...major 后其表达的意思就会跟
mantling...major 联系在一起。所以将其放到了句首，以使其意思和 the prospect...major 这个
整体的意思联系在一起。② One day 前面省略了介词 on。按照习惯一些常用的时间、地点对象前的介词常省略。
"But it is," returned she; "for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told me allabout it."
Mr. Bennet made no answer."Do not you want to know who has taken it?" cried his wife impatiently."You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it."This was invitation enough.
凡是有钱的单身汉，总想娶位太太，这已经成了一条举世公认的真理。这
样的单身汉，每逢新搬到一个地方，四邻八舍虽然完全不了解他的性情如何，
见解如何，可是，既然这样的一条真理早已在人们心目中根深蒂固，因此人们
总是把他看作自己某一个女儿理所应得的一笔财产。
有一天班纳特太太对她的丈夫说：“我的好老爷，尼日斐花园终于租出去
了，你听说过没有？”
班纳特先生回答道，他没有听说过。
“的确租出去了，”她说，“朗格太太刚刚上这儿来过，她把这件事的底
细，一五一十地告诉了我。”
班纳特先生没有理睬她。
“你难道不想知道是谁租去的吗？”太太不耐烦地嚷起来了。
“既是你要说给我听，我听听也无妨。”
这句话足够鼓励她讲下去了。
■There was a steaming mist in all the hollows, and it hat roamed in itsforlornness up the hill, like an evil spirit, seeking rest and finding none. A clammyand intensely cold mist, made its slow way through the air in ripples that visiblyfollowed and overspread one another, as the waves of an unwholesome sea might do.It was dense enough to shut out everything from the light of the coach-lamps butthese its own workings and a few yards of road; and the reek of the labouring horsesteamed into it, as if they had made it all.
四面的山洼雾气氤氲，凄凉地往山顶涌动，仿佛是个邪恶的精灵，在寻找歇脚
之地，却没有找到。那雾粘乎乎的，冰寒彻骨，缓缓地在空中波浪式地翻滚，
130一浪一浪，清晰可见，然后宛如污浊的海涛，彼此渗诱，融合成了一片。雾
很浓，车灯只照得见翻卷的雾和几码之内的路，此外什么也照不出。劳作着的
马匹发出的臭气也蒸腾进雾里，仿佛所有的雾都是从它们身上散发出来的。
第第第第五五五五章章章章 简单句的复合简单句的复合简单句的复合简单句的复合
英语是一门简洁的语言，只有我们先前提到的五种基本简单句句型，且相
关联的简单句可以复合，在复合过程中还可以根据情况进行省略①。
第一节第一节第一节第一节 平行简单句的复合平行简单句的复合平行简单句的复合平行简单句的复合
平行简单句的复合：地位平等、意思相互不受影响（即去掉其中的一个另
一个简单句的意思没有变化）的简单句称为平行简单句②，一般用句号分开，但
当关系较紧密或句式相同时可以用平行联结词(and)、分号、括号、破折号联结
起来，如：
1. I am a teacher. 我是个老师。
2. He is a student. 他是个学生。
可以把这两个句式相同的简单句用分号或者 and 连接起来，即：I am a teacher; he
is a student. 或：I am a teacher and he is a student.
按照英语的习惯，如果两个平行句③有相同的对象
④，可以把他们复合起来
形成一个复合句。复合规则如下：
★1）用 which(代替第二个句中的相同的事物对象)、 who（代替相同的人物对
象）或 whom（代替相同的人物宾语对象）代替重复的对象，放在第二个平行句
①简单句与简单句的复合规则，简单句与简单句的复合省略规则、及存在于复合、省略中
的一些特例，同样适用于复合句与简单句的复合或复合句与复合句的复合。②
☆在以后的学习中你会发现，当两平行句所描述的事件对象处于同一时空时，在意义上
平行句也会起限定作用。
前面我们也提到了平行句，主句，限定句的概念，但这里的关于平行句的定义好像和
前面不一样，但通过进一步学习你会发现，其实两者所讲的实质是一样的，只是表达方式
不同罢了。③
■因为下面的复合规则适用于以下情况，1）两平行简单句的复合；2）两平行复合句的
复合；3）一个平行简单句与一个平行复合句的复合，所以为写作方便，作者将平行简单
句或平行复合句都称作平行句。④
注意这个相同对象可以是第一个平行句本身。
132的前面，并在第二个平行句前后加上逗号。（注：要是代替词是第二个句子
的介宾，介词可以提到句子的最前面，即形成：介词+whom/which+第二个句子
的其它部分的形式）
★2）再将第二个平行句①置于第一个平行句的相同对象之后。
如: The cat is eating meat and the cat is white. 这只猫在吃肉，它是白色的。
当在说话者所处的语境中，只有这只猫时②，原句可以复合形成：
（1）The cat, which is white, is eating meat. 或者(2）The cat, which is eating meat, is
white. 这两个复合句的意思和原来用 and 连结起来的两个简单句所表达的意思
是一样的③。
下面我们通过分析一些例子，加深对平行简单句复合这一概念的理解。
1.1.1.1. TomTomTomTom,,,, whowhowhowho lovesloveslovesloves ChinaChinaChinaChina,,,, isisisis aaaa teacher.teacher.teacher.teacher. 汤姆是个老师，他喜欢中国。
分析：Tom is a teacher④和 Tom loves China 这两个句子去掉其中的任何一个显然
不会影响另一个的意思，因而它们是平行简单句，又因两者有一个相同的对象
（人物对象 Tom），所以按照平行简单句的复合规则可以用 who 代替第二个简单
句的 Tom，将两个句子复合起来，形成一个复合句：TomTomTomTom,,,, whowhowhowho lovesloveslovesloves ChinaChinaChinaChina,,,, isisisis aaaa
teacher.teacher.teacher.teacher. （也可以复合成：Tom,Tom,Tom,Tom, whowhowhowho isisisis aaaa teacher,teacher,teacher,teacher, lovesloveslovesloves China.China.China.China. 两者表达的意思
是一样的）再来看几个相似的例子：
� Betty, who is pretty, is singing. 贝蒂在唱歌，她很漂亮。
（who 代替了 Betty 这个人物对象。注：Betty...singing 和 Betty, who is singing,
is pretty 所表达的意思是一样的）
①注意要连同其前后两个逗号。逗号在口语中以短暂停顿体现。
②当不是唯一的时，复合时，应该采用限定句的形式，这在后面会讲到。
③但着重点有所不同，这里暂不讨论。
④正式的写法应该为“Tom is a teacher.”，但为写作方便，引号和句子后面的句号省略了，
以后的分析中也是如此请注意。
� I like Dawn, who is an American. 我喜欢潼恩，她是个美国人。
（who 代替了 Dawn 这个人物对象。）（也可以复合成：Dawn, whom I like, is an
American. 其与 I...American 所表达的意思也是一样的）
� Edith, who is in New York, is a writer. 伊蒂丝是一个作家，她在纽约。
（who 代替了 Edith 这个人物对象；介词 in 指出了对象 Edith 与其所处地对
象 New York 之间的空间位置关系。注：Edith...writer 和 Edith, who is a writer,
is in New York 所表达的意思是一样的）
2.2.2.2. TheTheTheThe catcatcatcat,,,, whichwhichwhichwhich IIII lovelovelovelove,,,, isisisis smallsmallsmallsmall.... 这只小猫很小，我喜欢它。
分析：The cat is small 和 I love the cat 是两个平行简单句，复合后 which 代替了
cat 这个相同的动物对象，且其位置提到了第二个平行简单句的最前面。再来看
几个相似的例子：
� The book, which is thin, is of Tom. 这本书是汤姆的，很薄。
（注：The book is of Tom 和 The book is thin 是两个平行简单句；which 代替
了相同的事物对象 book；介词 of 指出了事物对象 book 与其所有者对象之间
的关系）
� The stone, which is like a football, is on the floor. 这块石头在地上，像个足球。
（The stone is on the floor 和 The stone is like a football 是两个平行简单句，复
合后 which 代替了相同的事物对象 stone；介词 like 指出了对象 stone 与其相
似事物对象 football 之间的关系；英语中的介词不多，但每个介词所能表示
的对象之间的关系却比较多，要掌握好介词就要在平时多分析、多积累）
3.3.3.3. Jim,Jim,Jim,Jim, whomwhomwhomwhom IIII hate,hate,hate,hate, isisisis ugly.ugly.ugly.ugly. 吉姆很丑，我讨厌他。
分析：Jim is ugly 和 I hate Jim 是两个平行简单句，当两者复合时，因为 Jim 在
第二个简单句中是动宾所以用 whom 代替了相同的人物对象 Jim。
1344.4.4.4. HeHeHeHe hateshateshateshates memememe,,,, whichwhichwhichwhich upsetsupsetsupsetsupsets memememe①.... 他讨厌我，这使我心烦
②③。
分析：He hates me 和 That he hates me upsets me {（that 就像动词不定式中的 to
一样是一个功能符号，没有实际意义，其作用是指出紧跟其后的句子是一个整
体（即事件对象），作名词性成分）}是两个平行简单句，复合后 which 代替了
he hates me 这个事件对象。再看几个相似的例子：
� He likes reading, which delights the teacher. 他喜欢阅读，这使老师非常高兴。
(which代替了事件对象He likes reading; 另注意 reading是动作 read的名词形
式，是一个动作事件对象)
� David was the winner, which disappointed her. 大卫是胜利者，这使得她很失
落。
(which 代替了事件对象 David was the winner)
① (2009 全国 II) My friend showed me round the town, ______ was very kind of him.●A. which B. that C. where D. it②
☆You always work hard，as /which everyone knows．大家都知道，你一向勤奋学习。注
意当将第二个平行句置于句首时，按照习惯只能用 as。③
☆注意 which 在这两个句子中的扩展用法：Mike's brother is a policeman，which he isn't．迈克的哥哥是警察，他可不是。Li Ling is very clever，which Li Long isn't．李玲很聪明，李
珑可不是。（注意为避免重复 which 代替了 very clever 这两个单词）。
第二节第二节第二节第二节 主简单句与限定简单句的复合主简单句与限定简单句的复合主简单句与限定简单句的复合主简单句与限定简单句的复合
主简单句与限定简单句的复合：限定简单句是用来说明、限制主简单句中
的某一对象（或主简单句本身）的句子①，如：
The book which is on the desk is black. 桌子上的这本书是黑色的。
在这个复合句中，我们称“The book is black.”是一个主简单句，称“which is on the
desk.”是一个限定简单句（which 代替 book 这个对象。注意限定简单句与其限定
的对象间没有逗号）。这两个简单句有一个相同的对象 book, 限定简单句是用来
限制主简单句中 book 这个对象的。一般来说，限定简单句不能被省略掉，因为
省略之后限定简单句先前说明、限制的主简单句中的对象就会变得不明确。以
刚讨论过的句子为例，如果将 which is on the desk 这个限定简单句省略的话，那
么这个句子会变成 “The book is black. 书是黑色的。” 显然其与先前句子表达的
意思是不一样的②。
①限定句限定的对象一定是一个不确定的对象（感觉有点像废话，要是一个确定的对象，
那还用限定吗？）②
你可能会问：（1）The book which is on the desk is black.（桌子上的这本书是黑色的） 和
（2）The book is black and it is on the desk. （这本书是黑色的，它在桌子上）所表达的意
思是一样的吗？初看他们表达的意思好像没有区别，但仔细理解我们发现（1）有隐含意
义，即另有其它书存在（可能是在床上），而（2）没有隐含意义。
你可能又会问（1）和（3）The book, which is on the desk, is black. 所表达的意义一样吗？
分析后你会发现，两者所体现的隐含意义不一样，（3）表明说话者认为 book 这个对象是
唯一的，即没有其它书存在。
下面的引用可以帮助你理解这种区别：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_relative_clausesRestrictive or non-restrictiveRestrictiveness is more clearly marked in English than in most languages: prosody (in speaking)and punctuation (in writing) serve this purpose. An English non-restrictive relative clause ispreceded by a pause in speech or a comma in writing, whereas a restrictive clause normally is not.Compare the following sentences, which have two quite different meanings, and correspondinglytwo clearly distinguished intonation patterns, depending on whether the commas are inserted:(1) The builder, whowhowhowho erectserectserectserects veryveryveryvery finefinefinefine houseshouseshouseshouses, will make a large profit. (non-restrictive)(2) The builder whowhowhowho erectserectserectserects veryveryveryvery finefinefinefine houseshouseshouseshouses will make a large profit. (restrictive)The first example, with commas, and with three short intonation curves, contains anon-restrictive relative clause. It refers to a specific builder, and assumes we know which builderis intended. It tells us firstly about his houses, then about his profits. The second example uses arestrictive relative clause. Without the commas, and with a single intonation curve, the sentencestates that any builder who builds such houses will make profits.
136主句与限定句
①的复合规则如下：
★1）用 which/that (代替限定句中相同的事物对象)、who/that（代替相同的人物
对象）或 whom/that（代替相同的人物宾语对象）代替重复的对象，放在限定句
的前面②。
★2）再将限定句置于其限定的对象之后③。
现在我们通过分析一些例句，加深对这一概念的理解。例：
1.1.1.1. TheTheTheThe dogdogdogdog which/thatwhich/thatwhich/thatwhich/that isisisis inininin thethethethe roomroomroomroom isisisis mad.mad.mad.mad. 屋子里那条狗是疯的。
分析：我们先把这个复合句拆开（which/that 代替了 dog 这个重复对象）得到 The
dog is mad 和 The dog is in the room 这两个简单句，如果我们将 The dog is in the
room 省略掉那么原句的意思就变成了 The dog is mad (狗是疯的)，显然“狗是疯
的”和“屋子里的狗是疯的”的意思是不一样的，所以我们称 The dog is mad 为
主简单句，称 The dog is in the room 为限定简单句，其对主简单句中 dog 这个动
物对象起了限定作用。再看几个相似的例子：
� The cup which/that is red is delicate. 那个红色的杯子很精致。
（主简单句：The cup is delicate；限定简单句：which/that is red；限定的对象：
cup。如果省略了限定简单句，显然“那个杯子很精致”和“那个红色的杯
子很精致”意思是不一样的）
A simple test is to remove the relative clause. If the underlying meaning of the sentence changes,then it is a restrictive clause. If the clause turns out to have been a supplement to the basicmeaning of the sentence, then that means the clause was a non-restrictive clause.①
■因为下面复合规则适用于以下情况，1）主简单句与限定简单句或限定复合句的复合，
2）主复合句与限定简单句或限定复合句的复合，所以为写作方便，称主简单句或主复合
句为主句称限定简单句或限定复合句为限定句。②
要是代替词是第二个句子的介宾，介词可以提到句子的最前面，即形成：介词
+whom/which+第二个句子的其它部分的形式。
○含有介词的较为固定动词短语一般不拆开使用，如 look for, look after, take care of 等，例：
This is the watch which/that I am looking for. (正确) This is the watch for which I am looking.(错误)④
限定句与其限定的对象之间一般没有逗号请在以后的学习中注意。
� The house which/that is in the forest is big. 森林里的那座房子很大。
（主简单句：The house is big；限定简单句：which/that is in the forest；限定
的对象: house。如果省略了限定简单句，显然“那座房子很大”和“森林里
的那座房子很大”意思是不一样的）
� The bird which/that is flying is a lark. 在飞的那只鸟是只云雀。
（主简单句：The bird is a lark；限定简单句：which/that is flying；限定的对
象: bird。如果省略了限定简单句，显然“那只鸟是云雀”和“在飞的那只鸟
是云雀”意思是不一样的）
2.2.2.2. TheTheTheThe personpersonpersonperson whomwhomwhomwhom/that/that/that/that IIII sawsawsawsaw waswaswaswas aaaa coach.coach.coach.coach. 我看到的那个人是位教练。
分析：主简单句：The person was a coach；限定简单句：I saw whom/that，限定
的对象:bird，复合后 whom/that 的位置提前了。
可以试着分析下面二个相似的例子：
� The girl whom/that Tom loves is beautiful. 汤姆喜欢的那个女孩很漂亮。
� The boy whom/that I see is watching TV. 我看到的那个男孩在看电视。
总结：两简单句可以复合形成复合句，按照同样的原理，复合句可以和简
单句或另一个复合句复合形成更复杂的复合句。
138第第第第六六六六章章章章 简单句的复合省略简单句的复合省略简单句的复合省略简单句的复合省略
第第第第一一一一节节节节 主简单句与限定简单句的复合省略主简单句与限定简单句的复合省略主简单句与限定简单句的复合省略主简单句与限定简单句的复合省略
在第三章中讲述主简单句与限定简单句的复合时我们提到过这样一个例
子：The book which is on the desk is black. 我们知道 which 代替的就是 book 这个
相同的对象，你可能会考虑为避免重复是不是可以将 which 省略呢？答案是肯
定的①！
在英语中，主句与限定句复合后，根据情况限定句可以作出相应变化，详
细规则如下：
（一）
①省略的前提：省略的信息属于可推知信息；省略后不影响句意。可推知信息的来源主要
有三个方面：1）逻辑推理；2）语境；3）习惯。
☆○英语中存在二种省略：1）无变化省略 2）变化省略 {当省略的信息为可推知的句子的
谓语的“时”时，一般会应用变化省略（注意这时的谓语不含情态助动词）}○变化省略的两种形式：
1）现在分词形式的省略形式（即去掉谓语的时后，将谓语的第一部分动词变成现在分词）。
2）不定式形式的省略形式（即去掉谓语的时后，将谓语的第一部分变成动词原形，再在
其前加上动词不定式符号 to）{为什么要变化呢？这是因为如果不变化的话人们会误认为
其为其它句子的谓语。}○在以后的学习中我们可以看到变化省略的两种形式将谓语时态中的“时”与“态”
分离了（建议先了解一下时态的概念），仅保留了谓语的“态”（也保留了谓语的语态），
这就使得这两种省略形式具有很大的灵活性，即这两种省略形式的“时”是由上下文决定
的（即其“时”可以从上下文中推测出来），因而可能是现在/过去/过去将来中的任何一种。
○在以后的学习中你会发现在第一种省略形式中，由于按照习惯如果第一部分变化后
为 being，being 常省略，这使得，1) doing （谓语是一般态） 和 2) being doing（谓语为进
行态，而 being doing 中的 being 通常会省略。可以说此时“时态”都省略了）很难分辨，
因为人们看到 doing 通常就会认为其为进行态（即认为 doing=being doing，当然如果这个
动词本身没有进行态时就不会这这么认为了），这就使得当谓语的主动词（且为有进行态
的动词）在句子中为一般态时，通常不能采用省略形式（但当能从上下文中推测出其为一
般态时，可以采用省略形式）。 ■但第二种省略形式中，to do(一般态)和 to be doing（进行
态）之间不存这一问题，因而我们可以说，第二种省略形式比第一种更具表现力。
○虽然两种省略形式在理论上是相等的，但在实际使用中人们会根据习惯选择某一形
式（在以后的学习中请注意。一般来说，不定式使人感到动作只是潜在可能而已，如：Hehoped to lean English；而现在分词使人感到动作本身真的进行了，如：She enjoyed learingEnglish. ）
○现在分词和过去分词（省略了 being）属于第一种省略形式。请在以后的学习中注意，
不要认为现在分词就是进行态，动词不定式就一定是将来时。
■如果限定句以 who/which/that 开头（这些词为代替相同对象的词，作限定
句的主语），且限定句的谓语部分不含情态助动词时，限定句可以作如下变化：
谓语：
◆1. 当限定句谓语的表“时”部分即使被去掉，我们也能从上下文中推测
出来时（一般来说，此时限定句谓语的“时”与主句谓语的“时”一致），在去
掉限定句谓语的“时”的基础之上，其谓语可以作如下变化①②：
○将谓语的第一部分动词变成现在分词（其它部分不变）：
○如果变化后为 being：一般将 being 省略③。
○如果变化后为 doing（do 代表除 be 和助动词以外的其它动词），在以下情
况下变化成立④：
{1} 限定句谓语的主动词是通常没有进行态的动词时；
①简单点说，“时”属于可推知信息时，因而可以省略，而从上下中推知。
②此时其谓语常采用现在分词形式的省略形式，但有时也会采用不定式形式的省略形式。
如：He was the first to come here. 他是第一个到这儿来的。{He was the first to come here=Hewas the first who came here.}③
☆(2010 全国卷 I ) Mrs. White showed her student some old maps _________from the library.A. to borrow B. to be borrowed ○C. borrowed D. borrowing{限：borrowed from the library=which (maps) were borrowed from the library. 限定句的时与主
句的时一致，采用现在分词形式的省略形式后 being 也省略了。*当然即使 showed 为 shows也可以同样可以采用省略形式，因为从语境可以推测出限定句的时为过去。}*(2010 北京卷) I'm calling to enquire about the position in yesterday's China Daily.○A. advertised B. to be advertise d C. advertising D. having advertised{根据 in yesterday’s China Daily 我们可以推测出：advertised=which (position) was advertisedin yesterda’s China Daily. 采用现在分词形式的省略形式后，being 也省略了。}④
都是因为 being 可以省略引起的，使得人们通常会认为 doing=being doing。现在我们来看二个例子：1）The boy who watered the flowers at noon yesterday is my brother.昨天中午给花浇过水的男孩是我的兄弟。2）The boy who was watering the flowers at noonyesterday is my brother. 昨天中午正在给花浇水的男孩是我兄弟。*假如两个句子都能采用
省略形式那么我们得到：1)The boy watering the flowers at noon yesterday is my brother. 2）The boy being watering the flowers at noon yesterday is my brother. 又因 being 常省略所以 2）
变化为：They boy watering the flowers at noon yesterday is my brother. 我们看到因为 being的省略，两句话的最终省略形式是一模一样的，但在实际运用中人们看到这个最终形式时
会习惯性的在 doing （watering）前加上 being，因而会将最终形式理解为 2）的原形。换
句话说，只有 2)的省略形式才是成立的。而在{1}、{2}、{3}三种情况下，语境迫使人们意
识到不能在 doing 前面加上 being，所以此时的一般态省略形式才能被正确认识。
140{2} 限定句描述的不是一次具体的事件对象时
①；
{3} 从上下文中可以推测出限定句的谓语为一般态时②③；
{4} 限定句的谓语用一般态或进行态，两者所表达的意思差别不大时
（此时限定句谓语的主动词一般为持续性动词）。
○如果变化后为 having（注意此处的 have 是构成完成态/完成进行态的助动
词，不是实意动词），其接受度很低（即一般不被接受）④。
◆2. 当限定句谓语的“时”为将来/过去将来，且其谓语的表“时”的部分
① Anyone touching that wire will get a shock. 任何触到根线的人都会被电到。{touching thatwire=that (anyone) touches that wire.}②
严格来说，{3}包含了{1}{2}二项。③
☆(2009 江西卷) The government plans to bring in new laws _____ parents to take moreresponsibility for the education of their children.
A. forced ○B. forcing C. to be forced D. having forced{限：forcing parents...children=which (laws) will foce parents...children. 从 plans 我们可以推
测出限定句的时态为将来一般时。}④
☆在理论上这一变化是可以接受的，但在实际使用中因为谓语变化后能省略的成分不
多，所以不太被接受（有点“所谓忠诚、只是因为背叛的筹码不够! ”的意思）。
○以下引自《夸克英语语法大全》，华东师范大学出版社，1749 页：
The man who has won the race is my brother. 那个赢了比赛的人是我兄弟。如果省略了为 Theman having won the race is my brother. 其接受度低。（我们看到，采用省略形式后，其实我
们能正确其意思，但你会发现，采用省略形式后，who 省略了，但增加了 ing，所以说并
没有达到简化的目的，所以接受度低。）
然而，在由不定名词短语充当中心词的结构中，完成休就比较可以为人接受，如：Any personor persons having witnessed the attack is under suspicion.作后置修饰语的-ed 分词分句通常都是限定性的，然而在-ed 结构中，有关分词与被动语态
紧密相连，正如-ing 结构中有关分词与主动语态紧密相连一样。由于-ed 分词绝不能将不及
物动词变成被动语态，也就不会与例[4]中完全对应的-ed 后置修饰语例[4a]The train which has arrived at plantform 1 is from York. [4]?*The train arrived at plantform 1 is from York. [4a] (?*表示接受度很低)-ed 分词之前有某些分词时，就会出现例外，例如：The train recently arrived at plantform 1 is from York. [4b] {which has recently arrived atplantform 1=having recently arrived at plantform 1=recently arrived at plantform 1 (采用省略形
式后 having 也省略了)}A man just gone to India
/come from the meeting told me about it. {having gone to/having come (同样省略了having)}
○分析上在的引用后我们发现，其实 having 的省略形式，在一定程度上是可以被接受
的，有时候甚至会连 having 也省略掉。如：The road is blocked by a fallen tree. {which (tree)has fallen.}
如果被去掉，我们不能从上下文中推测出来时（一般来说，此时限定句谓语的
“时”与主句谓语的“时”不一致），将其谓语变成不定式，即用 to 代替 will
(would)，shall (would)，其它部分保持不变①。
主语：在以上前提下省略限定句的主语。
其它成分：并根据情况将省略后剩下的句子成分位置作相应调整。
（二）
■如果 who/whom/which/that（这些词都是代替相同对象的词）在限定句中
作表语或宾语，一般来说，这些词可以省略②，其它部分保持不变。
（三）
■如果限定句的主语、动宾或介宾代替的就是相同的对象，且其谓语含有
情态助动词 will （及其过去式 would），may (及其过去式 might), can（及其过去
式 could）， must（或为 have to/had to）或 should 时，限定句一般可以作如下变
化:
主语：如果在前面已经出现了或没必要提及时，可以省略，否则在其前加上 for③。
谓语：将其谓语变成不定式，即用 to 代替上述情态助动词，其它部分保持不变④。
宾语：如果限定句的动宾或介宾代替的就是相同的对象，这时宾语一般省略，
但如果是介宾，可以将介词连同 which/whom 一同提到 to 之前，即形成：介词
+which/whom+to+其它部分的形式；如果限定句的主语代替的就是相同的对象
象，此时宾语保留。
①☆也可以说是将 will (would)/shall (should) 去掉，还原其后的不定式。
○在后面的学习中你会发现对于将来时还有一种理解方式，即将 will /shall [have a definitepossibility]看成一个复合词。
○因为人们惯常会将不定式同将来或过去将来联系到一起，所以才有了这种省略形式。②
因为这些信息都属于可推知信息。③
如果主语是代词注意要变成宾格形式。④
也可以说是将情态助动词去掉，还原其后的不定式。｛因为情态助动词就是复合词｝
142其它部分：保持不变。
下面我们将通过分析一些例子加深对上述内容的理解：
1.1.1.1. TheTheTheThe littlelittlelittlelittle girlgirlgirlgirl isisisis inininin thethethethe bedroom.bedroom.bedroom.bedroom. 小女孩在卧室里。
分析：
主句：The girl is in the bedroom.
限定句：little=who (the girl) is little. {因为限定句谓语的“时”与主句的时一
致（都是现在时），且其主语为 who(代替的是相同对象 the girl)，
所以采用了省略形式。限定句的谓语去掉“时”后，变成了 be，
又根据规则（将其谓语的第一部分变成现在分词）变成了 being，
而 being 可以省略，又因限定句的主语 who 要被省略，所以限定句
采用省略形式后只留下 little，而根据英语的习惯，为使句子看起
来更紧密，通常会将采用省略形式后只留下一个单词的限定句放
在其限定的对象之前，所以形式了 little girl 这个结构。}
2.2.2.2. TheTheTheThe girlgirlgirlgirl wearingwearingwearingwearing aaaa hathathathat slept.slept.slept.slept. 戴帽子的女孩睡着了。
分析：
主句：The girl slept.
限定句：wearing a hat=who (the girl) wore/was wearing a hat. {因为限定句谓
语的“时”与主句的时一致（都是过去时），且其主语为 who(代替
的是相同对象 the girl)，又因限定句的谓语用一般态或进行态，两
者所表达的意思差别不大（wore 和 was wearing 的意义差别不大），
所以采用了省略形式。
1）限定句的谓语去掉“时”后，变成了 wear，又根据规则（将其
谓语的第一部分变成现在分词）变成了 wearing，又因限定句的主
语 who 要被省略，所以限定句采用省略形式后只留下了 wearing a
hat。
2）限定句的谓语去掉“时”后，变成也 be wearing，又根据规则
（将其谓语的第一部分变成现在分词）变成了 being wearing, 而
being 常省略，所以变成了 wearing，又因限定句的主语 who 要被
省略，所以限定句采用省略形式后只留下 wearing a hat。}
3.3.3.3. TheTheTheThe girlgirlgirlgirl drinkingdrinkingdrinkingdrinking waterwaterwaterwater isisisis beautiful.beautiful.beautiful.beautiful. 正在喝水的那个女孩漂亮。
分析：
主句：The girl is beautiful.
限定句：drinking water=who (the girl) is drinking water. {因为限定句谓语的
“时”与主句的时一致（都是现在时），且其主语为 who(代替的是
相同对象 the girl)，又因其谓语为进行态，所以采用了省略形式。
限定句的谓语去掉“时”后，变成了 be drinking，又根据规则（将
其谓语的第一部分变成现在分词）变成了 being drinking，而 being
常省略，所以变成了 drinking，又因限定句的主语 who 要被省略，
所以限定句采用省略形式后只留下了 drinking water。}
4.4.4.4. TheTheTheThe girlgirlgirlgirl totototo comecomecomecome isisisis Lily.Lily.Lily.Lily. 要来的那个女孩叫莉莉。
分析：
主句：The girl is Lily.
限定句：to come=who (the girl) will come. {因为限定句谓语的“时”与主句
的时不一致（限定句谓语的“时”为将来），且其主语为 who(代替
的是相同对象 the girl)，所以采用了不定式的省略形式。根据规则
限定句的（用 to 代替 will）变成了 to come，又因限定句的主语
144who 要被省略，所以限定句采用省略形式后只留下了 to
come②。}
5.5.5.5. TheTheTheThe tigertigertigertiger inininin thethethethe cagecagecagecage isisisis white.white.white.white. 笼子里的老虎是白色的。
分析：
主句：The tiger is white
限定句：in the cage=which (the tiger) is in the cage. {因为限定句谓语的“时”
与主句的时一致（都是现在时），且其主语为 which(代替的是相同
对象 the tiger)，所以采用了省略形式。限定句的谓语去掉“时”后，
变成了 be，又根据规则（将其谓语的第一部分变成现在分词）变
成了 being，而 being 可以省略，又因限定句的主语 which 要被省
略，所以限定句采用省略形式后只留下 in the cage。}
6.6.6.6. TheTheTheThe teachersteachersteachersteachers meetmeetmeetmeet inininin thethethethe morning.morning.morning.morning. 老师们早上会面。
分析：
主句：The teachers meet.
限定句：in the morning=which (meeting) is in the morning. {因为限定句谓语
的“时”与主句的时一致（都是现在时），且其主语为 which(代替
的是相同的动作对象 meeting)，所以采用了省略形式。限定句的谓
语去掉“时”后，变成了 be，又根据规则（将其谓语的第一部分
变成现在分词）变成了 being，而 being 可以省略，又因限定句的
主语 which 要被省略，所以限定句采用省略形式后只留下 in the
morning。介词 in 指出了动作对象 meeting 与其发生的时间对象
②○试析：
(2010 陕西卷) His first book next month is based on a true story.A. published ○B. to be published C. to publish D. being published
morning 之间的关系。}
7.7.7.7. TheTheTheThe cakecakecakecake isisisis mademademademade bybybyby me.me.me.me. 我做了这个蛋糕。
分析：
主句：The cake is made.
限定句：by me=which (making) is by me. {因为限定句谓语的“时”与主句
的时一致（都是现在时），且其主语为 which(代替的是相同的动作
对象 making)，所以采用了省略形式。限定句的谓语去掉“时”后，
变成了 be，又根据规则（将其谓语的第一部分变成现在分词）变
成了 being，而 being 可以省略，又因限定句的主语 which 要被省
略，所以限定句采用省略形式后只留下 by me。介词 by 指出了动
作对象 making 与其执行者对象 me 之间的关系。①}
8.8.8.8. JimJimJimJim knockedknockedknockedknocked thethethethe doordoordoordoor withwithwithwith aaaa stick.stick.stick.stick. 吉姆用棍子敲门。
分析：
主句：Jim knocked the door.
限定句：with a stick=which (knocking) was with a stick. {因为限定句谓语的
“时”与主句的时一致（都是过去时），且其主语为 which(代替的
是相同的动作对象 knocking)，所以采用了省略形式。限定句的谓语
去掉“时”后，变成了 be，又根据规则（将其谓语的第一部分变成
现在分词）变成了 being，而 being 可以省略，又因限定句的主语
①☆当你学习了平行句的复合以后，这个句子还可以这样理解，平 1：the cake is made. 平
2：by me=making is by me. {平 2 和平 1 复合后采用了省略形式，因为其主语 making 为可
推测信息，所以省略了。以后分析中，类似的例子也可以这样理解，但例子中的理解方式
更简单明了。}By 指出的最原始的空间关系是一个对象在另一个对象的旁边，这也指出一个动作对象
的执者为什么用 by 的原因{通过说，当一个事件发生时，人们通常会认为事情发生地点边
上的人是执行者}。
146which 要被省略，所以限定句采用省略形式后只留下 with a
stick 。介词 with 指出了动作对象 knocking 与其执行时所使用的工
具对象 stick 之间的关系。}
9.9.9.9. TheTheTheThe basketballbasketballbasketballbasketball IIII likelikelikelike isisisis red.red.red.red. 我喜欢的那个篮球是红色的。
分析：
主句：The basketball is red.
限定句：I like=which/that I like=I like which/that (the basketball) {which/that
在限定句中作宾语，所以省略了。}
10.10.10.10. TheTheTheThe boyboyboyboy IIII seeseeseesee isisisis aaaa student.student.student.student. 我看到的那个男孩是个学生。
分析：
主句：The boy is a student.
限定句：I see=whom/that I see=I see whom/that (the boy). {whom/that 在限定
句中作宾语，所以省略了。}
11.11.11.11. IIII likelikelikelike thethethethe roomroomroomroom thethethethe girlgirlgirlgirl isisisis in.in.in.in. 我喜欢女孩所在的那个房间。
分析：
主句：I like the room.
限定句：the girl is in=the girl is in which（the room）.{which 在限定句中作介
宾，所以省略了。}
12.12.12.12. IIII havehavehavehave somethingsomethingsomethingsomething forforforfor youyouyouyou totototo eat.eat.eat.eat. 我有些给你吃的东西。
分析：
主句：I have something.
限定句：for you to eat=you can eat which (something). {因为限定句的谓语含
有情动词 can，而 which 又在限定句中作宾语，所以限定句采用了
省略形式。因为限定句的主语 you 在前面没有出现，所以采用省
略形式后在其前加上了 for，其谓语变成了不定式（to 替代了 can），
宾语 which 省略掉了①。}
13.13.13.13. IIII havehavehavehave workworkworkwork totototo do.do.do.do. 我有工作要做。
分析：
主句：I have work.
限定句：to do=I must do which(work). {限定句的谓语含有情态助动词 must，
而 which 在限定句中作宾语，所以采用了省略形式。因为限定句的
主语 I 在前面已经出现了所以省略了，which 作宾语也省略了。}
14.14.14.14. IIII hadhadhadhad foundfoundfoundfound aaaa househousehousehouse totototo livelivelivelive in.in.in.in. 我找到了一间住的房子。
分析：
主句：I have found a house.
限定句：to live in=I could live in which(house). {限定句的谓语含有情态助动
词 could，而 which 在限定句中作介宾，所以采用了省略形式。因
为限定句的主语 I 在前面已经出现了所以省略了，which 作介宾也
省略了。当然这个句子还可以这样表达：I had found a house in
which to live. 但这种表达方式用得很少②。}
①○试析：
(2010 重庆卷) Many buildings in the city need repairing, but the one first is the library.A. repaired B. being repaired C. repairing ○D. to be repaired{but the one to be repaired first is the library=but the one which (one) should be repaired first isthe library.}②
○试析：
(2010 上海卷) That is the only way we can imagine the overuse of water in students'bathrooms.A. reducing ○B. to reduce C. reduced D. reduce{限：to reduce the...student’s bathrooms=that (way) can reduce the...student’s bathrooms.}
148第第第第二二二二节节节节 平行简单句的复合省略平行简单句的复合省略平行简单句的复合省略平行简单句的复合省略
在第三章中我们讲到当两个平行简单句有相同的对象时，可以将这两个平
行简单句复合，如：
(1) Mary is a student. 玛丽是个学生。
(2) Mary likes dog. 玛丽喜欢狗。
这两个平行简单句有相同的对象 Mary，所以我们可以把它们复合起来形成一个
复合句：1) Mary, who likes dog, is a student. 或 2) Mary, who is a student, likes dog.
(注：两个复合句所表达的意思都是一样的，为方便这里暂时只分析第一个复合
句）。
我们看到第一个复合句中 who 代替的是 Mary，这样 Mary 这个对象实际上
是重复出现了，使得整个句子显得有些臃肿，你可能会想既然重复了那就把 who
省略掉吧！这样可以吗？答案是肯定的！根据英语的习惯，我们可以把第二个
平行简单句中的 who 省略，并将其谓语作相应变化，形成一个更简洁的复合句：
Mary, liking dog, is a student. 玛丽是个学生，她喜欢狗。
总之，当两个平行句有相同的对象////联系较为紧密时，可以将这两个句子复合，
并根据情况将第二个平行句作相应变化，以使复合后的句子变得更加简洁。详
细规则如下：
（一）
■如果第二个平行句以 who/which/that 开头（这些词为代替相同对象的词，
作第二个平行句的主语），且第二个平行句的谓语部分不含情态助动词时，第二
个平行句可以作如下变化：
谓语：
◆1. 当第二个平行句谓语的表“时”的部分即使被去掉，我们也能从上下
文中推测出来时（一般来说，此时第二个平行句谓语的“时”与第一个平行句
谓语的“时”一致），在去掉第二个平行句谓语的“时”的基础之上，其谓语可
以作如下变化①：
○将谓语的第一部分动词变成现在分词（其它部分不变）
○如果变化后为 being：一般将 being 省略②。
○如果变化后为 doing（do 代表除 be 和助动词以外的其它动词），在以下情
况下变化成立：
{1} 第二个平行句谓语的主动词是通常没有进行态的动词时③；
①☆此时其谓语常采用现在分词形式的省略形式，但有时也会采用不定式形式的省略形
式。②
☆(2005 湖南卷) __ in a white uniform, he looks more like a cook than a doctor.○A. Dressed B. To dress C. Dressing D. Having dressed{平：Dressed in a white uniform=who (he) is dressed in a white uniform. 其时和 helooks...doctor 的时一致，采用省略形式后省略了 being. 且为平衡句子结构将其提前了。}(2005 上海卷)______ into use in April 2000, the hotline was meant for residents reporting waterand heating supply breakdowns.A. Put B. Putting C. Having put D. Being put{平：put into use in April 2000=being put into use in April 2000=which (the hotline) was put intouse in April 2000. 采用省略形式后 being 省略了。*你可能会问为什么不选 D 呢？这其实就
是我们先前提到的一个问题，因为 being 通常省略的原故，人们通常会认为 doing=beingdoing. 这样如果我们选 D 的话就会变成 being put=being being put=which (the hotline) wasbeing put into use in April 2000. 但根据语境用被动语态的进行时，显然是不合适的，所以不
选。}(2010 福建卷) Lots of rescue workers were working around the clock , suppliesto Yushu, Qinghai province after the earthquake.○A. sending B. to send C. having sent D. to have sent{平：sending...earthquake=who (workers) were sending...earthquake. 从 were working 我们推
测出 sending=were sending.}③
☆(2008 浙江卷) ______that he was in great danger, Eric walked deeper into the forest.A. Not realized B. Not to realize ○C. Not realizing D. Not to have realized{平：not realizing that...danger=who (Eric) did not realize that...danger. 其时与 Eric walked 的
时一致，且 realize 没有进行态所以采用了省略形式。注意采用省略形式后 do/does/did 构成
否定意义的助动词也去掉了。}*(2008 辽宁卷) He was busy writing a story, only ______ once in a while to smoke a cigarette.A. to stop B. stopping C. to have stopped D. having stopped{他忙于写故事，偶尔停下来抽根烟。平：stopping once...cigarette=who (he) only stopped oncein a while to smoke a cigarette. 因为其时与前面句子 He was busy...story 的时一致，所以采用
了现在分词形式的省略形式，且 stop 通常没有进行态。}
150{2} 第二个平行句描述的不是一次具体的事件对象时；
{3} 从上下文中可以推测出第二个平行句的谓语为一般态时①；
{4} 第二个平行句的谓语用一般态或进行态，两者所表达的意思差别
不大时（此时第二个平行句的谓语主动词一般为持续动词）
○如果变化后为 having（注意此处的 have 是构成完成态/完成进行态的助动
词，不是实意动词），其接受度很低（即一般不被接受）②。
◆2. 当第二个平行句谓语的“时”为将来/过去将来，且其谓语表“时”的
部分如果被去掉，我们不能从上下文中推测出来时（一般来说，此时第二个平
行句谓语的“时”与第一个平行句谓语的“时”不一致），将其谓语变成不定式，
即用 to 代替 will (would)，shall (would)，其它部分保持不变③。
主语：在以上前提下省略第二个平行句的主语。
其它成分：并根据情况将省略后剩下的句子成分位置作相应调整。
①☆(2005 山东卷) Oil prices have risen by 32 percent since the start of the year, _____ a record
US $57.65 a barrel on April 4.A. have reached ○B. reaching C. to reach D. to be reaching{平：reaching a record...April 4=which (Oil prices) reached a record...April. 采用省略形式后我
们很容易从上下中推测出其“时”为过去时，其“态”为一般态。}*(2005 广东卷) He glanced over at her, ______ that though she was tiny, she seemed very wellput together.○A. noting B. noted C. to note D. having noted{noting that...together=who (he) noticed that...together.}*(2010 安徽卷) He had wonderful childhood, _____with his mother to all corners of the wordA. travel B. to travel C. traveled ○D. traveling②
☆(2010 湖南卷) Dina, _______ for months to find a job as a waitress, finally took a positionat a local advertising agency.A. struggling B. struggled ○C. having struggled D . to struggle{鉴于变成 having 后其接受度低，通常我们会这样理解：having struggled for...waitress=aftershe had struggled for...waitress. *但其实将其理解为，平：having strggled for...waitress=who(Dina) had struggled for...waitress. 也是可以的。两种理解方式理解到的意义是一样的。}③
☆(2009 江苏卷) Schools across China are expected to hire 50,000 college graduates this yearas short-term teachers, almost three times the number hired last year, _____ reduceunemployment pressures.A. help B. to have helped ○C. to help D. having helped{to help reduce unemployment pressure=which (Schools...this year) will help reduceunemployment pressures.}
（二）
■如果第二个平行句的主语、动宾或介宾代替的就是相同的对象，且其谓
语含有情态助动词 will （及其过去式 would），may (及其过去式 might), can（及
其过去式 could）， must（或为 have to/had to）或 should 时，第二个平行句一可
以作如下变化（但应用程度较低）:
主语：如果在前面已经出现了或没必要提及时，可以省略，否则在其前加上 for①。
谓语：将其谓语变成不定式，即用 to 代替上述情态助动词，其它部分保持不变。
宾语：如果第二个平行句的动宾或介宾代替的就是相同的对象，这时宾语一般
省略，但如果是介宾，可以将介词连同 which/whom 一同提到 to 之前，即形成：
介词+which/whom+to+其它部分的形式；如果第二个平行句的主语代替的就是相
同对象，些时宾语保留。
其它部分：保持不变②。
（三）
■如果第二个平行句与第一个平行句关系较为紧密（如：是对第一个平行
句本身或其中的某个对象进行说明补充）且其谓语部分不含情态助动词时，其
可以作如下变化：
谓语：
◆1. 当第二个平行句谓语表“时”的部分即使被去掉，我们也能从上下文
中推测出来时（一般来说，此时第二个平行句谓语的“时”与主句谓语的“时”
一致），在去掉第二个平行句谓语的“时”的基础之上，其谓语可以作如下变化
③：
①如果主语是代词注意要变成宾格形式。
②如：She had a little money in the bank, with which to help her mother. 她在银行存了一点钱，
用这钱来帮助她的母亲。③
此时其谓语常采用现在分词形式的省略形式，但有时也会采用不定式形式的省略形式。
152○将谓语的第一部分动词变成现在分词（其它部分不变）
○如果变化后为 being：一般将 being 省略。
○如果变化后为 doing（do 代表除 be 和助动词以外的其它动词），在以下情
况下变化成立：
{1} 第二个平行句谓语的主动词是通常没有进行态的动词时；
{2} 第二个平行句描述的不是一次具体的事件对象时；
{3} 从上下文中可以推测出第二个平行句的谓语为一般态时；
{4} 第二个平行句的谓语用一般态或进行态，两者所表达的意思差别
不大时（此时第二个平行句的谓语主动词一般为持续动词）
○如果变化后为 having（注意此处的 have 是构成完成态/完成进行态的助动
词，不是实意动词），变化成立。
◆2. 当第二个平行句谓语的“时”为将来/过去将来，且其谓语表“时”的
部分如果被去掉，我们不能从上下文中推测出来时（一般来说，此时第二个平
行句谓语的“时”与主句谓语的“时”不一致），将其谓语变成不定式，即用 to
代替 will (would)，shall (would)，其它部分保持不变。
主语：保持不变（如果主语属于可推知信息，也可以省略）。
其它成分：保持不变①。
下面我们将通过分析一些例子加深对上述内容的理解：
1.1.1.1. TomTomTomTom,,,, lovinglovinglovingloving ChinaChinaChinaChina,,,, isisisis aaaa teacher.teacher.teacher.teacher. 汤姆是个老师，他喜欢中国。
如：He searched the room only to find nothing=He searched the room, who (he) only foundnothing. 他搜寻了整个屋子但什么也没发现。* He earned millions of dollars only for his sonto squander it. 他赚了数百万美元，但他儿子却挥霍无度。*They said good-bye to each other,one to go home, the other to go to the bookstore. 他们道别后，一个回了家，一个去了书店。*A number of officials followed the emperor, some to hold his robe, others to adjust his robe, andso son. 许多官员尾随皇帝之后，有的拎着皇帝的衣袍，有的则给他整腰带，等等。①
通过分析我们发现其实（一）是（三）的特殊情况（即平行 2 的主语为可推知信息时的
情况）
分析：
平行句 1：Tom is a teacher.
平行句 2：loving China=who (Tom) loves China. {因为平行句 2 谓语的“时”
与平行句 1 的时一致（都是现在时），且其主语为 who(代替的是相
同对象 Tom)，又因其谓语的主动词 love 为持续性动词，所以采用
了省略形式。平行句 2 的谓语去掉“时”后，变成了 loves，又根
据规则（将其谓语的第一部分变成现在分词）变成了 loving，又因
限定句的主语 who 要被省略，所以平行句 2 采用省略形式后只留
下了 loving China。}
2.2.2.2. TomTomTomTom isisisis strong,strong,strong,strong, surprisingsurprisingsurprisingsurprising me.me.me.me. 汤姆非常强壮，让我惊奇不已。
分析：
主句：Tom is strong.
限定句：suprising me=which (Tom is strong) surprises me. {因为平行句 2 谓语
的“时”与平行句 1 的时一致（都是现在时），且其主语为 which(代
替的是相同的事件对象 Tom is strong)，又因其谓语的主动词没有
进行态，所以采用了省略形式。平行句 2 的谓语去掉“时”后，
变成了 surprises，又根据规则（将其谓语的第一部分变成现在分词）
变成了 surprising，又因限定句的主语 which 要被省略，所以平行
句 2 采用省略形式后只留下了 surprising me。}
1.1.1.1. IIII sawsawsawsaw aaaa lake,lake,lake,lake, thethethethe waterwaterwaterwater clear.clear.clear.clear. 我看到一个湖，湖水很清澈。
分析：
平行句 1：I saw a lake.
平行句 2：the water clear=the water was clear. {因为平行句 2 谓语的“时”与
154平行句 1 的时一致（都是过去时），且两平行句联系较为紧
密（平行句 2 对平行句 1 中的对象 lake 进行补充说明）所以平
行句 2 采用了省略形式。平行句 2 的谓语去掉“时”后，变成
了 be，又根据规则（将其谓语的第一部分变成现在分词）变成
了 being，而 being 常省略，所以平行句 2 采用省略形式后只留
下了 the water clear。}
2.2.2.2. TheTheTheThe planeplaneplaneplane crashedcrashedcrashedcrashed,,,, nobodynobodynobodynobody alive.alive.alive.alive. 这架飞机坠落了，无人幸存。
分析：
平行句 1：The plane crashed.
平行句 2：nobody alive=nobody was alive. {因为平行句 2 谓语的“时”与平
行句 1 的时一致（都是过去时），且两平行句联系较为紧密（平
行句 2 对平行句 1 进行补充说明）所以平行句 2 采用了省略形
式。平行句 2 的谓语去掉“时”后，变成了 be，又根据规则（将
其谓语的第一部分变成现在分词）变成了 being，而 being 常省
略，所以平行句 2 采用省略形式后只留下了 nobody alive。}
第第第第七七七七章章章章 复合句的复合及复合句的复合省略复合句的复合及复合句的复合省略复合句的复合及复合句的复合省略复合句的复合及复合句的复合省略
第一节第一节第一节第一节 平行复合句的复合平行复合句的复合平行复合句的复合平行复合句的复合
平行复合句的复合①：地位平等、意思相互不受影响（即去掉其中的一个另
一个复合句的意思没有变化）的复合句称为平行复合句，一般用句号分开，但
当关系较紧密或句式相同时可以用平行联结词(and)、分号、括号、破折号联结
起来，如：
1. I am a good teacher. 我是个好老师。
2. He is a bad student. 他是个坏学生。
可以把这两个句式相同的复合句用分号或者 and 连接起来 即：I am a good
teacher; he is a bad student. 或：I am a good teacher and he is a bad student.
下面我们来分析几个例子，以加深对上述概念的理解：
1.1.1.1. TomTomTomTom,,,, whowhowhowho lovesloveslovesloves ChinaChinaChinaChina,,,, isisisis aaaa goodgoodgoodgood teacher.teacher.teacher.teacher. 汤姆是个好老师，他喜欢中国。
分析：
平行句 1：Tom is a good teacher.
主句：Tom is a teacher.
限定句：good=who (teacher) is good.
平行句 2：who (Tom) loves China.
2.2.2.2. IIII lovelovelovelove thethethethe smallsmallsmallsmall cake,cake,cake,cake, whichwhichwhichwhich isisisis mademademademade bybybyby me.me.me.me. 我喜欢这个小蛋糕，它是我做的。
分析：
平行句 1：I love the small cake.
主句：I love the cake.
①■本章所涉及到的复合规则、复合省略规则、以及特例在前面二章已经讲解过了，这里
就不重复了。
156限定句：small=which (the cake) is small.
平行句 2：which (the small cake①) is made by me.
主句：the cake is made.
限定句：by me=which (making) is by me.
3.3.3.3. AAAA blackblackblackblack catcatcatcat isisisis onononon aaaa whitewhitewhitewhite table,table,table,table, whichwhichwhichwhich isisisis inininin aaaa bigbigbigbig room.room.room.room. 一只黑色的猫在一张
白色的桌子上，桌子在一个大房子里。
分析：
平行句 1：A black cat is on a white table.
主句：A cat is on a table.
限定句 1：black=which (cat) is black.
限定句 2：white=which (table) is white.
平行句 2：which (the table) is in a big room.
主句：the table is in a room.
限定句：big=which (room) is big，限定简单句采用省略形式后 big 提到
了 room 的前面②。
①注意在下面的例子分析中，为简洁，限定对象的限定句就不写出来了，即写成 which (cat)
类似的形式。②
○试析：
■(2007 上海卷) His movie won several awards at the film festival, ______ was beyond hiswildest dream.●A. which B. that C. where D. it■(2006 陕西卷) She was educated at Beijing University, _______ she went on to have heradvanced study abroad.A. after that B. from that C. from which ●D. after which■(2006 辽宁卷) I was told that there were about 50 foreign students _________ Chinese in theschool, most _________ were from Germany.A.study; of whom B.study; of them C.studying; of them ●D.studying; of whom
第二节第二节第二节第二节 主主主主复合句复合句复合句复合句与限定与限定与限定与限定复合复合复合复合句句句句的复合的复合的复合的复合
主主主主复合句复合句复合句复合句与限定与限定与限定与限定复合句复合句复合句复合句的复合的复合的复合的复合：限定复合句是用来说明、限制主复合句中
的某一对象（或主复合句本身）的句子。
现在我们通过分析一些例句，加深对这一概念的理解：
1.1.1.1. TheTheTheThe deepdeepdeepdeep poolpoolpoolpool whichwhichwhichwhich isisisis inininin thethethethe forestforestforestforest isisisis big.big.big.big. 森林里的那口深塘很大。
分析：
主句：The pool is big.
限定句 1：deep=which (the pool) is deep.
限定句 2：which (the pool) is in the forest.
2.2.2.2. TheTheTheThe bigbigbigbig redredredred fishfishfishfish whichwhichwhichwhich IIII seeseeseesee inininin thethethethe supermarketsupermarketsupermarketsupermarket isisisis pretty.pretty.pretty.pretty. 我在超市里看到的
那条红色大鱼很漂亮。
分析：
主句：The fish is pretty.
限定句 1：big=which (the fish) is big.
限定句 2：red =which (the fish) is red.
限定句 3：which (the fish) I see in the supermarket.
主句：I see the fish.
限定句：in the supermarket=which (seeing) is in the supermarket. {介词 in
指出了动作对象 seeing 与其发生的地点对象 supermarket 之间
的关系。①}
①○试析：
■(2005 全国卷) I have many friends, some are businessmen.A. of them B. from which C. who of ●D. of whom
158第三第三第三第三节节节节 平行复合句的复合省略平行复合句的复合省略平行复合句的复合省略平行复合句的复合省略
两平行复合句复合后，根据情况第二个平行句可以作出相应变化。如：
1.1.1.1. IIII amamamam drinkingdrinkingdrinkingdrinking hothothothot coffeecoffeecoffeecoffee,,,, watchingwatchingwatchingwatching TV.TV.TV.TV. 我边看电视，边喝热咖啡。
分析：
平行句 1：I am drinking hot coffee.
主句：I am drinking coffee.
限定句：hot=which (coffee) is hot.
平行句 2：watching TV=I am watching TV.
3.3.3.3. TheTheTheThe thinthinthinthin book,book,book,book, boughtboughtboughtbought bybybyby thethethethe littlelittlelittlelittle boyboyboyboy inininin thethethethe bookshop,bookshop,bookshop,bookshop, waswaswaswas interesting.interesting.interesting.interesting. 这本
薄书很有趣，是这个小男孩在书店里买的。
分析：
平行句 1：The thin book was interesting.
主句：The book was interesting.
限定句：thin=which (the book) was thin.
平行句 2：bought by the little boy in the bookshop=which (the book) was bought
by the little boy in the bookshop.
主句：the book was bought.
限定句 1：by the little boy=which (buying) was by the little boy.
主句：buying was by the boy.
限定句：little=who (the boy) was little.
限定句 2：in the bookshop=which (buying) was in the bookshop.
第四节第四节第四节第四节 主复合句与限定复合句的复合省略主复合句与限定复合句的复合省略主复合句与限定复合句的复合省略主复合句与限定复合句的复合省略
主复合句与限定复合句复合后，根据情况限定复合句可以作出相应变化。
如：
1.1.1.1. TheTheTheThe blackblackblackblack dogdogdogdog underunderunderunder thethethethe talltalltalltall treetreetreetree isisisis barking.barking.barking.barking. 高树下的那只黑狗在叫。
分析：
主句：The dog is barking.
限定句 1：black=which (the dog) is black.
限定句 2: under the tall tree=which (the dog) is under the tall tree.
主句：dog is under the tree.
限定句: tall=which (the tree) is tall
2.2.2.2. TheTheTheThe beautifulbeautifulbeautifulbeautiful toytoytoytoy onononon thethethethe smoothsmoothsmoothsmooth boxboxboxbox onononon thethethethe talltalltalltall deskdeskdeskdesk isisisis producedproducedproducedproduced inininin China.China.China.China. 高
桌上那个光滑箱子上面的漂亮玩具是在中国生产的。
分析：
主句：The toy is produced.
限定句 1：beautiful=which (the toy) is beautiful.
限定句 2：on the smooth box on the tall desk=which (the toy) is on the smooth
box on the tall desk.
主句：the toy is on the box.
限定句 1：smooth=which (the box) is smooth.
限定句 2：on the tall desk=which(the box) is on the tall desk.
主句：the box is on the desk.
限定句：tall=which (the desk) is tall.
160限定句 3: in China=which (producing) is in China①.
①○试析：
■(2009 江西卷) The government plans to bring in new laws _____ parents to take moreresponsibility for the education of their children.A. forced ●B. forcing C. to be forced D. having forced■(2006 上海春) There are hundreds of visitors _______ in front of the Art Gallery to have alook at Van Gogh’s paintings.A. waited B. to wait ●C. waiting D. wait■(2006 湖南卷) The wild flowers looked like a soft orange blanket__________ the desert.●A. covering B. covered C. cover D. to cover■(2009 全国 I) Now that we’ve discussed out problem, are people happy with thedecisions ?A. taking B. take ●C. taken D. to take■(2009 上海卷) With the government’s aid, those ______ by the earthquake have moved to thenew settlements.A. affect B. affecting ●C. affected D. were affected■(2009 四川卷)News came from the school office ________Wang Lin had been admitted toBeijing University.A. which B. what ●C. that D. where
第八章第八章第八章第八章 句子作名词性成分及作名词性成分时的省略句子作名词性成分及作名词性成分时的省略句子作名词性成分及作名词性成分时的省略句子作名词性成分及作名词性成分时的省略
第一节第一节第一节第一节 句子作名词性成分句子作名词性成分句子作名词性成分句子作名词性成分
句子本身表达的就是一个事件对象，因而可以作主语、动宾、介宾、表语
四种名词性句子成分，具体规则如下：
1111）如果句子是陈述句，则在其前加上 thatthatthatthat。如：
ThatThatThatThat hehehehe waswaswaswas aaaa teacherteacherteacherteacher surprised me. 他竟然是个老师，这使我感到惊讶。
分析：{功能符号 that 指出紧接其后的句子 he was a teacher 是一个整体，作名词
性成分，且要注意功能词 that 后的句子所表达的事件对象一定是一个确定的事
件对象，即句子中不含一些不确定的成分。更多例子见注释。①}
2222）如果句子是疑问句，则将疑问部分或 whether/ifwhether/ifwhether/ifwhether/if放在句子的前面，其它句子
成分保持正常语序。如：
WhoWhoWhoWho hehehehe isisisis doesn’t concern me. 他是谁与我无关。
分析：{who he is 作语语。更多例子见注释②}
①○试析：
■ (2010 陕西卷) It never occurred to me _____ you could succeed in persuading him to changehis mind.A. which B. what ●C. that D. if{为避免头重脚轻，一般用形式主语 it 代替句子放在主语的位置而把句子本身放在后面。}■Tom said that he was reading a book. 汤姆说他正在读一本书。{that 后的句子作句子的宾
语}■The trouble is that I have lost his address. 问题是我弄丢了他的地址。{that 后的句子作表
语}②
○试析：
■Whether she is coming or not doesn’t matter too much. 她来不来都无关紧要。{whether 是一
个选择性的并列连词，其连接了 “She is coming.”和 “She isn’t coming.” 两个事件对象，这
两个对象作主语。If 和 whether 一样也是选择性的并列连词。}■I don’t know if/whether there will be a bus any more. 我不知道是否还会有公交车。
■I asked who could answer the question. 我问谁能回答这个问题。
■I think it necessary that we take plenty of hot water every day. 我认为每天多喝开水是有必
要的。{that we take plenty of hot water every day 作 it necessary 这个省略句的主语，it 是这
个省略句的形式主语。}
162
■I feel it a pity that I haven’t been to the get-together. 我没去聚会,感觉非常遗憾。
■Do you know who has won Red Alert game? 你知道是谁赢得了红色警报的游戏？
■Do you know whom they are waiting for? 你知道他们在等谁吗？
■Please tell me when we’ll have a meeting. 请告诉我什么时候开会。
■Can you tell me where Tom is. 你能告诉我汤姆在那吗？
■I tell him how he can get to the station. 我告诉也他怎么去车站。
■Would you tell me why the train is late. 你能告诉我火车为什么晚点了吗？
■Have you determined whichever you should buy, a Motorola or Nokia cell phone? 你决定好
是买诺基亚还是摩托罗拉的电话了吗?■We are talking about whether we admit students into our club. 我们正在讨论是否让学生加
入我们的俱乐部。
■The question is when he can arrive at the hotel. 问题是，他什么时候可以到达酒店。
■(2010 全国卷卷 I ) We haven’t discussed yet _______ we are going to place our new furniture.A. that B. which C. what ●D. where■(2010 浙江卷) It is uncertain __ side effect the medicine will bring about, although about twothousand pat ients have taken it.A. that ●B. what C. how D. whether■(2005 辽宁卷) Do you have any idea ________ is actually going on in the classroom?
A. that ●B. what C. as D. which■(2010 上海卷) When changing lanes, a driver should use his turning signal to let other driversknowA. he is entering which lane ●B. which lane he is enteringC. is he entering which lane D. which lane is he entering■(2006 浙江卷) It remains ________ whether Jim’ll be fit enough to play in the finals.A. seen ●B. to be seen C. seeing D. to see■(2009 上海卷) It is not immediately clear _______ the financial crisis will soon be over.A. since B. what C. when ●D. whether
第第第第二节二节二节二节 句子作名词性成分时的省略形式句子作名词性成分时的省略形式句子作名词性成分时的省略形式句子作名词性成分时的省略形式
一一一一
■当陈述句作名词性成分时（即可以将功能符号 that 置于其前指出其作名
词性成分时），这个作名词性成分的句子常可以采用省略形式，省略规则如下：
（一）
当其谓语部分不含情态助动词时：
谓语：
◆1. 当其谓语表“时”的部分即使被去掉，我们也能从上下文中推测出来
时（一般来说，此时其谓语的“时”与主句谓语的“时”一致），在去掉其谓语
的“时”的基础之上，其谓语可以作如下变化①：
○将谓语的第一部分动词变成现在分词（其它部分不变）
○如果变化后为 being：一般将 being 省略。
○如果变化后为 doing（do 代表除 be 和助动词以外的其它动词），在以下情
况下变化成立：
{1} 作名词性成分的句子谓语的主动词是通常没有进行态的动词时；
{2} 作名词性成分的句子描述的不是一次具体的事件对象时；
{3} 从上下文中可以推测出作名词性成分的句子的谓语为一般态时；
{4} 作名词性成分的句子的谓语用一般态或进行态，两者所表达的意
思差别不大时（此时作名词性成分的句子的谓语主动词一般为持
①此时其谓语常采用现在分词形式的省略形式，但有时也会采用不定式形式的省略形式。
如：She is considered to be a good teacher=That she is a good teacher is considered. 人们认为
她是个好老师。*I saw her walk across the road=I saw her to walk acroos the road=I saw that shewalked across the road. 我看到她过马路。{按照习惯 to 常省略}*(2005 江苏卷) — Is Bob still performing?— I'm afraid not. He is said________ the stage already as he has become an official○A. to have left B. to leave C. to have been left D. to be left{He is said to have left the stage...official=that he has left the stage...offical is said.}
164续动词）
○如果变化后为 having（注意此处的 have 是构成完成态/完成进行态的助动
词，不是实意动词），变化成立。
◆2. 当其谓语的“时”为将来/过去将来，且其谓语表“时”的部分如果被
去掉，我们不能从上下文中推测出来时（一般来说，此时其谓语的“时”与主
句谓语的“时”不一致），将其谓语变成不定式，即用 to 代替 will (would)，shall
(would)，其它部分保持不变。
主语：
1. 如果谓语的第一部分变成了现在分词：
1）如果句子的主语为指示代词、不定代词、无生命的对象，如：this, that,
somebody, someone , nobody, none, anybody, anyone 时，其主语不变①。
2）反之如果句子的主语是有生命的对象，其主语要变成所有格形式②。
2. 如果谓语变成了不定式，则在其主语前加上介词 for③。
其它成分：其它部分保持不变。
（二）
①○如果主语是一个短语或被限制或是以 s 结尾的复合形式时，当这个句子作主语或表
语时，其一般不变；当作宾语时，如主语是代词则一般采用宾格形式。
○如果主语是集合名词、单复数同形的名词或变化不规则的复数名词，当这个句子作宾语
时，主语一般不变。如：■I insist on both of them coming in time. 我坚持要他们两人准时来。
■Do you remember Mary and her mother coming to see us last year?你还记得玛丽和她的妈妈
去年来看过我们吗？②
当句子作宾语时（尤其在口语中），如果主语是名词，名词可以保持不变，如果主语是
代词，代词可以采用宾格形式。如：Do you mind my(me) smoking ? 你介意我抽烟吗?③
按照习惯如果句子作宾语，for 一般省略，且如果句子的主语代词其采用宾格形式。
○按照习惯如果主句的谓表为
be/careless/clever/good/foolish/honest/kind/lazy/nice/right/silly/stupid/wise 等表示赞扬或批评
的词（即句子的主句和这些表语能够成意义上成立的主系表结构）时，此时一般用 of 代替
for. 如：It's kind of you to help me with my English. 帮助我学英语，你人真好。{of you to helpme with my English 是 that you to help me with my English 的省略形式，而 it 代替 of you tohelp me with my English 在句子中作形式主语。}
当其谓语含有情态助动词will（及其过去式would），may (及其过去式might),
can（及其过去式 could）， must（或为 have to/had to）或 should 时，其一般可
以作以下变化：
主语：如果在前面已经出现了或没必要提及时，可以省略，否则在其前加上 for①；
但如果作名词性成分的句子本身作宾语时，此时的主语前常不加 for，如果
是代词则变成宾格形式。
谓语：将其谓语变成不定式，即用 to 代替上述情态助动词，其它部分保持不变。
其它部分：保持不变。
二
■当疑问句作名词性成分，其谓语含有情态助动词 will （及其过去式
would），may (及其过去式 might), can（及其过去式 could），must（或为 have to/had
to）或 should，且其主语是疑问词，或省略后可以通过上下文推测出来时，这
个作名词性成分的句子常可以采用省略形式，省略规则如下：
主语：如果是疑问词，则保留；否则省略。
谓语：将其谓语变成不定式，即用 to 代替上述情态助动词，其它部分保持不变。
其它部分：保持不变。
下面我们分析几个例子，以加深对上述概念的理解：
1111．TomTomTomTom's's's's returningreturningreturningreturning memememe thethethethe moneymoneymoneymoney inininin timetimetimetime pleasespleasespleasespleases me.me.me.me. 汤姆及时还了我的钱，这
让我很高兴。
分析：{从上下文中我们可以推测出：Tom’s returning me the money in time=That
Tom returned me the money in time. }
2222．MaryMaryMaryMary’ssss beingbeingbeingbeing latelatelatelate againagainagainagain mademademademade hishishishis teacherteacherteacherteacher quitequitequitequite angry.angry.angry.angry. 玛丽又迟到了，他的
①如果主语是代词注意要变成宾格形式。
166老师非常生气。
分析：{Mary’s being late again=that mary was late again.}
3.3.3.3. ItItItIt’ssss necessarynecessarynecessarynecessary forforforfor youngyoungyoungyoung peoplepeoplepeoplepeople totototo learnlearnlearnlearn aaaa foreignforeignforeignforeign language.language.language.language. 年轻学习一门外
语非常有必要。
分析：{for young people to learn a foreign language=that young people should learn a
foreign language. * 因为主语太长，所以 it 作了形式主语①。}
①○试析：
(2009 湖南卷) Nowadays people sometimes separate their waste to make it easier for it ______.A. reusing B. reused C. reuses ○D. to be reused
第第第第九九九九章章章章 复合词复合词复合词复合词
通过前面的学习我们发现复合、省略可以使句子变得简洁，现在我们要讨
论英语中另一种能使句子变得简洁的语言现象: 复合词。
我们先来看一些例子：
1) At the time at which he saw her, he waved. 他一看见她就摆了摆手。
2) It was raining at the time at which we arrived. 我们到的时候正在下雨。
3) He lives in a place in which the climate is mild. 他住在一个气候温暖的地方。
4) She was standing in a place in which you are standing. 她就站在你站的那个地
方。
5) They are dancing at the present time. 他们在跳舞。
6) We live in Beijing at the present time. 我们现在住在北京。
7) We sprinkle water on the flowers. 我们给花浇水。
8) We sprinkle water on the lawn. 我们给草地浇水。
9) They walk in a way that is slow. 他们在慢慢走。
10) The car is moving in a way that is slow. 车在慢慢移动。
我们看到例 1）和例 2）有相同的部分 “at the time at which （在...时间）”。
在英语中要表达这一意思的情况非常多，如果每次都用这么一长串的单词去表
达这一意思，显然会显得非常烦琐。鉴于此，如果你是一名语言创造者，你会
怎么样去简单、实用地去解决这一问题呢？ 创造一个词去代替这一串？对，你
的想法完全正确！英语的使用者们就创造了 when 这个词去代替这一串，即：at the
time at which=when。在对象英语语法中我们称 when 为复合词。现在将 when 代
入原句得到：
1) When he saw her, he waved. 他一看见她就摆了摆手。
1682) It was raining when we arrived. 我们到的时候正在下雨。
显然句子比以前简洁多了，同样的道理我们可以得到：
(In(In(In(In aaaa placeplaceplaceplace inininin which=where)which=where)which=where)which=where)
3) He lives where the climate is mild. 他住在一个气候温暖的地方。
4) She was standing where you are standing. 她就站在你站的那个地方。
(At(At(At(At thethethethe presentpresentpresentpresent time=now)time=now)time=now)time=now)
5) They are dancing now. 他们在跳舞。
6) We live in Beijing now. 我们现在住在北京。
(Sprinkle(Sprinkle(Sprinkle(Sprinkle waterwaterwaterwater on=water)on=water)on=water)on=water)
7) We water the flowers. 我们给花浇水。
8) We water the lawn. 我们给草地浇水。
(In(In(In(In aaaa waywaywayway thatthatthatthat isisisis slowslowslowslow====slowlyslowlyslowlyslowly①))))
9) They walk slowly. 他们在慢慢走。
10) The car is moving slowly. 车在慢慢移动。
从上面的分析我们可以看到，复合词有以下作用：
○使语言变得更加简洁；
○丰富了英语词汇：复合概念的运用不仅深化了名词、动词、形容词这些词类
的概念同时也扩大了词汇，且创造了一种新的词类，即副词②。
■但我们也看到复合词的运用使得许多信息被隐藏了起来，然而隐藏的这
些信息却可以与外部信息相关联③，因而如果我们不了解这些隐藏的信息，就会
①☆当你对面向对象英语语法有一个很好的理解后，你也可以这么理解：slowly {one’s
speed is slow}。②
副词都是复合词，其复合的内容大都以介词开头。
副词复合的内容主要用来说明动作对象/状态对象与其发生/存在的时间对象、地点对象、
方式对象、程度对象之间的关系。③
如，在 What we need is food（我们需要的是食物）这个句子中的 what [the thing which]
觉得很多语言现象难以理解，这使得了解这些隐藏信息变得很有必要。那么我
们如何才了解这些隐藏信息呢？诚然英语词典是一个不错的工具，通过其英文
解释，我们就可以达到这一目的。
■我们要明白复合词只是一种概念（其并不指某一具体词类），运用这一概
念的目的是了解一些隐藏信息，从而达到帮助理解一些语言现象的目的。
■注意在分析中复合词复合的内容（即其英文解释/隐藏信息）会在方括号
中表示①。
中的 which 就与外部信息 we need 有关联，即：we need which，如果我们不了解这一隐藏
信息，我们就会觉得这个句子有些难理解。①
■至此我们已经学完了对象英语语法的基本架构，应该说其基本原理是非常简单的。现
在我将就单词记忆的问题，谈谈自己的看法。我想你可能会这样问我：
Q：记单词难吗？ A：有难度。
Q：你有什么记单词的好方法？
A：关于这个问题，我想你应该注意以下几个方面：
●1）准备至少一本英汉双解词典（个人推荐使用牛津高阶英汉双解词典、美国传统英汉
双解词典、朗文当代英语词典和牛津学生英语搭配词典）。
●2) 结合英汉双解词典记单词最原始最基本的意义（注意利用对象的思想）。[例：line (pieceor length of thread, rope, etc used for a particular purpose 线; 索; 绳), 源自 linen 亚麻布]
■一定要看英文解释，不要仅记中文意思。你可能说你看不懂，没关系你就尽量看吧，
看多了自然就懂了。我们发现很多英汉双解词典中的中文解释总是很“简单明了”希望用
一两个词概括英文解释中的一句甚至几句，显然体现不出其中的细节。这样如果学习者仅
记中文解释的法，就会陷入另一种不必要的麻烦中，即单词辨析中，如：manage, try 很多
词典都将两个解释为“设法”，这样学习者就会很迷茫，究竟两个单词的区别是什么呢？
其实只要我们在记忆时看过英文解释就不会出现这样的问题了，manage {succeed in doing(sth)}, try {to make an effort to do or accomplish (something)}，我们看到两者的区别很明显。
●3) 从其最原始最基本的意义出发在具体和抽像两个层次上进行引申。[line,■具体引申：long narrow mark, either straight or curved, traced on a surface 线; 线条: astraight line 直线 * Sign your name on the dotted line. 请在虚线上签名. * Don't park on thedouble yellow lines, ie those painted at the side of a road in Britain. 不要把车停在双黄线处
（在英国, 标於路边的）. * Draw a line from A to B. 从 A 到 B 画一条线. (b) mark like a lineon the skin 皮肤上的纹: The old man's face was covered in lines and wrinkles. 那老人的脸上
布满皱纹和褶子.■抽像引申：course of action, behaviour or thought （行动﹑ 行为或思想的）方向, 路线, 方
针: Don't take that line with me. 不要对我采取那种方式. * I absolutely reject themanagement's line on this. 我断然否绝经理部门处理此事的方法. * She always takes aMarxist line. 她一贯奉行马克思主义路线.]■注：英语中很注重具体到抽象的引申。如：give sb a kick, push, shove, etc 踢某人一脚﹑
推某人一把﹑挤某人一下。
●4）利用复合词的概念扩展其意义。[line，复合词：
第十章第十章第十章第十章 其它语法概念其它语法概念其它语法概念其它语法概念
第一节第一节第一节第一节 时态时态时态时态
我们知道一个特定的动作总会发生在一个特定的时间，即一个特定的动作
对象总会对应一个特定的时间对象。为方便理解请看下图：
(A2,(A2,(A2,(A2, T2)T2)T2)T2) (A4,(A4,(A4,(A4, T4)T4)T4)T4) (A6,(A6,(A6,(A6, T6)T6)T6)T6)
(A1,(A1,(A1,(A1, T1)T1)T1)T1) (A3,(A3,(A3,(A3, T3)T3)T3)T3) (A5,(A5,(A5,(A5, T5)T5)T5)T5)
说明：A1 代表动作对象 1；A2 代表动作对象 2......
T1 代表时间对象 1；T2 代表时间对象 2......
（A1，T1）表示动作对象 1 发生在时间对象 1 上......
分析：现在我们设想一下，如果现在是 4 点钟，那么以 4 点钟为观察点，
我们称 4 点钟为现在(the present)，称 4 点钟以前的时间为过去(the past)，称 4 点
钟以后的时间为将来(the future)①。
■(a) mark (sth) with lines 以线条标示（某物）; 画线於（某物）: lined paper, ie with linesprinted on it 印有横格的纸 * a face lined with age and worry 因经年忧虑而多皱纹的脸.■(b) form a line along (sth) 沿（某物）排成行: a road lined with trees 树木成行的路 *Crowds of people lined the route of the procession. 人群在行进线路沿途站成一排. line up thesuspects/get the suspects to line up 让嫌疑犯站成一排.●5）学好构词法，记住一些常用的词根和前后缀。
●6）按顺序变化（一次变化一个）单词中元音的字母或辅音字母，形成新的单词（平时
没事就当游戏玩吧）。[line: bine, dine, fine...wine, zine; lane, lone; life... （注：英语中的元音
字母，a, e, I, o, u 半元间：y, r。替换时元音字母一定用元音替换，不然发不了音，也就不
能形成新的单词）
●7）充分利用你的右脑，利用形象思维，多联想（试联想：eye, bed, foot, wall）●8）多重复记忆，以前我可能会推荐你用卡片，现在就多用智能手机吧。（上百度文库，
经常翻翻里面的牛津高阶英汉双解词典）
●9) 在使用中熟悉单词。(建议多阅读 BBC 英语新闻 http://www.bbc.co.uk/)①
从狭义上讲，现在(the present)是当前的一个时间点，过去（the past）和将来(the future)
理解上面的基本概念后，我们来学习一下英语中的十六种时态①：
[1] 现在一般时
我们先来分析一个现在一般时的例子：I live in Wastionton. 我现住华盛顿。
显然，live 这个动作是发生在现在，根据对象英语语法的规则你可能会这样来表
达这个句子：I live at present in Wastionton=I live which (living) is② at present and
which (living) is in Wastionton，其中介词 at 指出了动作对象 living 与其发生的时
间对象 present 之间的关系，介词 in 指出了动作对象 living 与其发生的地点对象
Wastionton 之间的关系。
但根据英语的习惯，为使表达简洁，如果句子主语的动作发生在现在，绝
大多数情况下 at present③是可以省略的，而将这一省略信息[which(doing④) is at
present]通过变化句子谓语主动词本身表达出来，我们称经历过变化后的谓语为
谓语的现在一般时。
其谓语动词的变化规则如下：
（1111）如果原句的主动词为 bebebebe
� 如果原句的主语为 I，则将 be 变为 am; （例：I am in the room）
� 如果原句的主语为单数(包括 he, she, it)，则将 be 变为 is; (例：She/he is a
student. The ice is cold)
� 如果原句的主语为复数（包括 we, they）,则将 be 变为 are;
（2222）如果原句的主动词为其它动词
是两个集合概念，即都包含无数个时间点；但从广义上讲，现在(the present)可以是一个包
含了当前时刻的一个连续时间段。①
注意以下讨论的都是主动语态。②
严格来说这里的 is 应该写成 be 但为简便、直观就写成 is 了，以后遇到类似的情况请注
意。{因为 is 本身就体现出了“时”}③ present 可以是现在的某些具体时间如：4 点钟等。④
注意这里及后面所讲时态中的 doing 也指代 being。
172� 如果原句的主语为第三人称单数(包括 he, she, it)，那么将主动词变为
第三人称单数形式①(例：He lives in NewYork. ②)
� 如果原句的主语不为第三人称单数，主动词采用动词原形，即不作变化。
（例：They sing at the classroom）
★在实际运用中，现在一般时的用法有所扩展，详见注释③。
①○动词的第三人称单数变化的基本规则如下：
■大多数动词在词尾加“s”。如：stop－stops ; make－makes。■以辅音字母加“y”结尾的，要先将“y”变为“i”，然后在加“es”。如：fly－flies；study－studies■以“s, x, ch, sh”结尾的，在词尾加“es”。如：teach－teaches；watch－watches。■以“o”结尾的动词，加“es”，如：go－goes；do－does。■一些不规则变化，需要记忆。如 have－has。②
☆其实第三称单数形式，在很多时候完全是一种累赘。假如我们这样表达这个句子：Helive in NewYork. 我相信你也能理解它的意思。但有时候却有点意义，如: 1）I put the book onthe table. 2）he puts the book on the table. 因为 put 的过去式就是本身，所以 1）的“时”很
难判定；但 2）的时却可以明确的判定为现在时。{这也使我们看到谓语的时有时候并不包
含在谓语中，而要通过其它形式来体现，如时间对象。如:I put the book on the table yesterday.根据 yesterday 这个时间对象我们可以明确的判定句子的时为过去时。}
○相信随着以后英语的发展，第三人称单数形式这种没有意义的变化也会完全消失。③
○现在一般时的基本用法：
■■■■表现阶段经常发生的、习惯性的动作或存在的状态。如：He always takes a walk after supper.晚饭后他总是散散步。*He loves classical music. 他喜欢古典音乐。
*(2010 上海卷) Every few years, the coal workers _____ their lungs X-rayed to ensure theirhealth.A. are having ●B. have C. have had D. had had*(2009 天津卷) My parents _____ in Hong Kong. They were born there and have never livedanywhere else.
● A. live B. lived C. were living D. will live*(2006 浙江卷) This machine _______. It hasn’t worked for years.A. didn’t work B. wasn’t working ●C. doesn’t work D. isn’t working*(2005 辽宁卷) Months ago we sailed ten thousand miles across this open sea, which _______the Pacific, and we met no storms.A. was called ●B. is called C. had been called D. has been called■■■■表客观事实或真理。如：The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. 太阳从东方升起在西
方落下。
■■■■可以用来表示一个按规定，计划或按时刻表安排要发生的事情。(句子中一般都有一个表
示未来时间的词语。通常用来表示学期什么时候要开学、结束；飞机、火车、汽车、船只
等交通工具什么时候到达、离开等时刻表上已有安排的活动。动词一般限于少数几个，如：
begin, start, stop, arrive, come, go, leave, return, open, close, be 等) 如：Her plane leaves at 9a.m. tomorrow. 她乘明天上午 9 点的飞机离开。*School begins the day after tomorrow. 后天
开学。
{你可能会问为什么可以这样表达呢？其实稍微分析一下你就会发现，因为这些信息属
[2][2][2][2] 过去一般时
我们先来看一个过去一般时的例子：They arrived yestoday. 他们昨天到了。
显然，arrive 这个动作是发生在过去的某个时间，根据对象英语语法的规则你可
能会这样来表达这个句子：They arrivearrivearrivearrive which (arriving) is at the time of yesterday
of the past.
但根据英语的习惯，为使表达简洁，如果句子主语的动作发生在过去的某
个时间点或时间段，which (doing) is at/during the time of the past 这一部分可以省
于可推知信息，就是没有“时”的变化我们也能推测出其发生的时间}■■■■在 if, when, as soon as, until, after, before 等后表时间或条件的句中，这个表时间或条件的
句子的谓语动词要用现在一般时/过去一般表将来一般时/过去将来一般时。如：If it is sunnytomorrow, we will go swimming. 如果明天天晴，我们就去游泳。When your elder sister returns,we will have lunch. 你姐回来了我们就吃午餐。We will leave as soon as you are ready. 你一准
备好我们就动身。Whether he agrees or not, I will stay at home. 不管他同意与否，我都会待
在家里。
{因为时间句和条件句中谓语的“时”信息属于可推知信息，所以可以这样表达。}■现在一般时的其它用法：
○○○○用在以 here, there 开头的句子后，表瞬间动作。如：Here comes the bus. 汽车来了。Theregoes the bell. 铃响了。
○○○○用来指引道路。如：Go down this way, and turn left at the firt crossing. 沿这条路走然后在
第一个交叉路口左拐。
○○○○用于体育运动、表演等实况报道中。如：Francis slips past, passes the ball to Yao Ming, whojumps, catches and shoots it into the basket. 弗朗西斯穿过去，把球传给姚明，姚明跳起来，
接住球投进篮里。Now, look, I press the button and turn on the machine. 现在，看，我按下按
扭，打开了这台机器。
○○○○用于新闻标题或图片说明中。如：China Declares Manned Spaceflight Successful. 中国宣
布载人航天飞行圆满成功。Laura Bush Arrives in Moscow. 劳拉•布什抵达莫斯科。
○○○○用于告诫或劝说。如：You mind your own business. 你不要管闲事！If he does that again, hegoes to prison. 如果他再那样的话，他就会进监狱的。
○○○○此外还用于章节标题、讲述书面材料内容、剧情介绍、舞台动作描述、故事读物中戏剧
性的描绘等。
{☆通过上面的学习我们发现，英语中谓语的“时”并不一定在谓语中体现出来，而可以通
过上下文/语境体现出来。■而且谓语时态中的“时”与“态”也是可以分离的（当时属于
可推知信息时，就可以将时分离出来，而通过上下文体现）。■一般态其实就是零态（即
不体现状态）。■对于那些过去式是原形的动词（如：read, cut, put, let, cost, hit, set, hurt）当其作谓语的主动词，而谓语的态又为一般态时，其时通过上下文/第三人称单数形式体现
出来，换句话说，这种情况下谓语既没有“时”也没有“态”（即没有通过主动词的变化
体现时间和状态信息）}
174略
①而通过变化句子的主动词表达出来（即其主动词变成过去式
②），我们称
经历过变化后的谓语为谓语的过去一般时。例：
� They saw us playing football.
� He married a woman who lived in the same village.
★过去一般时的扩展应用见注释③。
[3][3][3][3] 将来一般时
①当然可以保留其中一些表达过去时间点或时间段的信息如前面例子中的 yestoday.
②○规则动词变成过去式的基本规则如下：
■一般情况下，动词词尾加 ed ，如：worked, played, wanted, acted。■以不发音的 e 结尾的动词，动词词尾加 d，如：lived, moved, decided, declined, hoped。■以辅音字母 + y 结尾的动词，把 y 变为 i 再加 ed，如：studied, tried, copied。■以一个辅音字母结尾的重读闭音节动词，双写词尾辅音字母，再加 ed，如：stopped, begged,dragged, dropped, planned, dotted, dripped。③
○过去一般时的基本用法：
■■■■表示一个过去发生的动作或存在的状态（常与表示确切过去时间的词、短语等连用）。
如：I dropped the key somewhere about here yestoday. 我昨天把钥匙掉在这儿附近了。
*( 2005 北京卷) Scientists think that the continents __________ always where they _________today.
A. aren’t; are B. aren’t; were ●C. weren’t; are D. weren’t; were*(2005 湖南卷) — If the traffic hadn't been so heavy, I could have been back by 6 o'clock.— What a pity! Tina _____ here to see you.A. is ●B. was C. would be D. has been*(2010 全国卷) Excuse me. I I was blocking your way.●A. didn’t realize B. don’t realize C. haven’t realized D. wasn’t realizing(2006 天津卷) What we used to think ___ impossible now does seem possible.A. is ●B. was C. has been D. will be*(2007 安徽卷) — Did Peter fix the computer himself?— He ________, because he doesn't know much about computers.A. has it fixed B. had fixed it ●C. had it fixed D. fixed it■■■■表示过去习惯性动作。如：He always went to class last. 他总是最后一个到教室的。
*(2008 天津卷)14. He _____ football regularly for many years when he was young.A. was playing ●B. played C. has played D. had played○表示过去的习惯性动作，除了用过去式外，还可以用 used to 或 would 来表示。如：She usedto study late into the night when she was in Senior Three. 她上高三时经常学习到深夜。Hewould sit for hours doing nothing. 过去他常常一坐几个钟头什么事也不做
○注意：“used to+动词原形”表示“过去经常”而现在已经停止的习惯动作。如：The professorused to work fourteen hours a day. 这个教授过去常常每天工作 14 个小时。
○另外，注意区别“used to”和“be/get/become used to”。后者意为“习惯于…”，to 为介
词。例：The food in England is strange at first but you'll soon get used to it. 英国食物乍一吃很
不习惯, 但不久就能适应了。
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[4][4][4][4] 过去将来一般时
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[5][5][5][5] 现在////过去////将来////过去将来进行时
我们先来看一个现在进行时的例子：I am swimming. 我正在游泳。显然，
swim 这个动作是发生在现在，且正在进行，根据对象英语语法的规则你可能会
这样来表达这个句子：I swim which (swimming) is at present and which (swimming)
is in progress. (介词 in 指了了动作对象 swimming 与其所处的状态对象 progress
之间的关系)
但根据英语的习惯，为使表达简洁，如果句子主语的动作正在进行，将 which
(doing) is in progress 省略，并通过将句子的主动词变成现在分词①并在其前面加
上助动词 be 表达出来，并将 be 作以下变化（通过变化 be 来体现动作的时间这
一信息）：
（1111）如果主句的主语的动作发生在现在
� 如果主句的主语为第一人称，将 be 变为 am。(例：I am sleeping. 我正
在睡觉)
� 如果主句的主语为第三人称，将 be 变成 is。（例：He/she is drinking water.
他/她正在喝水。
� 如果主句的主语为复数，将 be 变为 are。（例：They are talking. 他们在
谈话）
①○动词的现在分词的构成方法
■一般情况下，在动词后加-ing 构成：wait / waiting，work / working，sleep / sleeping 等。
■在不发音的-e 结尾动词去掉 e 后再加-ing：smile / smiling，move / moving 等。
■以重读闭音节或 r 音节结尾且末尾只有一个辅音字母动词，要双写末尾的辅音字母再加
-ing：occur / occurring，sit / sitting，refer / referring，plan / planning 等。
■以字母 ie 结尾的动词，通常将 ie 改为 y，再加 ing：tie / tying，die / dying，lie / lying 等。
176我们称经历过变化后的谓语为谓语的现在进行时
①。
①○现在进行时的基本用法：
■表示现在正在进行的动作（常与 now，right now，at the moment，for the time being，for thepresent 等连用）如：I am writing now. 我正在写字。He is running. 他在跑。
■表示现阶段正在进行的动作（说话时动作不一定进行，常与 recently, always，continually，
forever，constantly 等连用）。如：I am writting a new book recently. 我最近正在新一本新书。
They are planting trees these days. 这几天他们正在种树。I don't really work here; I am justhelping out until the new secretary arrives. 我并不在这儿工作，我只是在新秘书来之前帮帮
忙罢了。
■表示一个在最近按计划或安排要进行的动作（句中多有一个表示未来时间的词语。这种
情况仅限于少量动词。如：go, come, leave, start, arrive, work, have, stay, play, return 等）。如：
Tom, supper is ready. Come quickly. -OK. I'm coming. 汤姆，晚餐好了。快来吃吧。-好的，
我就来。She is leaving for Beijing tomorrw. 她明天去北京。
*(2005 湖南卷) Since I won the big prize, my telephone hasn't stopped ringing. People _____ toask how I am going to spend the money.A. phone B. will phone C. were phoning ●D. are phoning○注意有些动词不能用进行时，这是一类表示“感觉，感情，存在，从属”等的动词。如：
see，hear，smell，taste，feel，notice，look，appear，（表示感觉的词）；hate，love，fear，like，want，wish，prefer，refuse，forgive（表示感情的动词）；be，exist，remain，stay，obtain（表示存在状态的动词）；have，possess，own，contain，belong，consist of，form（表
示占有与从属的动词）；understand，know，believe，think，doubt，forget，remember（表
示思考理解的动词）。但是如果它们词义改变，便也可用进行时态。如：
*Tom looks pale. What’s wrong with him? 汤姆看上去脸色苍白。 他是怎么了？（look 在此
为联系动词，意为“显得，看上去”）
*Tom is looking for his books. 汤姆正在找他的书。（look 在此为实义动词，意为“寻找”）
○有些表示极短暂动作的动词也一般不用于进行时。如：declar 等。
○现在进行时的特殊用法：
■表示一种重复的动作，带有“厌恶”、“赞叹”等感情色彩，现在进行时往往与 constantly,always, forever 等词连用，给现在的动作披上一层感情色彩，如：She's constantly complaining.她不停地抱怨。My brother is always leaving things about. 我弟弟总是乱丢东西。He is foreverthinking of doing more for the students. 他总是想着为学生多做些事情。
■表示某一具体动作或心理状态的发展过程。如：The house is falling down. 房子正在倒下。
The weather is changing for the better. 天气慢慢转好了。
注意：有时表示一个动作刚刚开始。如：I'm forgetting my English. 我的英语开始忘了。Foodis costing more. 食品贵了起来。
■强调动作的重复。如：The train is arriving late almost every day this summer. 这个夏季火
车几乎天天晚点。Someone is knocking at the door. 有人不断地在敲门。The boy is jumpingwith joy. 那男孩高兴地跳个不停。
■表示两个动作是同一动作。如：He who helps others is helping himself. 帮人就是帮自己。
If you insist on doing it, you are doing a foolish thing. 如果你坚持做这件事，你就是在干傻
事。
■表示现阶段暂时的情况。如：Her house is being renovated. So she is staying with us. 她的
房子在翻修，因此她现在暂时和我们一起住。
■be 动词的进行时态：
be 动词一般不用于进行时态。但有时可用“am, is, are + being +形容词”结构表示暂时
（2222）如果主句的主语的动作发生在过去
� 如果主句的主语为单数，将 be 变成 was. (例：It was raining. 那时候正在
下雨)
� 如果主句的主语为复数，将 be 变成 were.（例: The children were laughing
when I arrived there yestoday. 昨天当我到达那儿的时候，孩子们正在笑）
我们称经历过变化后的谓语为谓语的过去进行时①。
（3333）如果主句的主语的动作发生在将来②
在 be 前面加上 will。（例：I will be watching TV at seven o’clock tonight. 今
天晚上七点钟我会正在看电视。）
我们称经历过变化后的谓语为谓语的将来进行时。
（4444）如果主句的主语的动作发生在过去将来
在 be 前面加上 would。（例：He said he would be waiting for me on 29 August
morning. 他说八月 29 早上他会正在等我）。
我们称经历过变化后的谓语为谓语的过去将来进行时。
或故意如此，如：The boy is being naughty. 这孩子有点儿淘气。I don't think you are being fair.我认为你不公平。He is being modest. 他现在很谦虚。比较：You are not polite. 你不讲礼貌。
（一贯如此）You are not being polite. 你可有点儿不礼貌了。（暂时的现象）
■用在戏剧性的描述中，表示过去的动作，使描写更生动。①
○过去进行进的基本用法：
■过去某一时刻或某一段时间内正在进行的动作。如：
*(2007 全国卷 II) — Is there anything wrong, Bob? You look sad.— Oh, nothing much. In fact, I ____ of my friends back home.
A. have just thought ●B. was just thinking C. would just think D. will just be thinking*(2007 江西卷) — I am sorry. But I any harm. I to drive a rat out.A.didn’t mean; tried B.don’t mean; am tryingC.haven’t meant; tried ●D.didn’t mean; was trying■表示移动的动词：come, start, stay, leave, go 等词的过去进行时可以表示过去的将来要发
生的动作。
■was going to do 可以表示在过去某一时间之后发生的动作。② (2009 安徽卷) Daniel's family their holiday in Huangshan this time next week.A. are enjoying B. are to enjoy C. will enjoy ●D. will be enjoying
178[6][6][6][6] 现在////过去////将来////过去将来完成时
（此处内容保留）
[7][7][7][7] 现在////过去////将来////过去将来完成进行时
（此处内容保留）
★时态概念总结：
透过对象英语语法的规则你可以发现，其实时态没有想像中的那么复杂，
其只不过是将动作对象与其发生的时间对象的关系和动作对象与其所处状态对
象的关系这些信息通过借助助动词和变化动词本身表达出来而已，从而达到简
化信息表达形式的目的，但我们得注意，其实每种时态是有着重点的，且具有
某些感情色彩，如下：
一般时：强调动作本身。
进行时：强调动作进行状态。
完成时：强调动作的影响。
完成进行时：强调动作的持续时间
■时态一致：这里主要讲当句子作名词性成分时，应该采用何种时态，具
体用法见注释①②。
①■当主句谓语使用现在时或将来时，作名词性成分的句子的谓语根据具体情况使用任
何时态。如：He says that he lives in Wuhan. 他说他住在武汉。We hope that there will be manypeople at your party today. 我们希望今天有很多人参加你的聚会。
■当主句谓语使用过去时的时候，作名词性成分的句子的谓语必须使用相应的过去/过去将
来时态。如：She said your were her teacher. 她说你是她老师。He said he had been an engineer.他说他普经是一个工程师。Mary said she would come next month. 玛丽说她下个月来。
■如果作名词性成分的句子表达的是一个真理，那们其谓语在任何时候都采用现在一般
时。如：The teacher tought me that light travels faster than sound. 老师教育我说，光的速度
比声音快。②
☆下面引用的一段论述可以帮助你理解时态的概念。
程永生：《汉英理论翻译与实践》，外语教学与研究出版社 2004 年版第 66 页。
英语时态系统是英语指示系统的一部分，是操英语的人从时间的角度观察客观世界的产
物。操英语的人站在时间轴上的某一点以面向未来背对过去的方式观察客观世界，以自身
所在的时间点或时间段为参照点，将它视为现在(now)，将背后的已经过去的时间视为过去
(past)，将面前的将要来到的时间视为将来（future）。同样，在观察过去时间的时候，他们
将自己置于过去时间轴的某一点上，以自身所在的时间点或时间段为参照点，将它视为现
在，将身后的已经过去的时间视为过去，将眼前的将要来到的时间视为将来。此时他站在
过去时间轴上，过去时间轴又以现在时间轴为参照，相对于现在时间轴而言，过去时间轴
上的现在就是过去(past)，过去时间轴上的过去就是过去之过去(past in the past)，过去时间
轴上的将来就是过去之将来(future in the past)。由此看来，在操英语的人的眼里，有两个时
间轴，这两个时间轴反映在语言里就使得英语有两个时间系统：现在时间系统和过去时间
系统。过去时间轴以现在时间轴为参照，过去时间系统以现在时间系统为参照。将这两个
时间系统合并起来就是英语时间系统。
英语时态系统不但用以表示时间，而且表示时间与时间之间的关系，表示时间与动作或状
态之间的关系。英语时态系统由时(tense)系统和态(aspect)系统构成。英语时系统分现在、
过去和将来，以现在为规范(norm)；英语态系统分一般、进行、完成和完成进行，以一般
为规范，完成进行则已完成为规范。与英语时间系统相对应，英语有两个时态系统：现在
时态系统和过去时态系统，过去时态系统以现在时态系统为参照。将这两个时态系统合并
起来就是英语时态系统。
程永生提出了英语时态选用的两条总规则即参照规则和语用规则。其参照规则认为，选用
英语时态，一般是先从现在时态系统与过去时态系统中，先选用一个系统作为规范，必要
时参照规范选用另一个系统。系统选好之后，从该系统中选用一般时态为规范，必要时参
照规范选用其它时态。简而言之就是先选用规范，必要时参照规范选用其它。其语用规则
认为，英语时态的选用与语篇的体裁有关。英语的说明文与议论文一般选用现在时态系统，
通常只选用一般现在时。英语的叙事文，一般多选用过去时态系统，但有几种例外。一是
现场报道(on-spot reporting)，二是历史现在时(historic present)，三是戏剧现在时(dramaticpresent)，四是自由直接引语与自由直接思维(free direct speech and free direct thought)。在这
四种场合多选用现在时态系统。现场报道就是作者亲临事发现场进行即时报道，事件发生
的时间与作者报道的时间同步，当然应选用现在时态系统。历史现在时是作者为了使文章
生动感人，使读者阅读时如临其境，将该用过去时态系统的地方选用了现在时态系统。英
语戏剧的台词与舞台指令一般都选用现在时态系统，是人所共知的事实。所谓自由直接引
语与自由直接思维，是 Leech & Short（1981）提出的。自由直接引语是指那些或省略了报
道句(reporting clause)或省略了引号或二者皆省的直接引语；自由直接思维是指那些或省略
了报道句或省略了引号或二者皆省的直接引用人物思维话语的句子。
如此看来，英语时态的选用主要与英语叙事文有关。但是英语说明文与议论文中常常用叙
事作为例子，而英语叙事文中也常常有说明或议论段落、句子甚至从句。另外，有些议论
可能是泛泛而言，而另一些议论可能是针对具体事件的。对于前者，无疑应选用现在时态
系统；对于后者，一般宜选用过去时态系统
英语叙事文之所以常常选用过去时态系统，是因为可以将叙事看成是叙事人对眼前的
或已发生的事件进行报道。如果叙事人要表达的是在报道过去发生的事，选用过去时态系
统描述所报道的内容就顺理成章了；如果他要表达的是在报道眼前发生的事，必然就会选
用现在时态系统。因此，叙事人要表达的是在报道过去还是在报道现在发生的事实际上是
选用具体时态的参照点。由于这个缘故，在将汉语译成英语的过程中，选用时态时必须揣
摩叙事人的意图。
180第二节第二节第二节第二节 被动语态被动语态被动语态被动语态
语态是动词的一种形式，它表示主语和谓语的关系。语态有两种：主动语
态和被动语态。如果主语是动作的执行者，或者是说动作是由主语完成的，要
用主动语态；如果主语是动作的承受者，或者是说动作不是由主语而是由其他
人完成的，则用被动语态①②。
被动语态的构成：助动词 bebebebe③++++主动词的过去分词④⑤。例：
①○使用被动语态的几种情形：
■当叙述的中心是行为的对象而不是行为者时。如：Meat shoule always be kept cool . 肉应
该总是保存在低温下。
*(2009 江苏卷) — Hi, Terry, can I use your computer for a while this afternoon?— Sorry. _____.A. It’s repaired B. It has been repaired ●C. It’s being repaired D. It had been repaired■当不知道、不容易指出或不必要指出行为者时。如：His car was stolen last night . 他的车子
昨天夜里被窃了。
■当要强调行为者时（此时用 by 短语）。如：The book was written by me. 这本书是我写
的。
■当为了行文方便（如为了避免变换主语、行为者被较长的成分限制等）时。如：He arrivedlate and was showed to the last row. 他到晚了，被领到最后一排。②
○传统语法认为下列主动语态不能变为被动语态:■当宾语为同源宾语时。如：We are living a happy life。我们生活幸福。
■当宾语是不定式、动名词时。如：I hope to see you very soon. 我希望很快见到你。{通过
复合词的概念你会发现 to see you very soon 根本就不是宾语。*Hope [have desire]}■宾语是相互代词时。如：We love each other. 我们爱着对方。③ Get＋过去分词也可以构成被动语态，用这种结构的句子侧重于动作的结果而不是动作本
身。如：The man got hurt on his way home. 那个男人在回家的路上受伤了。How did the glassget broken? 杯子怎么破了？这种构成形式多用在口语和非正式文体中。④
注意构成被动语态的主动词一般是及物动词，但也有少数看似不及物的由二个或两个以
上单词组成的短语动词（复合词）(其实仔细分析后你会发现组成这个复合词中的动词是及
物的，或者说这个动词复合的内容中的动词是及物的,如 talk about [say sth about sth],say 就
是一个及物动词)有被动语态，这需要平时多记忆，这类动词有： agree to, ask for, laugh at,operated on, listen to, look after, think of, talk about 等。如：A man who is much talked about isalways very attractive. 被谈论多的人通常是很有吸引力的人。Such a thing has never beenheard of before.这样的事从未被听说过。The old man was looked after carefully. 那位老人被
精心照顾着。He has never been listened to. 人家从不听他的话。⑤
○请注意以下几个问题：
■有一种复合词由动词+名词+介词构成，变被动语态有两种形式。如：
We take good care of the books. 我们用心看管这些书。*The books are taken good care of.
� John was elected president of the class instead of Harry. 乔治被选为班长而代替
了亨利。
� Volcanoes are described as active, dormant or extinct. 火山被描述为活的，沉睡
着的，或者死的。
� The soldier was killed, but the train was saved. 这位战士牺牲了，然而列车得救
了。
★被动语态的各种时态的构成：将 be+主动词的过去分词看成是一个整体，
*Good care is taken of the book.You must pay attention to your pronunciation. 你须注意你的标点符号。*Attention must be paid to your pronunciation.
*Your pronunciation must be paid attention to.○用于这类结构的常见的复合词有：catch sight of, make use of, pay attention to, set fire to,
take care of, take hold of, take notice of, keep an eye on 等。
■当主动句的主语是 nobody, no one 等含有否定意义的不定代词时，被动句中将其变为
anybody, 作 by 的宾语，并将谓语动词变为否定的被动语态。如：
Nobody can answer this question. 没人能回答这个问题。
误：The question can be answered by nobody.正：The question can not be answered by anybody.■当否定句中的宾语是 anything, anybody, anyone 等不定代词时，在被动句中应将其分别变
为 nothing, nobody, no one 作主语，并将谓语动词变为肯定的被动语态。如：
They haven't done anything to make the river clean. 在清洁这条河上，他们毫无作为。
误：Anything hasn't been done to make the river clean.正：Nothing has been done to make the river clean.■以 who 为主语开头的疑问句，变被动时，用 by whom 放在句首。如：
Who wrote the story? 这个故事是那个写的？
误：Who was the story written?正：By whom was the story written?■在 need, require, want(需要)等动词后，表示某物(人)要进行……处理时，后接动名词一般
式的主动形式作宾语表示被动意义，相当于不定式的被动式。如：
—You've come just in time to help us. 你来的正是时候，可以帮我们了。
—Fine, what requires doing? (=Fine, what requires to be done?) 好啊，有什么要做的吗？
This sentence needs improving (to be improved). 这个句子需要改进。
■注意下面一些结构：be going to, ought to, have/has/had to, be+不定式，be bound/sure to, beabout/due to 后的被动结构。有这些结构的句子的主动词在 to 之后，所以变成被动语太时
只要在 to 后加上 be+主动词的过去分词就可以了。如：This has to be done quickly. 这事得
马上做。
■传统语法中谓语含有双宾动词的句子在变成被动语态时，可以将直接宾语或间接宾语变
成主语。如：Mary is given a warm welcome. 玛丽受到了热烈欢迎。也可以变为：A warmwelcome was given to Mary. （个人认为第二种变化最合理）。
182再将 be 看成是主句的主动词进行变化即可
①。被动语态其实也是借用助动词
和利用变化主动词的形式简洁的表达出动作对象与其承受者对象的关系，这点
和时态的构成有相似性，即利用助动词和动词变化表达出了动作对象与其它对
象的关系（动作发生的时间对象，动作的状态对象，动作的承受者对象）。
■通过学习复合词、形容词的比较级、时态和被动语态我们发现，在英语
中，为使表达的形式简洁，有时候一些信息并不需要用限定句或者平行句显性
的表达出来，而可以通过运用复合词、加后缀、调整语序、借助助动词或变化
句子的某一部分表达出来（如名词的复数形式，动词的现在分词/过去分词/过去
式）。这也印证了我们先前说法（其实语言表达的就是对象本身、对象的动作、
属性、身份、以及与其它对象的关系这些信息，只不过不同的语言运用的表达
符号和表达规则不一样而已）。领悟这一点对学习对象英语语法非常重要。
① (2007 天津卷) If Newton lived today, he would be surprised by what ____ in science andtechnology.A. had discovered B. had been discovered C. has discovered ●D. has been discovered
第三节第三节第三节第三节 介词介词介词介词
在第二章中我们讲过介词是用来表示描述对象之间静态关系的词，其功能
是指出对象之间的空间、时间和逻辑关系。常用的介词主要有下面一些：on, in,
behind, after, above, over, under, near, by, at, with, from, to, for, of, about, as, like,
underneath, beneath, around, round①。
下面我们将逐一学习上面介词的基本用法。
1.1.1.1. OnOnOnOn②
（一）具体对象 1+be+on+1+be+on+1+be+on+1+be+on+具体对象 2222：onononon指出了两个具体对象之间的空间
位置关系。
1111）oooonnnn指出具体对象 1111接触具体对象 2222的表面（indicatingindicatingindicatingindicating thatthatthatthat sth1sth1sth1sth1 touchstouchstouchstouchs thethethethe
surfacesurfacesurfacesurface ofofofof sth2sth2sth2sth2），如：
� a book on the table 桌子上的书 ★a photo on the wall 墙上的照片 ★I sit on
the floor. 我坐在草地上。★He stands on his head. 他头顶地立着③。
■OnOnOnOn在这一意义的上的特殊用法见注释④⑤。
①介词这一部分参考了《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》(第四版)、《美国传统词典》（第四版）、
《韦氏大学词典》（第十一版）、《麦克米兰英语词典》（第 2.4 版）、《朗文当代英语词典》
（第四版）、《剑桥高级学习词典》（第二版）等资料。②
下面引用的词源可以帮助你理解：http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/onWord Origin & HistoryO.E. on, unstressed variant of an "in, on, into," from P.Gmc. (cf. Du. aan, Ger. an, Goth.ana "on, upon"), from PIE base *ano "on" (cf. Avestan ana "on," Gk. ana "on, upon," L.an-, O.C.S. na, Lith. nuo "down from"). Also used in O.E. in many places where we wouldnow use in. From 16c.-18c. (and still in northern England dialect) often reduced to o'. Phraseon to "aware" is from 1877.③
■a drawing on the blackboard 黑板上画的图 ■a roof on a house 房顶 ■a gold ring onmy finger 我手指上的金戒指 ■a flag on a pole 旗杆上的旗 ■a skirt on a hook 衣钩上的
裙子 ■I like the hat on her head. 我喜欢她头上的帽子。■I have no money on me. 我没带
钱。④
注意两个较特殊的用法：
1842222）指出具体对象 1111形成具体对象 2222表面的一部分（indicatingindicatingindicatingindicating thatthatthatthat sth1sth1sth1sth1
formsformsformsforms partpartpartpart ofofofof thethethethe surfacesurfacesurfacesurface ofofofof sth2sth2sth2sth2），如：
� the diagram on Page 5 第 5 页上的图表 ★ She has a spot on her chin. 她下巴
上有个斑点。★a blister on my foot 我脚上的泡
■OnOnOnOn在意义（一）的上的引申①意义示例见注释
②③。
（二）④动作对象////状态对象+be+on++be+on++be+on++be+on+地点对象：onononon指出动作对象////状态对象
与其发生////存在的地点对象之间的关系（indicatingindicatingindicatingindicating wherewherewherewhere sthsthsthsth happens/happens/happens/happens/existsexistsexistsexists），例：
1）on 指出对象在另一对象的附近或在另一对象的两边即 on=next to or along the side of（这
层意义应该是基于两对象接壤）。例：a small town on the coast 沿海的小市镇 ■Her house ison the highway. 她家在公路旁。■a village on the dispute border 争议边界附近的村子 Hishome is on the street. 他们家在街边。 ■On two years ago I left. 大约两年前我离开了。（这
个用法不太常见）。
2）乘坐大型公共交通工具时可以用 on [这是一种习惯用法（按常理我们应该会用 in，但可
能是因为这些交通工具空间大的关系吧，所以用了 on）。例：travel on, the plane, the train, thebus, the tube, the coach 乘坐飞机、火车、公共汽车、地铁、长途汽车。⑤
在现实生活中，人们很容易理解具体对象之间的关系（因为具体对象容易被感知），但
在理解具体对象与抽象对象的关系或抽象对象之间的关系时却很有困难。那我们怎样才能
克服这一困难呢？其实通过学习后你会发现，具体对象与抽象对象的关系或抽象对象之间
的关系，都源于具体对象之间的关系，换句话说其关系是具体对象之间关系的镜像。①
引申和修辞手法在是语言中普遍存在的一种现象。为简便，本书中引申概念包括修辞手
法。请在理解引申意义时以介词指出的原始静态关系为基础充分发挥想像力！②
注意引申用法主要通过例子说明[主要引自《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》(第四版)]，在理解
对象之间的原始关系后，再理解记忆一些常见的例子是学习引申用法的好方法。③ on the committee, staff, jury, panel 在委员会﹑全体职员﹑陪审团﹑评判小组中■Most carsrun on petrol. 多数汽车用汽油驱动。■ live on bread and water 靠面包和水生活■on (ieaddicted to) heroin 有海洛因瘾■On your advice I applied for the job. 我听从你的建议申请了
这份工作。■live on a pension, one's savings, a student grant, etc 靠养老金﹑积蓄﹑助学金等生
活■on pain of death 冒生命危险■on duty 值班■on her third beer 在她喝第三杯啤酒时■act onprinciples 照原则办事■On entering the room, she saw him. 她一进这个房间便看到了他。■
talked on the telephone. 通过电话聊天■play a tune on the recorder 用竖笛吹奏一曲■onbusiness/holiday 办公 [度假 ]■a tax on tobacco 烟草税■We will reach our judgments not onintentions or on promises but on deeds and on results. 我们将根据事实和结果而不是目的或诺言
来作出判断。■travel on business. 商务旅行■a physician on call 随时待命的大夫■heapederror on error. 错上加错■a book on English.有关英语的书籍■We have some evidence on him.我们有一些不利于他的证据。■have sth on one's mind 有心事■Just on (ie Almost exactly) ayear ago I moved to London. 就在一年以前我搬到了伦敦。④
注意（二）、（三）都是（一）的引申，不过由于其应用的很普遍所以单独列出来了。
� He was knocking on the door①. 他在敲门。★He grew up on a farm. 他是在农
场长大的。
（三）动作对象////状态对象+be+on++be+on++be+on++be+on+时间对象：onononon指出动作对象////状态对象与
其发生////存在的时间对象之间的关系（indicatingindicatingindicatingindicating whenwhenwhenwhen sthsthsthsth happens/existshappens/existshappens/existshappens/exists），例：
� I was born on July 1st. 我的生日是 7 月 1 日。★Many shops don't open on
Sundays.许多商店在星期日都不营业。
（四）动作对象+be+on++be+on++be+on++be+on+其它对象（一般为具体对象）：onononon指出动作对象与
其方向对象的关系。
� marching on the capital 向首都进发。★creep up on sb 悄悄地向某人爬去
■onononon又可以是一个复合词：onononon [[[[totototo aaaa positionpositionpositionposition onononon (a(a(a(a surface)surface)surface)surface)]]]]，和复合词 ontoontoontoonto相似，
例：
� jumped on the table 跳到桌子上。
■On+On+On+On+省略对象的用法：如果 on 后面的对象为可推测信息其常省略②，例：
� Put your clothes on=Put your clothes on your body 穿上你的衣服★The skirt is
finished I'm now going to sew a pocket on=The skit is...on the skirt. 裙子做好了
--我现在再缝上个口袋。★The TV is always on in their house=The TV is always
on electricity in their house. 他们家电视老开着。★What time is the news
on=What time is the news on the TV? 新闻节目什麽时候开始? ★I'm on in five
minutes=I am on the stage in five minutes. 我五分钟后就要上场。
①严格意义上来说 on the door 是一个平行句，即：on the door=which (hand) was on the door.
{因为 hand 属于可推测信息，所以这个平行句采用了现在分词形式的省略形式}，但为简
便（但不严谨）我们也可以这样认为 on the door 是一个限定句，即：on the door=which(knocking) was on the door. {on 指出了动作对象 knocking 与其发生的地点对象 the door 之间
的关系。}，两种理解方式所理解出来的意义是一致的，以后遇到类似的情况请注意。②
传统语法称此时的 on 为副词。
1862.2.2.2. IIIInnnn①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/inWord Origin & HistoryO.E. in "in," inne "within," from P.Gmc. *in (cf. O.Fris, Du., Ger., Goth. in, O.N. i ), fromPIE *en-/*n (cf. Gk. en, L. in, O.Ir. in, Welsh yn-, O.C.S. on- ). Sense of "holding power"( the in party ) first recorded 1605; that of "exclusive" ( the in-crowd, an in-joke ) is from 1907;that of "stylish, fashionable" ( the in thing ) is from 1960. The noun sense of "influence, access"( have an in with ) first recorded 1929 in Amer.Eng. In-and-out "copulation" is attested from1610s.
3.3.3.3. BBBBehindehindehindehind①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/behindWord Origin & HistoryO.E. behindan "behind, after," from bi "by" + hindan "from behind" (see hind (adj.)).Euphemistic meaning "backside of a person" is from 1786. Phrase behind the times is from1905.
1884.4.4.4. AAAAfterfterfterfter①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afterWord Origin & HistoryO.E. æfter "after, next, following in time," from O.E. of "off" (see apo-) + -ter a comparativesuffix; thus originally meaning "more away, farther off." After hours "after regular workinghours" is from 1861. Afterwit "wisdom that comes too late" is attested from c.1500 but seems tohave fallen from use, despite being more needed now than ever.
5.5.5.5. AAAAbovebovebovebove①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aboveWord Origin & HistoryO.E. abufan , from on "on" + bufan "over," compound of be "by" + ufan "over/high," fromP.Gmc. *ufan-, *uban- . Meaning "in addition" first recorded 1590s.
1906.6.6.6. OOOOverververver①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/overWord Origin & HistoryO.E. ofer , from P.Gmc. *uberi (cf. O.S. obar , O.Fris. over , O.N. yfir , O.H.G. ubar , Ger.über , Goth. ufar "over, above"), from PIE *uper (see super-). Sense of "finished" is attestedfrom late 14c. In radio communication, used to indicate the speaker has finished speaking (1926).Widely used as a prefix in O.E. and other Germanic languages. Adjective phraseover-the-counter is attested from 1875, originally of stocks and shares.
7.7.7.7. UUUUndernderndernder①②
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/underWord Origin & HistoryO.E. under, from P.Gmc. *under- (cf. O.Fris. under , Du. onder , O.H.G. untar , Ger. unter ,O.N. undir , Goth. undar ), from PIE *ndhero- "lower" (cf. Skt. adhah "below;" Avestanathara- "lower;" L. infernus "lower," infra "below"). Notion of "subordination" was present inO.E. Also used in O.E. as a preposition meaning "between, among," as still in under thesecircumstances, etc. (though this may be an entirely separate root; see understand). Productive asa prefix in O.E. times, as in Ger. and Scand. Under the table is from 1921 in the sense of "verydrunk," 1940s in sense of "illegal." To get something under (one's) belt is from 1954; to keepsomething under (one's) hat "secret" is from 1885; to have something under (one's) nose "inplain sight" is from 1548; to speak under (one's) breath "in a low voice" is attested from 1832.To be under (someone's) thumb "entirely controlled" is recorded from 1754.② http://web.etiantian.com/staticpages/study/question/question_878483.htmbelow / beneath / under这三个介词都可以表示位置“在…下面”，但有区别。
below 表示“在…之下”，“在…的下游”，与介词 above 相对应，常指在某物体之下，但不
一定在该物的正下方。如：
Some parts of the country are below sea level.那个国家的某些部分位于海平面之下。
He is below the average at school.他的学习成绩在水准以下。
A boat is below the bridge.一条船在桥的下面。
beneath 表示“在…（正）下方”，“在…脚下”。这个介词常可与 below 互相替换，但 below较常用，beneath 多用于正式文体中。如：
Two girls are sitting beneath a tree.两个女孩坐在树下。
Such a thing is beneath notice.这样的事不值得注意。
under 表示“在…之下”，通常表示位置处于正下方，与介词 over“在…上方”相对应。如：
Our boat went under the bridge.我们的船通过桥下。
A cat is sitting under the table.一只猫在桌子下面。
注意：beneath 一般只表示物的位置，人们的注意力集中在物的上面，而 under 往往会使人
将注意力首先集中在位置上，其次才是物，即突出了物上面的东西。
1928.8.8.8. NNNNearearearear①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/nearWord Origin & HistoryO.E. near "closer, nearer," comp. of neah, neh "nigh." Influenced by O.N. naer "near," itcame to be used as a positive form mid-13c., and new comp. nearer developed 1500s (see nigh).Originally an adv., but now supplanted in most such senses by nearly ; it has in turn supplantedcorrect nigh as an adjective. In near and dear (1620s) it refers to nearness of kinship. Verbmeaning "to draw near" is attested from 1510s. Near East first attested 1891, in Kipling. Nearbeer "low-alcoholic brew" is from 1909.
9.9.9.9. BBBByyyy①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/byWord Origin & HistoryO.E. be (unstressed) or bi (stressed) "near, in, by, during, about," from P.Gmc. *bi "around,about" (cf. O.S., O.Fris. bi, be "by near," Du. bij , Ger. bei "by, at, near," Goth. bi "about"),from *umbi (cognate with second element in PIE *ambhi "around," cf. Skt. abhi "toward, to,"Gk. amphi- "around, about"). Originally an adverbial particle of place, in which sense it isretained in place names ( Whitby, Grimsby , etc.). Elliptical use for "secondary course" (opposedto main ) was in O.E. This also is the sense of the second by in the phrase by the by (1610s).Phrase by and by (early 14c.) originally meant "one by one," modern sense is from 1520s. Byand large (1660s) originally was nautical, "sailing to the wind and off it," hence "in onedirection then another."
19410.10.10.10. AAAAtttt①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/atWord Origin & HistoryO.E. æt, common P.Gmc. (cf. O.N., Goth. at, O.Fris. et, O.H.G. az ), from PIE *ad- "to, near,at" (cf. L. ad "to, toward" Skt. adhi "near"). Lost in Ger. and Du., which use their equivalent ofto ; in Scandinavian, however, to has been lost and at fills its place. At-home (n.) "receptionof visitors" is from 1745; baseball at-bat "player's turn at the plate" is from 1941. The colloquialuse of at after where ("where it's at") is attested from 1859. In choosing between at church , inchurch , etc. at is properly distinguished from in or on by involving some practicalconnection; a worshipper is at church; a tourist is in the church. At last is recorded from late13c.; adv. phrase at least was in use by 1775. At in M.E. was used freely with prepositions (e.g.at after , which is in Shakespeare), but this has faded with the exception of at about , which wasused in modern times by Trollope, Virginia Woolfe, D.H. Lawrence, and Evelyn Waugh, butnonetheless is regarded as a sign of incompetent writing by my copy editor bosses.
11.11.11.11. withwithwithwith①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/withWord Origin & HistoryO.E. wið "against, opposite, toward," a shortened form related to wiðer , from P.Gmc. *withro-"against" (cf. O.S. withar "against," O.N. viðr "against, with, toward, at," M.Du., Du. weder ,Du. weer "again," Goth. wiþra "against, opposite"), from PIE *wi-tero- , lit. "more apart,"from base *wi- "separation" (cf. Skt. vi , Avestan vi- "asunder," Skt. vitaram "further,farther," O.C.S. vutoru "other, second"). In M.E., sense shifted to denote association,combination, and union, partly by influence of O.N. vidh, and also perhaps by L. cum "with"(as in pugnare cum "fight with"). In this sense, it replaced O.E. mid "with," which survivesonly as a prefix (e.g. midwife). Original sense of "against, in opposition" is retained incompounds such as withhold, withdraw, withstand. Often treated as a conjunction byungrammatical writers and used where and would be correct. First record of with child"pregnant" is recorded from c.1200. With it "cool" is black slang, recorded by 1931.
19612.12.12.12. FFFFromromromrom①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/fromWord Origin & HistoryO.E. fram, originally "forward movement, advancement," evolving into sense of "movementaway," from P.Gmc. *fr- (cf. Goth. fram "from, away," O.N. fra "from," fram "forward"),corresponding to PIE *pr- (see pro).
13.13.13.13. TTTToooo①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/toWord Origin & HistoryO.E. to "in the direction of, for the purpose of, furthermore," from W.Gmc. *to (cf. O.S.,O.Fris. to , Du. too , O.H.G. zuo , Ger. zu "to"), from PIE pronomial base *do- "to, toward,upward" (cf. L. donec "as long as," O.C.S. do "as far as, to," Gk. suffix -de "to, toward," O.Ir.do , Lith. da- ). In O.E., the preposition ( go to town ) leveled with the adverb ( the door slammedto ) except where the adverb retained its stress ( tired and hungry too ); there it came to bewritten with -oo (see too). The nearly universal use of to with infinitives ( to sleep, todream, etc.) arose in M.E. out of the O.E. dative use of to, and helped drive out the O.E.inflectional endings (though in this use to itself is a mere sign, without meaning). Commonlyused as a prefix in M.E. ( to-hear "listen to," etc.), but few of these survive ( to-do,together, and time references like today, tonight, tomorrow -- Chaucer also has to-yeere ). Toand fro "side to side" is attested from 1340. Phrase what's it to you "how does that concernyou?" goes back a long way:"Huæd is ðec ðæs?"[John xxi.22, in Lindisfarne Gospel, c.950]
19814.14.14.14. FFFForororor①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/forWord Origin & HistoryO.E. for "for, before, on account of," from P.Gmc. *fura (cf. O.S. furi, Du. voor "for,before;" Ger. für "for;" Dan. for "for," før "before;" Goth. faur "for," faura "before"); seefore. A common prefix in O.E., where it could be intensive, destructive, or perfective. Its usealone as a conjunction (not found before 12c.) is probably a shortening of common O.E. phrasessuch as for þon þy "therefore."
15.15.15.15. OOOOffff①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ofWord Origin & HistoryO.E. of, unstressed form of æf (prep., adv.) "away, away from," from P.Gmc. *af- (cf. O.N.af, O.Fris. af, of "of," Du. af "off, down," Ger. ab "off, from, down"), from PIE *apo- "off,away" (see apo-). Primary sense in O.E. was still "away," but shifted in M.E. with use of theword to translate L. de, ex, and especially O.Fr. de, which had come to be the substitute for thegenitive case. " Of shares with another word of the same length, as , the evil glory of beingaccessory to more crimes against grammar than any other." [Fowler]
20016.16.16.16. aboutaboutaboutabout①
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① http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aboutWord Origin & HistoryO.E. onbutan "on the outside of," from on "on" + be "by" + utan "outside," from ut (seeout). By 13c. it had forced out O.E. ymbe for meaning "in the neighborhood of." Abouts, withadverbial genitive, still found in hereabouts, etc., is probably a northern dialectal form. Aboutface as a military command (short for right about face ) is first attested 1861, Amer.Eng.
下面几个介词的用法相对较为简单就不作详细介绍了：as { I'm speaking as
your teacher. 我以老师的身份和你说话. *who (I) is as teacher. 介词 as 指出对象
（I）与其身份对象（teacher）之间的关系。}，like { He's very like his brother. 他
很像他兄弟。*介词 like 指出对象（he）与其相似对象（brother）之间的关系},
underneath { She found a lot of dust underneath the carpet. 她发觉地毯下面有许多
尘土。}，beneath { The boat sank beneath the waves. 小船淹没在浪涛中。},
around{ The earth moves around the sun. 地球围绕着太阳运转。}, round{ goldfish
swimming round the bowl 在鱼缸里转圈游动的金鱼. }。
注意本书中介词概念与传统语法中的介词概念是有所不同的，如我们认为
以下词仅为介词复合词：aboard, across, against, along, amid, among, atop, beside,
beyond, between, despite, down, during, inside, into, off, onto, out, outside, past,
since, than, through, throughout, till, toward, unlike, until, up, upon, within, without。
202第四节第四节第四节第四节 情态助动词情态助动词情态助动词情态助动词
我们先来看一个含情态助动词的例子：I can move the stone. 我能搬动这块
石头。根据对象英语语法，你可能会这样表达：I have the ability to move the
stone=I have the ability which is to move the stone. 显然你的表达是正确的，但没
有原句简洁。
按照英语的习惯，由于在日常生活中，特别是口语中，要表达 “has/have the
ability ”的地方特别多，为表达方便所以应用了 can 这个复合词，其复合的内容
是: has/have the ability to. 英语中称 can 这个复合词为情态助动词。下面我们来
大概了解一下与 can 相似的情态助动词①：
[1][1][1][1] 表能力
� Can [has/have the ability to] 例：I can speak English. 我会说英语。
� Could [had the ability to] 例：He could dance. 他会跳舞。
注：could 还是 can 的过去式。
①助动词(auxiliary)主要有两类：基本助动词(primary auxiliary)和情态助动词(modal
auxiliary)。基本助动词有三个：do, have 和 be；情态助动词有十三个：may, might; can, could;will, would; shall, should; must, need, dare, used to, ought to. 上述两类助动词的共同特征是，
在协助主动词构成限定动词词组时，具有作用词的功能：
■构成否定式：He didndidndidndidn’’’’tttt go and neither did she.The meeting mightmightmightmight not start until 5 o’clock.■构成疑问式或附加疑问式：MustMustMustMust you leave right now?You havehavehavehave been learning French for 5 years, havenhavenhavenhaven’’’’tttt you?■构成修辞倒装：Nowhere cancancancan he obtain any information about his sister.Hardly hadhadhadhad he arrived when she started complaining.■代替限定动词词组：A: Who cancancancan solvesolvesolvesolve this crossword puzzle?B: Tom cancancancan.A: ShallShallShallShall I writewritewritewrite to him?B: Yes, dodododo.
[2][2][2][2] 表允许
� Can [be allowed to] 例：You can take the car, if you want. 你要用那辆汽车就尽
管用.
� Could [be allowd to] 例：Could I use your phone? 让我用一下你的电话好吗?
Could I borrow your bicycle? 我可以借一下你的自行车吗?
� May [be allowed to] 例：You may come if you wish. 你要来就来吧.
� Might [be allowed to] 例：Might I make a suggestion? 我可以提个建议吗?
注：might 还是 may 的过去式。
[3][3][3][3] 表建议或可取或必要性
� Can [be advised to] 例：We can eat in a restaurant, if you like. 你愿意的话,
咱们可以在饭馆吃饭.
� Must [be advised to] 例：We must see what the authorities have to say. 我
们应该看看当局怎麽说 .
� Could [be advised to] 例：We could write a letter to the headmaster. 我们不
妨给校长写封信。 You could always try his home number. 实在不行的话,
你还可以试一试他家的电话号码。
� Should [be supposed to] 例：you should wash your face every day. 你应该每天
洗脸。
� Ought to [be supposed to] 例：You ought to improve your English before going to
work in America. 你应该把英语学好些再去美国工作.
� Had better [be supposed to] 例：We had better go now. 我们最好现在走。
（相似意义的词：
Have to[be advised to] 例：You simply have to get a new job. 你只须找个新工
204作.
Has/have got to [be advised to] 例：You've got to try this new recipe it's delicious. 你
应该试试这种新烹饪法--味道好极了）
[4][4][4][4] 表必需
� must [be compeled to/be obligated to] 例： I must finish my work as soon as
possible. 我必须尽快完成工作。I must go to the bank to get some money. 我得
到银行去取些钱. When you enter the building you must show the guard your
pass. 进入大楼时须向警卫出示通行证 . Cars must not park in front of the
entrance. 入口处不得停放汽车.
（相似意义的词：
Has/have to [be compeled to] 例：I have to type letters and answer the phone. 我又
得用打字机打信, 又得接电话.
Has/have got to [be compeled to] 例：I've got to go to work by bus tomorrow. 我明
天得坐公共汽车去上班。 Why have you got to take these tablets? 你为什麽要吃
这些药片? You haven't got to take flowers but many people do. 你不必非带花去
不可。）
[5][5][5][5] 表可能
� Can [has/have the possibility to] 例：He can't have slept through all that noise.
那麽吵他不可能睡得着觉。That can't be Mary she's in hospital. 那不可能是玛
丽--她住院了。
� Could [has/have the possibility to] 例：You could be right, I suppose. 我想可能
是你对. My wife's in hospital our baby could arrive at any time. 我妻子住进了
医院--我们的小宝宝随时都可能出生.
� May [has/have the possibility to] 例：It may rain. 可能会下雨。This coat may be
Peter's. 这件大衣可能是彼得的. That may or may not be true. 那可能是实情,
也可能不是。
� Might[has/have the possibility to] 例：He might get here in time, but I can't be
sure. 他可能及时来到这里 , 不过我不能肯定。This ointment might help to
clear up your rash. 这种药膏也许能消除你的皮疹.
� Must [has/have/had the possibility to] 例：You must be hungry after your long
walk. 你走了那麽长的路, 一定饿了吧。 She must be having a lot of problems
with the language. 她在语言上一定有很多困难。 You must be Mr Smith I was
told to expect you. 你准是史密斯先生吧--我是吩咐来接你的。They must be
twins. 他们一定是双胞胎。
� Ought [has/have/had the possibility to] 例：If he started at nine, he ought to be
here by now. 要是他九点出发, 现在该到这儿了。That ought to be enough food
for all of us. 那些该够我们大家吃的了。Look at the sky it ought to be a fine
afternoon. 看看天--下午一定很晴朗。
� Will [has/have the possibility to] 例：That'll be the postman now! 这准是邮递员
来了! They'll be home by this time. 他们现在一定到家了。
（相似意义的词：
Has/have to [has/have the possibility to] 例：This has to be part of the original
manuscript. 这一定是原稿的一部分。）
[6][6][6][6] 表请求
� Can [be requested to] 例：Can you help me with this box? 你能帮我弄这个箱子
吗? Can you feed the cat? 你喂喂猫好吗?
206� Could [be requested to] 例：Could you baby-sit for us on Friday? 星期五你
替我们照看小孩行吗? Could you type one more letter before you go? 你临走以
前再打一封信行吗? Do you think I could have a cigarette? 我可以吸支香烟
吗?
[7][7][7][7] 表愿望
� May [be whished to] 例：May you both be very happy! 祝你们俩幸福! Long
may she live to enjoy her good fortune! 愿她长寿幸福!
[8][8][8][8] 其它
� Dare [have sufficient courage or impudence (to do sth)] 例：I dare not say. 我不
敢说。How dare she go? 她怎么敢去呢?
� Need [to be under the necessity of or the obligation to] 例：They need not come.
他们不必来。
从上面的分析我们可以发现，英语中的情态助动词其实就是特殊复合词①。各情
①○情态助动词的特征：
基本助动词与情态助动词最主要的区别之一是，基本助动词本身没有词义，而情态助动词
则有自己的词义，能表示说话人对有关动作或状态的看法，或表示主观设想：
What havehavehavehave you been doing since? （构成完成进行体，本身无词义）
I am afraid I mustmustmustmust be going. （一定要）
You maymaymaymay have read some account of the matter. （或许已经）
除此之外，情态助动词还有如下词法和句法特征：
■除 ought 和 used 以外，其他情态助动词后面只能接不带 to 的不定式。如果我们把 ought to和 used to 看做是固定词组的话，那么，所有情态助动词无一例外地只能接不带 to 的不定
式：We usedusedusedused totototo growgrowgrowgrow beautiful roses.I asked if he wouldwouldwouldwould comecomecomecome andandandand repairrepairrepairrepair my television set.■情态助动词在限定动词词组总总是位居第一：They needneedneedneed not have been punished so severely.■情态助动词用于第三人称单数现在时的时候，没有词形变化，即其词尾无-s 形式：SheSheSheShe daredaredaredare not say what she thinks.■情态助动词没有非限定形式，即没有不定式、-ing 分词和-ed 分词形式：Still, she neednneednneednneedn’’’’tttt have run away.■情态助动词的“时”的形式并不是时间区别的主要标志。在不少场合，情态助动词的现
在时和过去时形式都可以表示现在、过去或将来时间：
态助动词的具体用法及区别见注释（may①, might②; can③, could④⑤; will⑥, would⑦⑧;
WouldWouldWouldWould you mind very much if I ask you to do something?She told him he oughtoughtoughtought not totototo have done it.■情态助动词之间是相互排斥的，即在一个限定动词词组中只能出现一个情态助动词，但
有时却可以与 have 和 be 基本助动词连用：You shouldshouldshouldshould havehavehavehave washed the wound.Well, you shouldnshouldnshouldnshouldn’’’’tttt bebebebe reading a novel.①
以下各情态助动词的用法引自：牛津高阶英汉双解词典牛津高阶英汉双解词典牛津高阶英汉双解词典牛津高阶英汉双解词典 （第四版）（第四版）（第四版）（第四版）
May 的用法：
■1. indicating permission 用以表示允许﹑ 许可: You may come if you wish. 你要来就来吧.* May I come in? 我可以进来吗? * Passengers may cross by the footbridge. 乘客可使用步行
桥.■2. indicating possibility 用以表示可能: This coat may be Peter's. 这件大衣可能是彼得的.* That may or may not be true. 那可能是实情, 也可能不是.(2005 安徽卷)26. Helen ______ go on the trip with us, but she isn’t quite sure yet.A. shall B. must ●C. may D. can■3. indicating purpose 用以表示目的: I'll write today so that he may know when to expect us.我今天就写信好让他知道我们什麽时候到.■4. asking for information 用於询问情况: Well, who may `you be? 喂, 你是谁呀? * How oldmay `she be? 她有多大年纪了?■5. used to express wishes and hopes 用以表示愿望和希望: May you both be very happy! 祝
你们俩幸福! * Long may she live to enjoy her good fortune! 愿她长寿幸福!② Might 的用法：
■1. indicating permission 用以表示许可: Might I make a suggestion? 我可以提个建议吗? *If I might just put in a word here... 容我在此略置一词....■2. indicating possibility 表示可能: He `might get here in time, but I can't be sure. 他可能及
时来到这里, 不过我不能肯定. * This ointment might help to clear up your rash. 这种药膏也
许能消除你的皮疹.(2009 辽宁卷) The traffic is heavy these days. I arrive a bit late, so could you saveme a place?A. can B. must C. need ●D. might(2007 江西卷) — Where is my dictionary? I remember I put it here yesterday.
— You it in the wrong place.A.must put B.should have put C.might put ●D.might have put
■3. asking for information 用於问讯情况: And who might `she be? 那麽她能是哪一位呢? *How long might `that take? 那要多长时间?■4. used to make polite requests or appeals 用於婉转的请求或吁请: You might just (ie Please)call in at the supermarket for me. 请顺便为我去一趟超级市场吧. * I think you might at leastoffer to help! 我认为你至少可以主动帮帮忙吧!■5. 作 may 的过去式。③ Can 的用法：
■1.1）indicating ability 表示能力: I can run fast. 我能跑得很快. * Can you call back tomorrow?你明天能回个电话吗? * He couldn't answer the question. 他不能回答那个问题. * Thestadium can be emptied in four minutes. 这个运动场能用四分钟时间清场.
208shall①, should②③; must④⑤, need⑥, dare⑦⑧, used to⑨⑩, ought to1112）13。
2）indicating acquired knowledge or skill 表示获得的知识或技能): They can speakFrench. 他们会说法语. * Can he cook? 他会做饭吗?3）used with verbs of perception 与感官动词连用): I can hear music. 我听见有音乐声. * Ithought I could smell something burning. 我好像闻到什麽东西烧着了.○注：can 表示能力时，还可用 be able to 代替，但有区别，即 be able to 有各种时态，但
can 只有过去时。
■2. indicating permission 表示许可: Can I read your newspaper? 我能看看你的报纸吗? *Can I take you home? 我送你回家行吗? * You can take the car, if you want. 你要用那辆汽车
就尽管用.■注意：could 也可表示请求，比 can 委婉，主要用于疑问句，不可用于肯定句，答语
应用 can（即 could 不能用于现在时态的简略答语中）。如：
— CouldCouldCouldCould I come to see you tomorrow?— Yes, you cancancancan. （否定答语可用 No, I’m afraid not.）■3. indicating requests 表示要求: Can you help me with this box? 你能帮我弄这个箱子吗? *Can you feed the cat? 你喂喂猫好吗?■4.1）indicating possibility 表示可能性: That can't be Mary she's in hospital. 那不可能是玛丽--她住院了. * He can't have slept through all that noise. 那麽吵他不可能睡得着觉.(2008 福建卷)24. It is usually warm in my hometown in March, but it _____ be rather coldsometime.
A. must ●B. can C. should D. would(2007 福建卷) My MP4 player isn’t in my bag. Where I have put it?●A.can B.must C.should D.would2）used to express bewilderment or incredulity 用以表示疑惑或怀疑: What `can they be doing?他们在干些什麽呢? * Can he be serious? 他当真是这个意思吗? * Where `can she have put it?她能把它放在哪儿呢?■5. (used to describe typical behaviour or state 用以描述特有的行为或情形): He can be verytactless sometimes. 他有时很不讲方式方法. * She can be very forgetful. 她这个人很健忘. *Scotland can be very cold. 苏格兰要是冷起来还真够冷的. * It can be quite windy on the hills.山上的风就是那麽大.■6. (used to make suggestions 用以提出建议): We can eat in a restaurant, if you like. 你愿意
的话, 咱们可以在饭馆吃饭. * I can take the car if necessary. 必要时我可以开车去.14 Could 的用法：
■1. indicating permission 表示允准: Could I use your phone? 让我用一下你的电话好吗?Could I borrow your bicycle? 我可以借一下你的自行车吗?■2. indicating requests 表示请求: Could you baby-sit for us on Friday? 星期五你替我们照看
小孩行吗? Could you type one more letter before you go? 你临走以前再打一封信行吗?■3. indicating result 表示结果: I'm so unhappy I could weep. 我难过得要哭。What's fordinner? I could eat a horse. 吃什麽饭? 我饿得要命。
■4. (indicating possibility 表示可能性): You could be right, I suppose. 我想可能是你对。Mywife's in hospital our baby could arrive at any time. 我妻子住进了医院--我们的小宝宝随时都
可能出生。
* (2005 广东卷). — I've taken someone else's green sweater by mistake.— It ______ Harry's. He always wears green.
A. has to be B. will be C. mustn't be ●D. could be■5. (indicating suggestions 表示建议): We could write a letter to the headmaster. 我们不妨给
第五节第五节第五节第五节 名词名词名词名词校长写封信。You could always try his home number. 实在不行的话, 你还可以试一试他家的
电话号码。
■6. could 是 can 的过去式。⑤
① Will 的用法：
■11）indicating future predictions 用以表示对未来事物的预料: Next year will be the centenary ofthis firm. 明年是这家公司成立的一百周年. * He'll start school soon, won't he? 他很快就要
上学了, 对吧? * You'll be in time if you hurry. 你要是快一点儿就能来得及.2）indicating present predictions 用以表示对目前事物的预料: That'll be the postman now! 这
准是邮递员来了! * They'll be home by this time. 他们现在一定到家了.■21）indicating willingness or unwillingness 用以表示愿意或不愿意: He'll take you home youonly have to ask. 他愿意送你回家--你跟他一说就行. * I'll check this letter for you, if youwant. 你要想让我给你查查这封信, 我就给你查查. * We won't lend you any more money. 我
们不再借给你钱了.2）indicating requests 用以表示请求: Will you post this letter for me, please? 请您把这封信给
我寄出去行吗? * Will you (please) come in? 您（请）进来好吗?■3. giving an order 用於发出命令或指示时: You will carry out these instructions and reportback this afternoon. 你要执行这些指示并於今日下午报告执行情况. * Will you be quiet! 安
静点儿!■4.1）describing general truths 用於叙述真理时: Oil will float on water. 油能浮在水面上. *Engines won't run without lubricants. 没有润滑剂发动机就不能运转.2）describing habits in the present or past 用於叙述目前的或过去的习惯时: She will listen torecords, alone in her room, for hours. 她独自一人在屋里听唱片, 每每一听就是半天.* Hewould spend hours in the bathroom or on the telephone. 他以前一进洗澡间或是一打电话, 往
往就是半天.■5. insistence on the part of the subject 用以表示施事者执意要做的事: He `will comb hishair at the table, even though he knows I don't like it. 他偏偏要在饭桌哪儿梳头, 还明明知道
我腻味这事儿. * He `would keep telling those dreadful stories. 他专门爱讲那些讨厌的故事.① Would 的用法：
■1.1）used with have + a past participle to describe the consequence of an imagined event 与 have +过去分词连用, 表示一设想事情的结果: If he shaved his beard he would look much younger.他要是把胡子刮了就少相多了. * If you went to see him, he would be delighted. 倘若你去看
他, 他一定非常高兴.2） used with have + a past participle to describe a hypothetical action or event in the past 与
have +过去分词连用, 表示假想的过去的动作或事情: If I had seen the advertisement I wouldhave applied for the job. 我要是看见那个广告了, 我就申请那份工作了. * If she hadn't goneback for the letter, she wouldn't have missed the bus. 要不是她回去取信, 她就不至於错过那
辆公共汽车了.3） used to describe a hypothetical action or event in the present 用以表示假想的现在的动作
或事情): She'd be a fool to accept, ie if she accepted.她要是接受, 她就是个傻瓜. * Don't callher now it would make us late. 别现在给她打电话--现在打的话, 我们就迟到了. * It would bedifficult to make an accurate forecast. 预报很难准确.
210
■2.1）used in making polite requests 用以提出客气的请求: Would you pay me in cash, please? 请
您付给我现金行吗? * You wouldn't have the time to phone him now, would you? 您现在没有
那麽多时间给他打电话, 是吧?2）used with imagine, say, think, etc to give tentative opinions 与 imagine﹑ say﹑ think 等连
用, 表达试探性的意见: I would imagine the operation will take about an hour. 我猜想这个手
术大概需要一个小时左右吧.■3.1）used in offers or invitations 用以提出建议或邀请: Would you like a sandwich? 您想吃三明
治吗? * Would they like to sit down? 请他们坐下好吗? * Would she like to borrow my bicycle?她想借用我的自行车吗?2）used with like, love, hate, prefer, be glad/happy, etc to express preferences 与 like﹑ love﹑hate﹑ prefer﹑ be glad/happy 等连用, 表达较合意愿的做法: I'd love a coffee. 我倒想喝杯
咖啡. * I'd hate you to think I was criticizing you. 我可不愿意让你觉得我是在批评你. * I'd beonly too glad to help. 我非常愿意帮帮忙.■4. used when commenting on characteristic behaviour 用以评论特有的行为: That's just whathe `would say, ie what he might be expected to say. 他就是爱说这种话. * It `would rain (ieHow typical it is of our weather that it should rain) on the day we chose for a picnic! 我们哪天
去野餐, 它哪天就准下雨!○注：Would 可表示过去反复发生的动作或某中倾向。Would 表过去习惯时比 used to
正式，并没有“现已无此习惯”的含义。例：During the vacation he wouldwouldwouldwould visit me every week.■5. used after so that, in order that to express purpose 用於 so that﹑in order that 之後, 表示
目的: She burned the letters so that her husband would never read them. 她把信都烧了, 这样
一来她丈夫就绝对看不见了.■6. 作 will 的过去式。⑧
① Shall 的用法：
■1. indicating future predictions 表示预言: We shan't know the results until next week. 我们
下星期才能知道结果. * Shall we be there in time for tea? 咱们能及 时赶到那里吃下午茶点
吗? * This time next week I shall be sitting on a beach in Greece. 下星期此时此刻我正坐在希
腊海滨呢. * I said I should be glad to help. 我说过我很愿意帮忙.■2. indicating will or determination 表示意愿或决心: I shall write to you again at the end ofthe month. 我月底给你再写一封信. * You shall have a new dress for your birthday. 你过生日
一定得有件新连衣裙. * He insisted that the papers should be destroyed. 他坚持那些文件得销
毁. * She was determined that we should finish on time. 她坚决要我们按时完成.■3. indicating offers or suggestions 表示提供意见或建议: Shall I (ie Would you like me to) dothe washing-up? 我来洗餐具好吗? * What shall we do this weekend? 我们本周末干什麽呢?* Let's look at it again, shall we? 咱们再看一看好吗?■4. indicating orders or instructions 表示命令或指示: Candidates shall remain in their seatsuntil all the papers have been collected. 试卷全部收回後应试人才可离开座位. * The leasestated that tenants should maintain the property in good condition. 租约规定承租人必须保持
房产完好无损.*(2007 四川卷)— What does the sign over there read?—“No person ________ smoke or carry a lighted cigarette, cigar or pipe in this area.”A. will B. may ●C. shall D. must○1）．Shall 用于第一人称，表示征求对方的意愿。如：
■专有名词和普通名词：What shallshallshallshall we do this evening?○2）．Shall 用于第一、第三人称疑问句中，表示说话人征求对方的意见或向对方请示。如：ShallShallShallShall wewewewe begin our lesson?When shallshallshallshall hehehehe be able to leave the hospital?○3）．Shall 用于第二、第三人称，表示说话人给对方命令、警告、允诺或威胁。如：
YouYouYouYou shallshallshallshall fail if you don’t work harder. （警告）
HeHeHeHe shallshallshallshall have the book when I finish reading. （允诺）
HeHeHeHe shallshallshallshall be punished. （威胁）
○4）．Should 表示劝告、建议、命令，其同义词是 ought to；在疑问句中，通常用 should代替 ought to。如：You shouldshouldshouldshould go to class right away.ShouldShouldShouldShould I open the window?② Should 的用法：
■1.1）indicating obligation 用以表示义务或责任: You shouldn't drink and drive.你不应该喝酒後
开车. * Visitors should inform the receptionist of their arrival. 来宾在到达时应当知会接待员.* We should have bought a new lock for the front door. 我们本该买把新锁安在前门上.*(2008 上海卷) According to the air traffic rules, you ___ switch off your mobile phone beforeboarding.
A. may B. can C. would ●D. should2）indicating advice or recommendation 用以表示劝告或推荐: He should stop smoking. 他应
该戒烟. * You shouldn't leave a baby alone in the house. 你不应该把幼儿一个人留在家里. *They should have called the police. 他们本应该叫警察的.*(2009 四川卷)— I don’t care what people think.— Well, you _______.A. could B. would ●C. should D. might■2. drawing a tentative conclusion 用以表示试探性的推断: We should arrive before dark. 我
们按说能在天黑前到达. * The roads should be less crowded today. 今天路上不致於那麽拥挤
了. * I should have finished reading it by Friday. 我大概到星期五能把它看完.■3. used to describe the consequence of an imagined event 用以表达假定的结果: If I wasasked to work on Sundays I should resign. 要是叫我星期天上班, 我就辞职. * We shouldmove to a larger house if we had the money. 我们要是有钱就找个大房子住了.■4. used in a that-clause after the adjs anxious, sorry, concerned, happy, delighted, etc 用在形
容词 anxious﹑ sorry﹑ concerned﹑ happy﹑ delighted 等后的 that 句中: I'm anxious that heshould be well cared for. 我盼望他能受到很好的照顾. * We're sorry that you should feeluncomfortable. 你觉得在这儿不舒服, 我们非常抱歉. * That he should speak to you like thatis quite astonishing. 他竟然这样对你说话, 实在让人吃惊. * I am delighted that he shouldtake that view. 他有那种看法, 我十分高兴.■5. used after if and in case, or with subject and v reversed, to suggest that an event is unlikelyto happen 用於 if和 in case之後或将主语与动词倒置, 表示某事不太可能发生: If you shouldchange your mind, do let me know. 万一你要改变主意, 一定要告诉我. * If he should haveforgotten to go to the airport, nobody will be there to meet her. 要是他忘了去机场, 就没人去
那儿接她了. * Should anyone phone (ie If anyone phones), please tell them I'm busy. 有人打电
话来, 就说我很忙.■6. used after so that/in order that to express purpose 用於 so that/in order that 之後表示目的
或动机: He put the cases in the car so that he should be able to make an early start. 他把箱子放
在汽车里, 这样他就可以早点动身了. * She repeated the instructions slowly in order that he
212名词可以分为专有名词（ProperProperProperProper NounsNounsNounsNouns）和普通名词 (Common(Common(Common(Common NounsNounsNounsNouns）两
should understand. 她把那些指示慢慢重复了一遍好让他听明白
■7.1）used to make polite requests 用作表示请求的客气说法: I should like to make a phone call,if possible. 劳驾, 我想打个电话. * We should be grateful for your help. 承您协助, 不胜感激.2）used with imagine, say, think, etc to give tentative opinions 与 imagine﹑say﹑think 等连用,表达不成熟的意见: I should imagine it will take about three hours. 我想得花大约三个钟头. *I should say she's over forty. 我说她有四十多岁了. * `Is this long enough?' `I should think so.'‘这个够长吗?’‘我看可以了.’■8.1）used with question words to express lack of interest, disbelief, etc 与疑问词连用, 表示不感
兴趣﹑难以相信等: How should I know? 我怎麽知道呢? * Why should he think that? 他怎麽
那麽想呢?2）used with question words to express surprise 与疑问词连用表示惊讶: I was thinking ofgoing to see John when who should appear but John himself. 我还想去看约翰, 想不到约翰来
了. * I turned round on the bus and who should be sitting behind me but my ex-wife. 我在公共
汽车上转过身来, 谁料後面坐的竟是我的前妻.■9. 作 shall 的过去式。③
④ Must 的用法：
■1.1）indicating obligation 表示必要: I must go to the bank to get some money. 我得到银行去取
些钱. * When you enter the building you must show the guard your pass. 进入大楼时须向警卫
出示通行证. * Cars must not park in front of the entrance. 入口处不得停放汽车.*(2010 陕西卷) — May I take this book out of the reading room?— No, you . You read it in here.A. mightn`t B. won’t C. need’t ●D. mustn`t2）indicating advice or recommendation 表示劝告或建议: We must see what the authoritieshave to say. 我们应该看看当局怎麽说. * I must ask you not to do that again. 我得劝你不要
再做那种事情了.*(2009 湖南卷)— It’s the office! So you ______ know eating is not allowed here.
— Oh, sorry.●A. must B. will C. may D. need■2. drawing a logical conclusion 做出逻辑推断: You must be hungry after your long walk. 你
走了那麽长的路, 一定饿了吧. * She must be having a lot of problems with the language. 她
在语言上一定有很多困难. * You must be Mr Smith I was told to expect you. 你准是史密斯先
生吧--我是吩咐来接你的.■3. (indicating insistence 表示坚持): You `must put your name down for the team. 你必须报
名参加该队. * You simply `must read this book it's so funny. 你一定得看看这本书--太有趣了.* Must you make so much noise? 你就非得弄出这麽大声吗?*(2006 山东卷) — May I smoke here?— If you ____, choose a seat in the smoking section.A. should B. could C. may ●D. must○回答 must 引出的问句时，如果是否定的回答，不能用 mustn’t，而要用 needn’t 或 don’t haveto。———— MustMustMustMust we hand in our exercise books today?— Yes, you mustmustmustmust. (No, you don’t have to.)
类。○“must be + 表语”的结构表示推测，它的否定或疑问式用 can 代替 must。如：This mustmustmustmustbebebebe your pen.○“must + have + 过去分词”的结构常用在肯定句中，表示对过去发生的行为的推测。它
的否定或疑问式用 can 代替 must。如：He mustmustmustmust havehavehavehave beenbeenbeenbeen to Shanghai.*(2005 辽宁卷) This cake is very sweet. You __________ a lot of sugar in it.
A. should put B. could have put C. might put ●D. must have put*( 2005 北京卷) He __________ have completed his work; otherwise, he wouldn’t be enjoyinghimself by the seaside.A. should ●B. must C. wouldn’t D. can’t*(2010 安徽卷) Jack descried his father, who _____a brave boy many years ago, as astrong-willed manA. would be B. would have been C. must be ●D. must have been○have to 的含义与 must 相似，两者往往可以互换使用，但 have to 有各种形式，随 have的变化而定。must 与 have to 有下列几点不同：
○must 表示的是说话人的主观看法，而 have to 则往往强调客观需要。如：The play is not interesting. I really mustmustmustmust go now.I hadhadhadhad totototo work when I was your age.○must 一般只表现在，have 则有更多的时态形式。
○二者的否定意义不大相同。如：
You mustnmustnmustnmustn’’’’tttt go. 你可不要去。
You dondondondon’’’’tttt havehavehavehave totototo go. 你不必去。
○询问对方的意愿时应用 must。如：MustMustMustMust I clean all the room?⑤
⑥ Need 的用法：used only in negative sentences and questions, after if and whether or with hardly, scarcely, noone, etc 仅用於否定句及疑问句, 或用於 if 及 whether 之後或与 hardly﹑ carcely﹑no one等连用
■1. indicating obligation 表示必要: You needn't finish that work today. 你今天不必把那项工
作做完. * `Need you go yet?' `No, I needn't.' ‘你一定得去吗?’‘我不必去.’ * He wonderedwhether they need send a deposit. 他不知道他们是否得交定金. * If she wants anything, sheneed only ask. 她想要什麽, 只需说一声就行. * I need hardly tell you (ie You must alreadyknow) that the work is dangerous. 无须我说你也知道那工作有危险. * Nobody need be afraidof catching the disease. 谁都不用害怕能得这种病.*(2007 上海春) The boss has given everyone a special holiday, so we go to worktomorrow.A. can’t B. mustn’t ●C. needn’t D. shouldn’t■2. used with have + a past participle to indicate that actions in the past were or may have beenunnecessary 与 have +过去分词连用, 表示曾做的事无必要: You needn't have hurried. 你当
时实在不必那麽匆忙. * She needn't have come in person a letter would have been enough. 她本不必亲自来--写封信来就足可以了. * Need you have paid so much? 你当时真须要付那麽
多钱吗? * Need they have sold the farm? 他们那时非得把农场卖掉吗?*(2006 江西卷) The weather turned out to be fine yesterday. I _______ the trouble to carry myumbrella with me.A. should have taken B. could have taken ●C. needn't have taken D, mustn't have taken⑦ Dare 的用法：
■used esp in negative sentences and questions, after if/whether, or with hardly, never, no one,
214专有名词是某个（些）人、地方、机构等对象的专有名称，如 Tom, New York,nobody 尤用於否定句及疑问句中, 在 if/whether 之後, 或与 hardly﹑ never﹑ no one﹑
nobody 连用 have sufficient courage or impudence (to do sth) 敢; 敢於; 竟敢; 胆敢: I daren'task her for a rise. 我不敢要求她加薪. * What's the matter daren't you read what it says? 怎麽
了--你难道不敢把上面写的念出来吗? * I wonder whether he dare stand up in public. 我不知
道他敢不敢站在大庭广众面前. * They hardly dared breathe as somebody walked past the door!有人在门前走过, 他们几乎不敢呼吸了! * If you ever dare call me that name again, you'll besorry. 你胆敢再那样叫我, 你就後悔莫及了. * Nobody dared lift their eyes from the ground.没有人敢把视线离开地面.○dare 和 need 的用法
○need 表示“需要”或“必须”，作情态助动词时，仅用于否定句或疑问句中，在肯定句
中一般用 must, have to, ought to,或 should 代替。如：You neednneednneednneedn’’’’tttt come so early.———— NeedNeedNeedNeed I finish the work today?— Yes, you mustmustmustmust.注意：needn’t + 不定式的完成式“表示本来不必做某事而实际上做了某事”。如：You needn’t have waited for me.○Dare 作情态助动词时，主要用于疑问句、否定句和条件句中，一般不用在肯定句中。如：How daredaredaredare you say I’m unfair.He darendarendarendaren’’’’tttt speak English before such a crowd, dare he?○Dare 和 need 常用作实义动词，有时态、人称和数的变化，所不同的是，作实义动词时，
在肯定句中，dare 后面通常接带 to 的不定式，在否定和疑问句中，dare 后面可接带 to 或
不带 to 的不定式。如：I daredaredaredare totototo swim across this river.He does not daredaredaredare (to) answer.Don’t you daredaredaredare (to) touch it!I wondered he daredaredaredare (to) say that.He needsneedsneedsneeds totototo finish it this evening.⑧
⑨ Used to 的用法：
■expressing a frequent or continuous action in the past; in questions and negative sentences usuwith did 表达过去经常的或持续的行为, 在疑问句和否定句中通常与 did 连用: I used to livein London. 我过去一直住在伦敦. * Life here is much easier than it used to be. 如今在此地生
活比起从前可舒服多了. * You used to smoke a pipe, didn't you? 你过去一向是抽烟斗的, 对
不对?○used to，had better，would rather 的用法
○Used to 表示过去的习惯动作或状态，现在已不存在，在间接引语中，其形式可不变。如：He told us he used to play football when he was young.在疑问句、否定句、否定疑问句或强调句中，可有两种形式：Did you use to go to the same school as your brother?Used you to go to the same school as your brother?I usedn’t to go there.I didn’t use to go there.Usen’t you to be interested in the theatre?Didn’t you use to be interested in the theatre?I certainly used to smoke, but it was a long time ago.I certainly did use to smoke, but it was a long time ago.其反意疑问句或简略回答中，也有两种形式：
She used to be very fat, didn’t she? （正式）/ use(d)n’t she? （口语）
China, USA 等①。
Did you use to play chess? Yes, I did.Used you to get up early in the morning? Yes, I did. (Yes, I used to.)○Had better 意为“最好”，后接不带 to 的不定式。如：
— We had better go now.— Yes, we had (we’d better / we had better).Hadn’t we better stop now? (Had we better not stop now?)I think I’d better be going. （用于进行时态，表“最好立即”）
You had better have done that. （用于完成时态，表未完成动作）
注：①had best 与 had better 同意，但较少用。②You had better … 用于同辈或小辈，对长
辈不可用。
○Would rather 意为“宁愿”，表选择，后接不带 to 的不定式。如：I’d rather not say anything.Would you rather work on a farm?— Wouldn’t you rather stay here?— No, I would not. I’d rather go there.由于 would rather 表选择，因而后可接 than。如：I would rather work on a farm than in a factory.I would rather watch TV than go to see the film.I would rather lose a dozen cherry trees than that you should tell me one lie.I’d rather you didn’t talk about this to anyone. （句中的’d rather 不是情态助动词，would 在此
是表愿望的实义动词）⑩
11 Ought to 的用法：
■1.1） indicating obligation 表示责任或义务: We ought to start at once. 我们应当马上动身. *You ought to say you're sorry. 你应该说声对不起. * Such things ought not to be allowed. 这类
事不该容许. * They oughtn't to let their dog run on the road. 他们不该把狗放出来满街跑.2）indicating advice or recommendation 表示劝告或推荐: You ought to improve your Englishbefore going to work in America. 你应该把英语学好些再去美国工作. * There ought to bemore buses during the rush hour. 高峰期间应该多开几趟公共汽车. * You ought to see her newfilm. 你应当看看她新拍的电影. * She ought to have been a teacher, ie She would probablyhave been a good one. 她本该当教师（很可能是个好教师）
■2. drawing a tentative conclusion 作推测性的结论: If he started at nine, he ought to be hereby now. 要是他九点出发, 现在该到这儿了. * That ought to be enough food for all of us. 那
些该够我们大家吃的了. * Look at the sky it ought to be a fine afternoon. 看看天--下午一定
很晴朗
○表示推测。注意与 must 表示推测时的区别：
He mustmustmustmust bebebebe at home by now. （断定他已到家）
He oughtoughtoughtought totototo be home by now. （不十分肯定）
This is where the oil mustmustmustmust bebebebe. （比较直率）
This is where the oil oughtoughtoughtought totototo bebebebe. （比较含蓄）
○“ought to + have + 过去分词”表示过去应做某事而实际未做。如：You oughtoughtoughtought totototo havehavehavehave askedaskedaskedasked him (but you didn’t).这时，ought to 和 should 可以互相换用。
○在美国英语中，ought to 用于否定句和疑问句时，to 可以省略。如：OughtOughtOughtOught you smoke so much?You oughtnoughtnoughtnoughtn’’’’tttt smoke so much..
216■普通名词又可分为四类：
12
①各种情态助动词的区别：
（一）NOTE ON USAGE 用法:■1111 PERMISSION (cancancancan2,,,, couldcouldcouldcould1, maymaymaymay1,,,, mightmightmightmight1) 许可（cancancancan2﹑ couldcouldcouldcould1﹑ maymaymaymay1﹑ mightmightmightmight1）
(aaaa) British speakers normally use cancancancan to give or request permission 英国人一般用 cancancancan字来表
示准许或请求许可: You can come if you want to. 你想来就可以来. * Can I come too? 我也可
以来吗? CouldCouldCouldCould is more polite but is only used in questions 用 couldcouldcouldcould一词更客气些, 但只用於
疑问句中: `Could I use your telephone?' `Yes, of course.' ‘我可以借用你的电话吗?’‘当然可
以.’ MayMayMayMay is formal *maymaymaymay是较郑重的词: You may come if you wish. 你愿意来就可以来.However, US speakers often use maymaymaymay where British English has cancancancan 但是美国人常用 maymaymaymay, 英
国人多用 cancancancan: May I sit down? 我可以坐下吗? Both British and US speakers use couldcouldcouldcould ormightmightmightmight to suggest doubt, shyness, etc 英美两国的人都用 coulcoulcoulcouldddd或mighmighmighmightttt来表示怀疑﹑ 羞怯等:Might I suggest another time? 我可以建议另找个时间吗? * Could I arrange a meeting withthe director? 我可以约见负责人吗?(bbbb) In indirect questions, cancancancan becomes couldcouldcouldcould and maymaymaymay becomes mightmightmightmight 在间接问句中, 要把
cancancancan改成 couldcouldcouldcould, 把 maymaymaymay改成 mightmightmightmight: John asked if he could/might come too. 约翰问, 他是否
也可以来.■2222 POSSIBILITY (cancancancan2, couldcouldcouldcould1, maymaymaymay1,,,, mightmightmightmight1) 可能性（cancancancan2﹑ couldcouldcouldcould1﹑ maymaymaymay1﹑ mightmightmightmight1）(aaaa) CouldCouldCouldCould or mightmightmightmight express more doubt or hesitation than maymaymaymay *couldcouldcouldcould或 mightmightmightmight比 maymaymaymay更含怀
疑或犹豫之意: That may be our taxi now! 那辆可能就是我们的计程车了. * That could/mightbe our taxi (but I doubt it). 那辆有可能是我们的计程车（但我有所怀疑）.(bbbb) In questions and negative sentences cancancancan replaces maymaymaymay. 在疑问句和否定句中, 用 cancancancan代替
maymaymaymay. *Compare 试比较: It may be Bill's. 那可能是比尔的. * Can it be Bill's? It can't be Bill's.那可能是比尔的吗? 不可能是比尔的.(cccc) CouldCouldCouldCould havehavehavehave, maymaymaymay havehavehavehave or mightmightmightmight havehavehavehave are used to show the possibility of something havinghappened in the past *couldcouldcouldcould havehavehavehave﹑ maymaymaymay havehavehavehave或 mightmightmightmight havehavehavehave用以表示过去发生过某事的可
能性: She could have forgotten to tell him. 她可能忘记告诉他了. * He may have lost his way.他可能迷路了. * He might just possibly have lost his keys. 他有可能把钥匙丢了.■3333 PURPOSE (maymaymaymay1, wouldwouldwouldwould1) 目的（maymaymaymay1﹑ wouldwouldwouldwould1）
(aaaa) MayMayMayMay can be used after so that, in order that, to express present purpose *maymaymaymay可用於 so that﹑ in order that 之後, 表示现在的目的: I'll write so that he may know when to expect us. 我要
写信好让他知道我们什麽时候到.(bbbb) to indicate a purpose in the past, mightmightmightmight or wouldwouldwouldwould are used 要表示过去目的, 则用 mightmightmightmight或wouldwouldwouldwould: I wrote so that he might/would know when to expect us. 我写信好让他知道我们什麽时
候到. * He died so that others might/would live. 他为别人能够活着而牺牲了自己.■4444 ASKING FOR INFORMATION(maymaymaymay1,,,, mightmightmightmight1) 询问情况（maymaymaymay1﹑ mightmightmightmight1）(aaaa) MayMayMayMay(rather dated) and mightmightmightmight are used to request information in an uncertain or a superiorway *maymaymaymay（较陈旧）和 mightmightmightmight用以询问情况, 含无把握或高傲的语气: Well, and whomay/might `you be? 那麽, 你是谁呢?(bbbb) In indirect questions, only mightmightmightmight is used 在间接问句中, 只用 mightmightmightmight: Bill asked who `shemight be. 比尔问她是谁.（二）NOTE ON USAGE 用法:■1111 PREDICTIONS 预言 (shallshallshallshall, willwillwillwill1)(aaaa) ShallShallShallShall is used with I or we to predict a future event *shallshallshallshall与 I 或 we 连用, 预示将要发生的
事情: I shall be in touch with you again shortly. 我很快再和你联系. WillWillWillWill (when speaking usucontracted to 'll'll'll'll) is used with you, he, she, it, they as well as I and we, often in more informal
1111）类名词：类名词是一类人或物的个体对象的名称。（如：student 学生；cupcontexts than shallshallshallshall *willwillwillwill（口语中通常缩略成'll'll'll'll）与 I 和 we 连用, 也与 you﹑ he﹑ she﹑ it﹑ they 连用, 与 shallshallshallshall相比, 多用於口语或较随便的场合: She'll never finish in time. 她决不
能按时完成. * It'll be our first holiday for years. 这（将）是我们多年来的第一次假期.(bbbb) In indirect speech, shouldshouldshouldshould and wouldwouldwouldwould (when speaking usu contracted to 'd'd'd'd) are used 在间接
引语中用 shouldshouldshouldshould和 wouldwouldwouldwould（口语中通常缩略成'd'd'd'd）: I estimated that I should finish in ten days.我估计我十天能完成. * Bill said he'd soon be back. 比尔说他很快就回来.■2222VOLITION 决定 (shallshallshallshall, willwillwillwill1)(aaaa) Both shallshallshallshall and willwillwillwill can express determination. *shallshallshallshall和 willwillwillwill均可用以表示决心. ShallShallShallShall ismore formal, especially when used with pronouns other than I or we *shallshallshallshall词义较文, 与除 I 或we 的其他代词连用时, 尤其来得庄重:He shall be given a fair trial. 他一定可以得到公平审
判的. * You'll have your radio back on Tuesday. 星期二你就能取回收音机了. * We `will getthe thing right!我们决心要把这件事弄对!(bbbb) ShouldShouldShouldShould and wouldwouldwouldwould are used in clauses after be certain, be determined, insist, etc *shouldshouldshouldshould和
wouldwouldwouldwould用於从句中的 be certain﹑ be determined﹑ insist 等词语之後: He insisted that weshould make a fresh start. 他硬要我们重新开始.■3333 SUGGESTIONS 建议 (shallshallshallshall, cancancancan2, couldcouldcouldcould1)(aaaa) ShallShallShallShall IIII and shallshallshallshall wewewewe are used to make suggestions *shallshallshallshall IIII和 shallshallshallshall wewewewe可用以提出建议:Shall I drive? 我来开车好吗? * Shall we take our swim-suits? 我们带着游泳衣好不好? CanCanCanCan(often with of course and/or always) is also used for this purpose *cancancancan（常与 of course 和
[或]always 连用）也可用以提出建议: We can always come back tomorrow if you prefer. 只要
你愿意的话, 我们反正明天还可以回来. CouldCouldCouldCould is used to make more tentative suggestions*coulcoulcoulcouldddd可用以提出较试探性的建议: You could try pushing the car. 你不妨推推这辆汽车试试
看. * Couldn't we ask a policeman? 我们问问警察行吗?(bbbb) Any of these verbs can be used to ask for suggestions 这些动词均可用以徵询意见: Whereshall we go now? 我们现在上哪儿去? * Can we perhaps try another route? 我们是不是可以
另试试别的路线? * How could we make them listen? 我们怎样才能让他们听呢?（三）NOTE ON USAGE 用法:■1111 OBLIGATION (mustmustmustmust, needneedneedneed1,2, havehavehavehave totototo, oughtoughtoughtought totototo, shouldshouldshouldshould1) 义务或责任（mustmustmustmust﹑ needneedneedneed1, 2
﹑ havehavehavehave totototo﹑ oughtoughtoughtought totototo﹑ shouldshouldshouldshould）(aaaa) MustMustMustMust is used to show that the speaker orders or expects something to be done *mustmustmustmust用以表
示说话者命令或期待做成某事: The children must be back by 4 o'clock. 孩子必须 4 点钟以前
回来. * I must go now, ie I feel obliged to go. 我现在得走了, 即我觉得有此必要. NeedNeedNeedNeed totototo(informal havehavehavehave totototo) is used when somebody else is giving orders or controlling events *needneedneedneed totototo（通俗用词为 havehavehavehave totototo）用於他人发出指令或操纵的情况下: You need to/have to pass a specialexam to get into the school. 你要上那所学校得通过一次特别的考试. * I have to go now, iesomething (or somebody else) requires it. 我现在得走了, 即某事或某人要求我如此. OughtOughtOughtOughttotototo and shouldshouldshouldshould indicate that the speaker is giving an order, but suggest that he or she is not sure itwill be obeyed *oughtoughtoughtought totototo和 shouldshouldshouldshould表示说话者发出指令, 但暗含对方是否听从并无把握之
意: She really ought to/should be leaving now. 她现在可真该走了. * You ought to/shouldapologize (though I'm not sure you will). 你应该道歉（虽然我不知道你是否这样做）.(bbbb) Mustn'tMustn'tMustn'tMustn't (and oughtn'toughtn'toughtn'toughtn't totototo, shouldn'tshouldn'tshouldn'tshouldn't) are used when the speaker wants somebody not to dosomething*mustn'tmustn'tmustn'tmustn't（和 oughtn'toughtn'toughtn'toughtn't totototo﹑ shouldn'tshouldn'tshouldn'tshouldn't）用於说话者要某人不做某事: You mustn'tleave the gate open. 你不要敞着大门. * You oughtn't to/shouldn't neglect the garden. 你不要
不管花园. Needn'tNeedn'tNeedn'tNeedn't and don'tdon'tdon'tdon't havehavehavehave totototo mean that there is a lack of obligation to do something*needn'needn'needn'needn' tttt和 don'don'don'don' tttt havehavehavehave totototo意指没有做某事的义务或责任: You needn't/don't have to arriveearly. (Cf You mustn't arrive early.) 你不必早来. （参看: 你不要早来.）
218杯子；apple 苹果）
(cccc) In indirect commands, hadhadhadhad totototo replaces mustmustmustmust 在间接指令中用 hadhadhadhad totototo取代 mustmustmustmust: Mothersaid that the children had to be back by 4 o'clock. (Cf Mary said he ought to/should apologize.)母亲说了孩子 4 点以前必须回来. （参看: 玛丽说他应该道歉.）■2222 ADVICE (mustmustmustmust, havehavehavehave gotgotgotgot totototo, oughtoughtoughtought totototo, shouldshouldshouldshould1) 劝告或建议（mustmustmustmust﹑ havehavehavehave gotgotgotgot totototo﹑oughtoughtoughtought totototo﹑ shouldshouldshouldshould1）
(aaaa) MustMustMustMust (informal havehavehavehave gotgotgotgot totototo) is used to advise or recommend *mustmustmustmust（通俗用词为 havehavehavehave gotgotgotgottotototo）用以提出劝告或建议: You simply must see that film. 你可得看看这部电影. * You've got totake life more seriously. 你对待生活要严肃一些. OughtOughtOughtOught totototo and shouldshouldshouldshould suggest that the speakeris less confident the advice will be taken *oughtoughtoughtought ttttoooo和 shoulshoulshoulshouldddd含有说话者对劝告之是否接受更
无把握之意: You really ought to/should do something about that cough! 你咳嗽那麽厉害, 真
得治一治了!(bbbb) To advise somebody not to do something, mustn'tmustn'tmustn'tmustn't, oughtn'toughtn'toughtn'toughtn't totototo and shouldn'tshouldn'tshouldn'tshouldn't are used 劝某
人不做某事时, 用 mustn'tmustn'tmustn'tmustn't﹑ oughtn'toughtn'toughtn'toughtn't totototo﹑ shouldn'tshouldn'tshouldn'tshouldn't: You mustn't/oughtn't to/shouldn't missthis opportunity. 你不可[不该/不应]错过这个机会.(cccc) In indirect speech, the same rules apply as for OBLIGATION. 在间接引用语中,前述用於表
示义务或责任的规则也适用於此.■3333 DRAWING CONCLUSIONS (mustmustmustmust, havehavehavehave totototo, oughtoughtoughtought totototo, shouldshouldshouldshould1) 作结论（mustmustmustmust﹑ havehavehavehave totototo﹑ oughtoughtoughtought totototo﹑ shouldshouldshouldshould1）(aaaa) MustMustMustMust and havehavehavehave totototo (informal) are used when drawing a conclusion about which there is nodoubt *mustmustmustmust和 havehavehavehave totototo（较通俗）用於毫无怀疑的结论: He must be/has to be the wanted man:he's exactly like his picture. 他一定是受通缉的那个男子: 他和照片上的人一模一样. OughtOughtOughtOughttotototo and shouldshouldshouldshould indicate that the speaker is being more tentative *oughtoughtoughtought totototo和 shouldshouldshouldshould表示说话者
有较大的试探性: He ought to/should be here in time he started early enough. 他该[应]按时到
这里--他出发得够早的.(bbbb) To show that a conclusion cannot be drawn, can'tcan'tcan'tcan't is used 表示无法定论则用 can'tcan'tcan'tcan't: He can'tbe the wanted man. 他不会是那个被通缉的男子. * He can't (surely) get here in time. 他（肯
定）不能及时赶到这里.(cccc) MustMustMustMust havehavehavehave, oughtoughtoughtought totototo havehavehavehave and shouldshouldshouldshould havehavehavehave are used to draw a conclusion from some pastevent *mustmustmustmust havehavehavehave﹑ oughtoughtoughtought totototo havehavehavehave﹑ shouldshouldshouldshould havehavehavehave用以对某件过去的事情作结论: She musthave received the parcel: I sent it by registered post. 她一定已经收到包裹了, 我是用挂号寄
的.
①○英文字母大写的基本规则：
■句子开头的第一个字母要大写。
■专有名词中每个实词（传统语法中的虚词：副词、介词、连词、助动词、叹词和拟声词
则不用大写）的第一个字母都要大写。如：the Great Wall 长城，the UnitedStates 美国。
■一些亲属关系（如 mother，sister，mum，dad 等）用作称呼语时第一个字母要大写。如：
Thank you，Granny．谢谢你，姥姥。
■人名前的称呼或头衔第一个字母应大写。如：Mr Smith，Dr Tong，Miss Mary。■直接引语中，句首字母要大写。
■星期、月份名称的第一个字母要大写，但季节第一个字母不大写。如：Sunday 星期天，
August 八月，winter 冬天，spring 春天。
■诗歌每一行的第一个单词的第一个字母要大写。
■大多数的缩略词要大写。
■"I"和"OK"在句中的任何位置都应大写。
2222）集体名词：集体名词是一些人或物对象的总称。( 如：people 人们；family 家
庭； army 军队；government 政府；group 集团 )
3333）物质名词：物质名词是物质或一般无一定形状或大小的实物对象的名称。
( 如：fire 火；light 光；air 空气； water 水； milk 牛奶 )
4444）抽象名词：抽象名词是动作、状态、品质、事件或其他抽象概念对象的名称
①。( 如：smiling 笑；being cold 冷；labor 劳动；health 健康；life 生活；friendship
友情；patience 耐力；He is a teacher 他是个老师。)
■不可数名词和可数名词：
不可数名词是指不能以数目来计算，不可以分成个体的概念、状态、
品质、感情或表示物质材料的对象②；一般没有复数形式，其前一般不加不定冠
词 a/an。抽象名词、物质名词③和专有名词一般是不可数名词。
可数名词是指能以数目来计算，可以分成个体的人或对象，因此有复
数形式④。
■可数名词的复数形式：
可数名词有单数和复数两种形式，其变成复数形式的规则见注释
①○抽象名词有时可以具体化。如：I haven't had much success in my applications for jobs.
我那些求职信都没怎么达到目的。/Of her plays, three were successes and one was a failure. 她
的剧作有三部成功, 一部失败。■He expressed surprise that no one had offered to help. 谁都
不肯帮忙, 他感到诧异。/ The gift came as a complete surprise to me. 这件礼物完全出乎我的
意料。■No pains, no gains. 不劳无获。■Use your brains. 动动脑子吧。②
以下词/短语后只能接不可数名词：little, a little, much, a large amount of, a great/good dealof。③
○物质名词一般是不可数名词，但表示份数（如: two drinks 二杯饮料）或某一种时（注
意此时有其它成分限定这个名词，如：a heavy snow 一场大雪），可以用作可数名词。
○有些物质名词以复数形式出现，表示数量之多，范围之广。如： The bridge was washedaway in heavy rains. 这座桥在大雨中被冲走了。④
○以下词/短语后只能接可数名词：few, a few, many, a great/good many, a large numberof。
○以下词/短语后既可接可数名词也可接不可数名词：a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a largequantity of, large quantities of。
220①②③
。
①○基本变化规则如下：
■通常是在单数名词后加 s：（如：bird→birds；book→books；bottle→bottles；table→tables）○读音变化：结尾是清辅音读[s]，结尾是浊辅音或元音读[z]。■s , z，x , sh , ch 结尾的词加 es：（如：bus→buses；church→churches；dish→dishes；box→boxes；特例：stomach→stomachs）○读音变化：加读[iz]。■以辅音+o 结尾的词，一般加 es：（如：hero→heroes；potato→potatoes；echo→echoes；negro→negroes）○读音变化：加读[z]。○
○但不少以字母 o 结尾的外来词或缩写词的复数形式只加 s （如：photo→photos 照片；
kilo→kilos 公斤；dynamo→dynamos 发电机； kimono→kimonos 和服； piano→pianos 钢琴；soprano→sopranos 女高音歌手）
○有些以 o 结尾的词可加 s 也可以加 es。（如：motto, halo, vocano, commando, zero, buffalo）■以辅音字母加 y 结尾的名词，变 y 为 i，再加 es；以元音字母加 y 结尾的直接加 s：（如：family→families；party→parties；city→cities；day→days）○读音变化：加读[z]。■以 f 或 fe 结尾的名词,一般变 f 或 fe 为 v,再加 es：（如：calf→calves，half→halves，knife→knives，leaf→leaves，life→lives，loaf→loaves，self→selves，sheaf→sheaves，shelf→shelves，thief→thieves，wife→wives，wolf→wolves）○读音变化：尾音[f]改读[vz]。○
○有些以 f 结尾的名词，在构成复数形式时中加 s。（如：cliff, safe, proof, greif, chief, gulf。）○名词 hoof（蹄），scarf（围巾），wharf（码头）和 handkerchief（手帕）构成复数形式时，
其词尾可以加 s 也可以变化后加 es。○表年代时，在年后面加 s 或’s。（如：1980s/1980’s 二十世纪八十年代）
○表英语字母的复数形式，在其后加’s。（如： “Week” has two e’s）□以-us 结尾的名词（多为外来词），有时将-us 变为-i 构成复数形式:（如：abacus→abaci; cactus→cacti; fungus→fungi; focus→foci; cestus→cesti）□以-is 结尾的名词，有时将-is 变为-es 构成复合形式：
（如：axis→axes; basis→bases; naris→nares; hypothesis→hypotheses; restis→restes）□以-ix 结尾的名词，有时将-ix 变为-ices 构成复合形式，但也有例外：
（如：appendix→appendices; calix→calices; matrix→matrices; directrix→directrices 例外：
affix→affixes）□以-um 结尾的名词，有时将-um 变为-a 构成复合形式：
（如：datum→data; aquarium→aquaria; forum→fora; stadium→stadia; vacuum→vacua）□以-a 结尾的名词，有时加-e 构成复数形式：
（如：larva→larvae; formula→formulae; ala→alae; media→mediae; hydra→hydrae）□还有一些名词的复数形式是不规则的，需要平时积累。如：
○重要的，如：child→children；foot→feet；tooth→teeth；mouse→mice；man→men,goose→geese；louse→lice；mouse→mice；stomach→stomachs；ox →oxen；brother→brethren；
tooth→teeth；woman→women；basis→bases 基础; datum→data 数据。
○较要的，如：analysis→analyses 分析; formula→formulae/formulas 公式;
■名词所有格
我们知道介词 of 可以指出一个对象属于另一个对象，即形成：对象+of+另
一对象，这种形式。在英语中 of 指出的这种所属关系非常普遍，因而在实际运
medium→media/mediums 媒介;memorandum→memoranda/memorandums 备忘录;parenthesis→parentheses 圆括号; phenomenon→phenomena 现象; radius→radii 半径。
○单复同形，如：Chinese；Swiss；Japanese；deer；sheep；fish；cannon；salmon；trout；species；means; spacecraft。○集体名词，以单数形式出现，但实为复数，如：cattle；people；police 是复数。
○有些词多以复数形式出现，并和复数动词连用，如：由两部分组成的服装、工具和仪器
等用复数：trousers 裤子；pants（男用）短衬裤；；；；breeches 马裤；；；；pyjamas 睡衣裤；；；；glasses眼镜；；；；pliers 钳子；；；；binoculars 双筒望远镜；scales 天平；；；；scissors 剪刀；；；；shears 大剪刀；；；；spectacles眼镜／护目镜 ■■■■其他：arms 武器；；；；riches 财富；；；；savings 储蓄；；；；damages 损害／赔偿；；；；earnings收入；；；；goods／wares 商品／货品；；；；greens 蔬菜；；；；grounds（建筑物周围的）庭院，场地；；；；outskirts郊外；；；；pains 费心，辛苦；；；；particulars 细情；；；；prenises／qusrters 房屋／住所；；；；spirits 烈酒；；；；stairs台阶，楼梯；；；；surroundings 环境；；；；valuables 贵重物品。
○注意有些名词词形式上像是复数形式但意义上却是单数：news 新闻，maths 数学；darts掷飞镖，rickets 软骨病，佝偻病，billiards 台球，bowls 滚木球，dominoes 多米诺骨牌游戏，
draughts 国际象棋。
○表示“某国人”的复数形式表达法：
○以-ese 结尾的名词，其单复数形式相同；
○以-an 或-ian 结尾的名词，其复数形式在该词后加-s；以后缀-man 结尾的名词，其复数形
式将-man 改为-men，但也有例外。如：German→Germans。②
○复合名词构成复数形式的基本规则：
■复合名词的复数形式一般是在中心名词后面加 s，如：looker-on → lookers-on 旁观者
son-in-law → sons-in-law 女婿。
○但是当复合名词没有中心名词时，通常其复数形式是在最后的词后 s，如：
grown-up → grown-ups 成年人; go-between → go-betweens 中间人。
○如 man 和 woman 位于复合名词的第一部分，两部分都要变成复数，如：men drivers 男司机；women drivers 女司机。
■首字母缩写词也可有复数形式，在其后加 s 或’s，如: VIPs（very important persons）/VIP’s要人；MPs（Members of Parliament）/Mp’s 英国下院议员；OAPs（old age pensioners）养
老金领取者/OAP’s；UFOs（unidentified flying objects）/UFO’s 不明飞行物，飞碟。
○注意以下表达方式：
数字+形容词+名词 It's a five-foot-deep hole. ////The hole is five feet deep. ////It's a hole five feetdeep.③
○注意有些名词的可数形式和不可数形式意义有所不同，如：British territorial waters英国的海域。■room 房间（可数）；空间（不可数）■exercise 练习（可数）；锻炼、运动
（不可数）■goods 货物 ■fishes（各种）鱼；■a few white hairs （几根白色的头发）；■
fruits (各种)水果
○除人民币元、角、分外，美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。
○几个应该特别注意的名词：people (民族，人); village (村庄，村民)；man(男人，人类)，youth (年轻人，青年男子，青春)。
222用中这种形式有所简化，具体请参考注释
①②。
①
■通常在表示人或其它有生命的对象的名词词尾加’s。如：sister’s book=book of sister 姐姐
的书；dog’s tail 狗尾巴。
○以 s 或 es 结尾的复数名词，只在词尾加’，如：girls’ toys 女孩子们的玩具。
■无论表示有生命还是无生命的对象的名词,一般均可用介词 of+名词来表示所有关系，如：
the handle of the umbrella 伞的把；a friend of mine 我的朋友；an acquaintance of my wife's我妻子认识的人；a story of a famous doctor 一个名医的故事。the son of the man you justtalked to 刚刚和你说话的那个男人的儿子。
■用复合词表示，主要有以下几个：my [of me]; our [of us]; your [of you]; his [of him]; her [of her]; its [of it]; their [of them].■有些表示时间、距离以及世界、国家、城镇等无生命的名词,也可在词尾加’s。如：
today’s newspaper 今天的报纸；five minutes’ break 五分钟的休息；Japan’s population 日本
的人口。②
○应用名词所有格时需要注意以下几点：
■表示两者或两者以上共同所有时，在最后一个名词的后面加’s/’；表示各自拥有时，每个
名词后都要’s/’。如：Tom and John’s boat 汤姆和约翰共有的船；Tom’s and John’s boats 汤姆
和约翰各自的船。
■所有格可以表某人家或店铺等。如：Lily’s 莉莉家，the barber’s 理发店
■双重所有格：“of +名词的’s 所有格或名词性物主代词”称为双重所有格。如：an old friendof my teacher's 我老师的一个老朋友 A friend of his has gone to Paris. 他的一位朋友去了巴
黎。
○试比较：my teacher’s picture，意为"我老师所拥有的照片"，暗含"照片上不一定是我老师
"； a picture of my teacher’s 意为"我老师所拥有的照片中的一张"，同样，暗含"照片上不一
定是我老师"； a picture of my teacher 意为"我老师的照片（照片中是老师）"；my teacher in the picture 意为"照片中我的老师"。
第六节第六节第六节第六节 冠词冠词冠词冠词
冠词（article, art.）是虚词，用在名词前，帮助指明名词的含义，可以说是
名词的一种标志，表示其数量或特征，但它不能离开名词而独立存在。
冠词分为不定冠词"a，an①"、定冠词"the②"和零冠词三种③。不定冠词表示
泛指④、类指
⑤；定冠词表示特指
⑥、类指；零冠词表示泛指、类指。a、an
仅用在单数可数名词前来表示“一”的意义，但不强调数目概念，只表示名词
为不特定者。the 用在可数名词单数、复数，不可数名词前均可。几者详细
用法见注释⑦⑧⑨⑩
。
①不定冠词 a (an)与数词 one 同源，基本意义是“一个”，主要用在可数名词单数前。a 用
在以辅音音素开头的词前，而不是辅音字母前（读作：/ə 强读 ei/）；an 用在以元音音素开
头的词前，而不是元音字母前（读作：/ən 强读 æn/）。②
定冠词 the（读作：/ðə 在元音音素前ði 强读ði:/）与指示代词 this，that 同源，有“那（这）
个”的意思，但较弱，可以和一个名词连用，来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西。③
零冠词指的是不用冠词的情况。④
泛指是指首次提到的，不限定的人或事物。⑤
类指是指具有共同性质或典型特征的事物的一个类别。⑥
特指是指上文已经提到的人或事物，或是被其它部分限定的人或事物，也可以指说话双
方所默认的特定的人或事物。⑦
★不定冠词的基本用法：
■用于可数名词的单数形式前，表示"一" ，意义相当于 one。如：There is a book on the table.桌子上有一本书。a thousand miles 一千里。
■第一次提到的人或事物，但不特别指明是哪一个。如：Long long ago there was an old king,who had a very beautiful daughter. 很久很久以前，有一个年老的国王，他有一个非常美丽的
女儿。
■表示一类人或事物。如：An owl can see in the dark. 猫头鹰在黑暗中能看见东西. （相当
于 Owls can see in the dark.）■表示"某一个"的意思，意义相当于 a certain。如：A Mrs Green is waiting to see you. 有一
位格林太太正等着见你。
*( 2005 山东卷) I knew ______ John Lennon, but not ______ famous one.A. 不填；a ●B. a；the C. 不填；the D. the；a■表示"同一"的意思，意义相当于 the same。如：They are nearly of an age. 他们几乎同岁。
The two shirts are much of a size. 这两件衬衫大小差不多。
■表示"每一"的意思，意义相当于 every。如：He goes there two times a week. 他每周去那
两次。
■用在作表语的单数可数名词前，表示身份、职业。如：Her brother is a teacher. 她兄弟是
老师。
224第七节第七节第七节第七节 代词代词代词代词■用于某些物质名词或抽象名词前,表示 “一种、一类、一份、一场、一阵”。如：That is
a green tea. 那是一种绿茶。They were caught in a heavy rain. 他们被大雨淋了。
a pleasure / a success/ a failure 愉快的事，成功的事，失败的事。
■用在某些抽象名词前，该抽象名词便具体化了。如：He has a knowledge of chemistry. 他
懂化学。The get-together was a great success. 这次聚会很成功。Her book is a collection ofshort stories. 她的书是本短篇故事集。
*( 2005 北京卷) It is often said that __________ teachers have __________ very easy life.A. 不填；不填 ●B. 不填；a C. the, 不填 D. the, a*(2007 江西卷) Many people have come to realize that they should go on balanced diet andmake room in their day for exercise.
●A.a; / B.the; a C.the;the D./; a■用在大量习惯用语中。如：a lot of 许多；a great many 很多；a great deal of 大量；all ofa sudden 突然；a little 少量，少许。
*(2005 浙江卷) My mother always gets a bit _________ if we don’t arrive when we say we will.●A. anxious B. ashamed C. weak D. patient*(2008 辽宁卷) My neighbor asked me to go for ______ walk, but I don’t think I’ve got ______energy.
A. a; 不填 B. the; the C. 不填；the ●D. a; the★定冠词的基本用法：
■用以特指某（些）人或某（些）事物。如：This is the picture I like. 这就是我喜欢的画。
*(2005 江西卷) If you grow up in ______ large family, you are more likely to develop ______ability to get on well with ________ others.A. /; an; the ●B. a; the; / C. the; an; the D. a; the; the*(2006 北京卷) — I knocked over my coffee cup. It went right over ______ keyboard.— You shouldn’t put drinks near ________ computer.A. the; 不填 ●B. the; a C. a; 不填 D. a; a*(2006 重庆卷) Everywhere man has cut down _______ forests in order to grow crops, or to use______ wood as fuel or as building material.A. the; the B. the;/ ●C./；the D./；/*(2008 四川卷) In the United States, there is always ____ flow of people to areas of ______country where more jobs can be found.●A. a; the B. the ; a C. the; the D. a; a■用于指谈话双方都明确所指的人或事物。如：Open the door, please. 请把门打开。
*(2008 江西卷) — I am so sorry to have come late for the meeting.— It is not your fault. With __ rush-hour traffic and __ heavy rain, it is no wonder you were late.A. a; a ●B. the; the C. /; / D. /; a■用以复述上文提过的人或事物（第一次提到用“a 或 an”，以后再次提到用“the”）。如：Aboy and a girl were sitting on a bench. The boy was smiling but the girl looked angry. 一个男孩
和一个女孩坐在长凳上。那男孩在微笑, 那女孩像在生气.■用在序数词和形容词最高级前。如：the hottest day of the holiday 假日中最热的一天。
*January is the first month of the year. 一月份是一年当中的第一个月。*He is always the firstto come and the last to leave. 他总是第一个来最后一个离开。
■用以指独一无二的人或事物。如：the sun 太阳；the moon 月亮；the earth 地球；the sky天空；the world 世界
■用在由普通名词构成的专有名词前。如：the Great Wall 长城；the United States 美国；theUnited Nations 联合国；the English 英国人；the WTO 世界贸易组织
*(2005 江苏卷) On May 5, 2005, at ________World Table Tennis Championship, Kong Linghui
and Wang Hao won the gold medal in men's doubles with ________ score of 4: 1.A. a; a B. 不填; the C. a; 不填 ●D. the; a■用在海洋、江河、山脉、海峡、海湾等地理名词前。如：the Pacific Ocean 太平洋；theHuanghe River 黄河；the Tianshan Mountains 天山山脉；the Taiwan Straits 台湾海峡
○湖泊前一不加冠词(如 Lake Baikal 贝尔加湖)，但有些也加。如：the West Lake 西湖。
■与可数名词的单数连用, 表示一类人或事物。如：The chimpanzee is an endangered species.黑猩猩是濒于灭种的动物。
*(2008 重庆卷) In many places in China, ___ bicycle is still ___ popular means oftransportation.A. a; the B. /; a ●C. the; a D. the; the*(2009 北京卷) The biggest whale is ___ blue whale, which grows to be about 29 meters long—the height of _______ 9-story building.A. the; the B. a; a C. a; the ●D. the; a■在姓氏复数前，表示一家人。如：The Bakers came to see me yesterday. 贝克一家人昨天
来看我。
■和某些形容词连用，指一类人或物（其实是一种省略形式）。如 The rich get richer and thepoor get poorer. 富的越富, 穷的越穷。*the wounded 伤员；the good 好人。
■表每一（every）的意思。如：The price is 50p the dozen. 价格是每打 50 便士.■用于西洋乐器前（民族乐器前不加）。如：play the piano 弹钢琴；play the violin 拉小提
琴；play erhu 拉二胡。
■用在世纪或逢时的复数名词前。如： in the18th century 在 18 世纪；in the 1960s 在 20世纪 60 年代。
■用于某些固定用法中。如： in the morning 在早上；go to the cinema 去看电影；I want youout of here, and the sooner the better. 你给我走开, 越快越好。
★"零"冠词的基本用法:■专有名词、物质名词、抽象名词前一般不加冠词（在特指时加冠词）。如：Japan 日本, water水；ideal 想法；This table is made of wood. 这张桌子是用木头做的。* Time is precious. 时
间是宝贵的。 *The time of the play was 1990s. 这个剧本的时代背景是二十世纪九十年代。
*(2006 全国卷) I know you don’t like _______ music very much. But what do you think of_______ music in the film we saw yesterday?A. /; / B. the; the C. the; / ●D. /; the■没有特指的可数名词复数形式前一般不加冠词。如：I like tomatoes. 我喜欢西红柿。
■月份、星期、节日前一般不加冠词。如：May 五月份；Sunday 星期日 ；Christmas Day圣诞节。 on a Sunday morning. 在一个星期天的早晨... （表示某一个。）
*( 2005 湖南卷) I can't remember when exactly the Robinsons left __ city. I only remember itwas ____ Monday.A. the, the B. a, the C. a, a ●D. the, a
○民族节日前要加 the。如：the Spring Festival 春节。
■三餐、四季前一般不加冠词。如：I have lunch at school. 我在学校吃午餐。Summer is thebest season for swimming. 夏天是游泳的好季节。
○试比较： I had a big lunch yesterday. 昨天我吃了一顿丰盛的午餐。（表示某一个）*Thedinner given by Mr Smith was very nice. 史密斯先生款待的晚宴真是美味。（表示特指） *比较： I will never forget the summer we spent in Hawaii. 我永远不会忘记我们一起在夏威夷
度过的那个夏天。（表示特指）
■球类运动前一般不加冠词。如：play football 踢足球；play basketball 打篮球 ；playvolleyball 打排球。
226代替对象名称的词就是代词（pronoun, pron.），主要有下面一些：
■职位、头衔的词前常不加冠词。如：king，captain。■一些固定词组中常不加冠词。如：go to school 去上学； at table 在用餐；at school 在求
学。
*○( 2005 全国卷) If you go by _________ train, you can have quite a comfortable journey, butmake sure you get __________ fast one.A. the; the ●B. 不填；a C. the; a D. 不填；不填
■在以下情况下冠词常省略，（1）新闻标题 （2）通知说明 （3）书名 （4）提纲 （5）剧本提示。⑧
★不定冠词的位置，不定冠词常位于名词或限制名词的词之前，但要注意以下情况：
■其位于下列之词之后 such，what，many，half。如：It was such a boring speech (that) I fellasleep. 这讲演枯燥无味, 听得我都睡着了。
*(2009 上海卷) The Great Wall is _______ tourist attraction that millions of people pour inevery year.A. so a well-known B. a so well-known C. such well-known a ●D. such a well-known■当名词前的形容词被 as, so, too, how, however, enough 限制时，不定冠词应放在形容词之
后。如：So short a time. 如此短的时间。*Too long a distance. 距离太远了。
*(2010 上海卷) you may have, you should gather your courage to face the challenge.A. However a serious problem B. What a serious problem● C. However serious a problem D. What serious a problem
■quite，rather 与单数名词连用，冠词放在其后，但当 rather，quite 前仍有形容词，不定
冠词放其前后均可。如：quiet a kind man 一个相当好的人。
★定冠词的位置：定冠词通常位于名词或其限制词之前，但放在 all，both，double，half，twice，two times 等词之后，名词之前。如：All the windows are open. 所有的窗户都开着。⑨
○冠词与形容词+名词结构
■两个形容词都有冠词，表示两个不同东西。如：He raises a black and a white cat. 他养了
一只黑猫和一只白猫。*The black and the white cats are hers. 这只黑猫和白猫都是他的。
*A cup of white and a cup of black tea 一杯奶茶，一杯柠檬茶
■如后一个形容词无冠词，则指一物。如：He raises a black and white cat. 他养了一只花猫
(黑白相间的猫)。*A cup of white and black tea 一杯柠檬奶茶。
○冠词使用中的常见错误：
■表示世界上独一无二的事物的名词前一般加定冠词 the; 但如果名词前有限定语，也可能
用不定冠词 a,an。如：the world, a peaceful world *the moon, a bright moon■表示一日三餐的名词前面一般不用冠词，但前面如果有了限定语，也可能用不定冠词 a,an。如：Have you had (/) supper? *We had a wonderful supper.■表星期几的名词前面一般不用冠词，但是当指某一个特定的星期几时，前面要加不定冠
词。球类活动中，表球类的名词前不用冠词；音乐活动中，表乐器名称的名词前须用定冠
词。但是，当它们不指活动，而是指具体的某件东西时，须用适当的冠词。如：He starts hisday by playing the violin. *He is playing a borrowed (/) violin.■介词与表示交通工具的名词连用表示笼统的方式，前面一般不用冠词，但如果名词的前
面出现了限定语，前面需加冠词。如：He went to the station by (/) car. *He went to the stationin a black car.■在英语中，表示语言的名词前通常不用冠词，但在某些特殊情况下可用冠词。如：
○当语言名词表特指意义，其前可用定冠词。如：The English spoken in America and Canadais a little different from that spoken in England. 美国和加拿大讲的英语与英国讲的英语有点
不同。
人称代词①：I；we ；you；he；she②
；they③；me（宾格
④）；us⑤
（宾格）；you
○当语言名词表示某一语言中的对应词时，其前要用定冠词。如：What’s the English for this?这个东西用英语怎么说?○当在语言名词后加上 language 一词时，也要用冠词。如：There have been many changes inthe history of the English language. 英语发展过程中有很多变革。
■人名前面加定冠词，指特定的某个人或某个人的主要特征。地名前面一般不用定冠词，
但是当指特定某时期的地方或某地的主要特征时，须用定冠词。如：
China → the China (of) today 今日的中国 *America → the America of last century; 上世界
的美国 *the New York of China 中国的“纽约”。
■注意 trun 的意义作“变成”时，其后的名词没有冠词。如：He turned (/) writer many yearslater.(=He became a writer many years later.)⑩
引自：百库文库：2011 高考英语第一轮复习导航[语法专题复习]○英语中有不少词组，从形式看好象只有冠词之差，而实际上却是意义完全不同的新词组。
如：
■in front of 在……（外）的前面 ; in the front of 在……（内）的前面。如：There’s a gardenin front of the classroom. *There’s a blackboard in the front of the classroom.■in charge of 掌管；负责; in the charge of 在……负责之下。如：An experienced worker is incharge of the project. *The project is in the charge of an experienced worker.■at table 在用饭；吃饭时; at the table 在桌旁。如：He seldom talks at table. *They sat at thetable, talking and laughing.■by day 白天；日间 ; by the day 按日计。如：He works in an office by day. *Cleaningwomen in big cities get paid by the day.■take place 发生；举行 ; take the place 代替；接替。如：When did this conversation take place?*Electric train has now taken the place of steam trains in England.■in words 用言语 ; in a word 总之。如：Please express your thought in words. *In a word,I don’t trust you.■at times 有时；不时 ; at a time 一次。如：I do feel a little nervous at times. *Pass me thebricks two at a time.■little 少；不多的 ; a little 一些；一点点。如：Hurry up, there’s little time left. *Don’t hurry,you still have a little time.■few 很少；几乎没有的; a few 有些；几个。如：He is a man of few words. *Only a few ofthe children can read.■a most interesting 非常有趣的 ; the most interesting 最有趣的（形容词的最高级）。如：This is a most interesting story. *This is the most interesting story of the three.■a doctor and nurse 一位医生兼护士 ; a doctor and a nurse 一位医生和一位护士。如：Adoctor and nurse is standing there. *A doctor and a nurse are standing there.■A number of 许多；好些 ; the number of …（的）数目。如：A number of students are in theclassroom. *The number of students in the classroom is forty.①
人称代词有人称、数和格（主格/宾格）之分。②
○She 常常代替城市、国家、宠物等、表示一种亲密或授抚的感情，如：I live in USA.She is a beautiful counry. 我住在美国，她是一个美丽的国家。
○She 也可以指代雌性动物，如：Do you remember our cat? She had kittens last week. 你还
记得我们那只猫吗? 上星期生小猫了。③ We, you, they 都可以泛指一般人，如：We all make mistakes. 每个人都会犯错误。*Nobodywants to help you in this town. 在这座小城市里没有人愿意帮助别人。*They say we're goingto have a hot summer. 人家说今年夏天很热。
228（宾格）；him（宾格）；her（宾格）；them（宾格）
①②③
指示代词：this, that, these, those④
④人称代词在作宾语的时候要用宾格形式；在书面语中作表语时常用主格，但在口语中常
用宾格，如 It ‘s I (me). 是我。⑤ (2007 湖南卷) To save class time, our teacher has ________ students do half of the exercise inclass and complete the other half for homework.●A. us B. we C. our D. ours① 2011 年高考英语一轮复习系列(教师版)：专题 15__代词(教学卷)○人称代词之主、宾格的替换： ■宾格代替主格： ○在简短对话中，当人称代词单独使用或在 not 后，多用宾格。例： —I like English.我喜欢英语。—Me too.我也喜欢。 —Have more wine?再来点酒喝吗? —Not me.我可不要了。 ○在表示比较的非正式的文体中，常用宾格代替主格。He is taller than I/me. He is taller thanI am. (注意这里只能用主格) ■主格代替宾格： ○but，except 后，有时可用主格代替宾格。 ○在电话用语中常用主格。例：—I wish to speak to Mary.我想和玛丽通话。—This is she.我就是玛丽。 ②
○并列人称代词的排列顺序 ■单数人称代词并列作主语时，其顺序为：第二人称→ 第三人称→第一人称，即 you→he/she; it → I。如：You，he and I should return on time.你，他还有我应该按时回来。 ■复数人称代词作主语时，其顺序为：第一人称→ 第二人称→第三人称，we→you→they。■注意：在下列情况中，第一人称放在前面。 ○在承认错误，承担责任时。如：It was I and John that made her angry.是我和约翰惹她生气
了。 ○在长辈对晚辈，长官对下属说话时，如长官为第一人称。如：I and you try to finish it.我和你去弄好它。 ○并列主语只有第一人称和第三人称时。 ○当其他人称代词或名词被限定时。 ③
不定代词 anybody，everybody，nobody，anyone， someone， everyone，no one， 及
whoever 和 person 在正式场合使用时，可用 he，his，him 代替。例：Nobody came，did he?谁也没来，是吗? ④
○this(these)一般指时间和空间上较近的人或物，而 that (those)常指时间和空间上较远
的人或物。例：This is a novel and that is a magazine．这是一本小书，那是一本杂志。）
○this(these)一般指后面要讲到的事物，而 that(those)常指前面讲到的事物。例：What he toldme is this：he will come．他告诉我的是：他会来。*He didn't come．That is why he didn't know.他没有来，这就是他不知道的原因。
○打电话时，介绍自己时通常用 this 指代“我”，不用 I；询问对方时用 that 指代“你”，
不用 you。○指示代词在作主语时可指物也可指人，但作其他句子成分时只能指物，不能指人。
○在回答指示代词作主语的特殊问句时，如果指示代词指人，其回答中的主语仍可以用相
应的指示代词，也可以用 it 或者 they；但指事物时，只能用 it 或者 they。○在回答指示代词作主语的一般疑问句时，不管指示代词指人还是指物，答语中都用 it 或
反身代词： myself， yourself， himself， herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves
疑问代词：who, whom, what, which
不定代词①：everybody, everyone, everything; some, somebody, someone, something;
any, anybody, anyone②, anything③; no, nobody, no one, nothing; all, both, neither,
none, one, either④, each, other, another, much, many, few, little, a little⑤
相互代词⑥：each other，one another
其它代词：which，who，that，whom，what，it⑦，one⑧
they。如：
— Hello. This is Mary. Who’s that? 喂，我是玛丽。你是谁？
— This is Tom. 我是汤姆。①
不指明代替任何特定名词的代词叫做不定代词。② (2007 上海卷) The mayor has offered a reward of $ 5000 to ______ who can capture the tigeralive or dead.A. both B. others ●C. anyone D. another③ (2007 重庆卷) Jim sold most of his things. He has hardly _______ left in the house.●A. anything B. everything C. nothing D. something④ (2008 全国 I 卷)30. — Which of the two computer games did you prefer?— Actually I didn’t like ______.A. both of them ●B. either of them C. none of them D. neither of them⑤
■few 或 a few 后接可数名词复数；也可用来代替复数名词。few 的意思是“很少”，“几乎没有”，含有否定意味；a few 则是肯定的，表示“少数几个”，“有些”，与 some 意思比较
接近。如：
*○(2007 北京卷) He has made a lot of films,but ____ good ones.A.any B. some ●C. few D. many■little 或 a little 后接不可数名词。 little 表示否定，相当于 not much; not enough，意为“几乎没有”；a little 表示肯定，意为“rather 有点儿，有些”。⑥
表示相互关系的代词叫相互代词，有 each other 和 one another 两个词组。他们表示句中
动词所叙述的动作或感觉在涉及的各个对象之间是相互存在的。如：The boys like each other.*男孩们互相都很喜欢。*The students followed one another into the room. 学生们一个接一个
地进了房间。
○有些教科书认为 each other 只能用于两者之间，one another 用于两者以上，但在实际应
用中这条规则已被忽略。⑦
○it 的基本用法：
■作人称代词
○代替前面(或后面)的单数名词或句子等所表示的对象。如：Although we can not see it,there is air all around us. 尽管我们看不到空气，但它却包围着我们。*They said they hadfinished the work, but I can't believe it.
230应用代词中应该注意的问题见注释
①。
(2005 全国卷)The doctor advised Vera strongly that she should take a holiday, but _______didn’t help.●A. it B. she C. which D. he 代词
○代替有生命但不能或不必分阴阳性的东西(包括婴儿)。如：Yesterday we saw a bigcamel. It was about 3 metres high. 昨天我们见到一头大骆驼。它大概有 3 米高。*When a babyis crying, it may be hungry. 当婴儿啼哭时，它可能是饿了。
○在某些习惯说法中 it 可指代人。(前提是说话者双方都知道是 somebody)，如：
A: Someone is knocking at the door? 有人在敲门吗？
B: Really ? Who is it? 真的？是谁呢？
C: It’s me. 是我。
○指环境情况(天气、时间、距离、度量衡等)，如：It is five kilometres from the office tomy home. 从办公室到我家有 5 公里。It often rains in summer. 夏天经常下雨。
■构成强调结构
it 用以帮助改变句子结构，使句子的某一成分受到强调。如：It was in Shanghai that I sawthefilm. 我是在上海看的这部电影。
■作形式主语
为使句子平衡，通常用 it 作形式主语，而将真正的主语置于句末。如：It is not easy tofinish the work in two days. 两天内完成这项工作并非易事。
○(2009 天津卷)It is obvious to the students ______ they should get well prepared for theirfuture.
A. as B. which C. whether ●D. that○(2007 全国卷 II) ___ felt funny watching myself on TV.
A. One B. This ●C. It D. That■■it 与 that 的区别：
两词都可代替某一特定名词。但 that 指同一类，并非同一个。
○The climate of South China is mild; I like it very much. 华南的气候很温和，我非常喜
欢。( it 指 the climate of South China)○The climate of South China is better than that of Japan. 华南的气候比日本的要好。
( that 指 the climate,但并不是指 the climate of South China)⑧ one 可指代前面的同类事物中的一个，表示泛指，one 前面有形容词限定，之前还可以加
上不定冠词 a，也表示泛指，但 one前面加上 the可以表示特指，the one复数形式是 the ones，
相当于 those。①
■nothing, none, no one： ○none 作为代词，最常用来表示数量，它可以是一个可数的概念（how many）也可以是一
个不可数的概念(how much)，或者 any 引起的问题；
○而 nothing 是相对于 something(有某物)什么都没有，它回答的是“What is in/on...”的问题；
○而 no one=nobody 没有人，它回答的是“Who did that?”（谁……）或是 anyone（有没有人）
的问题。如：We had three cats once none (of them) is/are alive now. 我们曾有三只猫--现在一
个活的也没有了.*(2009 上海卷)— Wow! You’ve got so many clothes.— But _____ of them are in fashion now.A. all B. both C. neither ●D. none*(2007 福建卷) The book is of great value. can be enjoyed unless you digest it.
●A.Nothing B.Something C.Everything D.Anything■one, ones, that, those, it： ○one 和 ones 可以用来代替前面提到过的可数名词，one 代单数，ones 代复数。两者都可
以指代物（只要是可数）。 ○one 前面一般不加 a, 因为它本身有“一个”的意思，但如果 one 前面有形容词限定时，
则需要加 a/an。 ○one 可以单独使用，意思为“任何人”。如：
(2010 山东卷) Helping others is a habit, _______ you can learn even at an early age.A. it B. that C. what ●D. one*(2005 江西卷) Cars do cause us some health problems — in fact far more serious _______ thanmobile phones do.A. one ●B. ones C. it D. those 代词
*(2006 全国卷)Your story is perfect; I’ve never heard _______ before.A. the better one B. the best one ●C. a better one D. a good one*(2006 安徽省) Of the two sisters, Betty is ______ one, and she is also the one who loves to bequiet.A. a younger B. a youngest ●C. the younger D. the youngest■that 与 those：
that 可以代替前面提到的不可数名词或可数名词单数（相当于 the one；而 those 代替
前面提到的复数名词，有时可以用 the ones 替换）。如：
*(2005 江苏卷) I'm moving to the countryside because the air there is much fresherthan________ in the city.A. ones B. one ●C. that D. those*(2008 辽宁卷) — Could you tell me how to get to Victoria Street?— Victoria Street? ______ is where the Grand Theatre is.A. Such B. There ●C. That D. This■one 和 it:
两者都可以用来代替前面出现过的单数名词, one 指这类东西中的任何一个，指类属，
泛指。it 指前面所指的同一物。如：I haven’t got any pens, and I want to borrow one. 我没有
钢笔，我想借一支。(one = a pen) ■I have two pens, and I can lend one to you. 我有两本支钢
笔，我可以借一支。(one = a pen)■I have a pen, and I can lend it to you. 我有一支钢笔，我
可以把它借给你。(it = the pen)■another, the other, other, others, the others： ○another 和 the other: 两者都是“另一个”的意思，但数量上有区别:用 another 指两个以上的数量，而 the other 只指两个中的另一个，如：She has three sisters, one is a teacher, another is a doctor and the third isan engineer. 她还有三个姐妹，一个是老师，另一个是医生，还有一个是工程师。*He has abook in one hand and a pen in the other. 他一手着书，一手拿着笔。
*(2010 全国卷 II ) Neither side is prepared to talk to _____ unless we can smooth thing overbetween them。
A. others ●B. the other C. another D. one other *(2008 四川卷) The manager believes prices will not rise by more than _____ four percent.
A. any other B. the other ●C. another D. other■others, the others
others 是相对于 some 来说的：some...some....others... (一些……一些……另一些……）
是泛指；而 the others 是特指另一些，相对于 ones (可以理解为 one, the other 的复数)。如：
232第八节第八节第八节第八节 数词数词数词数词
表示数目多少的词叫基数词，表示顺序多少的词叫序数词，这两种词统称
为数词（numeral, num.）。
■■基数词的表示方式：
■从 1—10：one，two，three，four，five，six，seven，eight，nine，ten．
■从 11—19：eleven，twelve，thirteen， fourteen， fifteen， sixteen， seventeen，
eighteen，nineteen．
■从 21—99：
○整数几十中除 twenty，thirty, forty，fifty，eighty 为特殊形式外，sixty，
Class 1 are cleaning the classroom. Some are sweeping the floor, some are cleaning the window,and others are washing the blackboard. （泛指）一班在清扫教室。一些在扫地，一些在擦窗，
还有一些在清洗黑板。*There are only 20 students in the classroom, where are the others.（特
指）教室里只有 20 个学生，其它人去哪了？
■both, other, neither, each, any, all： ○both: 两者都，谓语动词用复数；如：
*(2006 浙江卷) If you can’t decide which of the two books to borrow, why don’t you take______? I won’t read them this week.A. all B. any C. either ●D. both
○either: 两者中间的任何一个，谓语动词用单数； ○neither: 两者中间无任何一个，谓语动词多用单数，也可以用复数； ○each: 两个或两个以上中的每一个，谓语动词用单数； ○any: 三者或三者以上中的任何一个，谓语动词用单数； ○all: 三者或三者以上全部；
■some, any, no ○some 属于肯定词，主要用于肯定句中，但当说话人期待肯定回答时，也可以用于疑
问句中。如：Could I have some more tea, please? 能给我再倒些茶吗？Would you like somemore coffee? 要再来点咖啡吗？
○any 属于非肯定词，主要用于否定句、疑问句或条件句中。它可以与形容词的比较级
连用。例：Don’t come any closer, or I’ll shoot! 再靠近，我就开枪了。
○no 属于否定词，用于否定句中： no+可数名词单数=not a/an no+可数名词复数=not any。如：There is no such thing as a free lunch in the world.（注意 thing前面没有冠词 a) 世上没有免费的午餐。
seventy，ninety 都是其个位数形式后添加后缀-ty 构成。
○表示几十几时，在几十和个位基数词形式之间添加连字符"-" 。如：32
thirty-two；56 fifty-six；87 eighty-seven。
■百位数：
个数基数词后加“hundred”，表示几百；在几十几与百位间加上 and．如：
345 three hundred and forty-five；203 two hundred and three；320 three hundred and
twenty , 642 six hundred and forty-two
■千位数以上：
从数字的右端向左端数起，每三位数加一个逗号“，”。从右开始，第一个
“，”前的数字后添加 thousand（千），第二个“，”前面的数字后添加 million
（百万），第三个“，”前的数字后添加 billion（十亿），然后一节一节分别表示。
如：3,243 three thousand two hundred and forty-three；16,350,64 sixteen million three
hundred and fifty thousand sixty-four。
基数词一般是单数形式，但下列情况，常用复数，见注释①。
■■序数词的表示方式：
■从第一至第十九：
①
■dozen(12)、score(20)、hundred、thousand、million 、billion 等在表确切的数字时只用单
数形式，但是在表示不确切数字时要用复数，且与 of 连用。请注意以下表示方式：
○表示确数：five dozen eggs 五打鸡蛋、 eight score days 160 天。
*(2007 浙江卷) It is reported that the floods have left about _____people homeless.●A. two thousand B. two-thousands C. two thousands D. two thousands of○表示概数：hundreds of 数百、dozens of 数十、thousands of 数千。
○叠用：tens of thousands of 好几万。
■表示"几十岁"。如：He is in his early thirties．他才三十出头。
■表示"年代"，用 in +the +数词复数。如：It took place in the 1970s. 事情发生在 20 世纪
70 年代。
■在一些固定的词组里。如：They arrived in twos and threes. 他们三三两两的到达了。sixesand sevens 乱七八糟
■在乘法运算的一种表示法里。如：6 x 5 = Six fives is (are) thirty. 6 乖以 5 等于 30
234○one-first，two-second，three-third，five-fifth，eight-eighth，nine-ninth，
twelve-twelfth 为特殊形式。
○其它的序数词都是由其相对应的基数词后面添加“th”构成。如： six- sixth；
nineteen- nineteenth。
■从第二十至第九十九：
○整数第几十的形式由其对应的基数词改变结尾字母 y 为 i，再加“eth”构
成。如：twenty—twentieth thirty—thirtieth。
○表示第几十几时，用几十的基数词形式加上连字符“－”和个位序数词形
式一起表示。如：thirty-third 第三十三；fifty-sixth 第五十六；seventy-sixth 第七
十六；ninety-ninth 第九十九。
■第一百以上的多位序数词：
由基数词的形式变结尾部分为序数词形式来表示。如：one hundredth 第一百；
one hundred and twenty-first 第一百二十一； five thousand， two hundred and
twentieth 第五千二百二十
■数词的具体应用见注释：
序数词的缩写形式①；序号表示法
②；分数表示法
③；小数表示法
④；倍数的
①有时，序数词可以用缩写形式来表示。主要缩写形式有:
○first—lst；second--2nd；third--3rd；fourth--4th；sixth--6th；twentieth--20th；twenty-third--23rd；其中 lst，2nd，3rd 为特殊形式，其它的都是阿拉伯数字后加上 th。○序数词在使用时，通常前面要加定冠词 the；但是如果序数词前出现不定冠词 a 或 an 时，
则表示"再--"，"又--"。 如：We'll go over it a second time．我们再仔细检察一次。We've triedit three times．我们已经尝试三次了。
○表示日期用序数词。如：May 5 五月五日（读作 May fifth），也可以表示为 the fifth（5th）of May②
■单纯的序号，可在基数词前加 number，简写为 No.。如：No.1 第一号
■事物名词的序号表达法有所不同：
○对于一些小序号用序数词也可用基数词表达，形式分别为：the +序数词 + 名词；名词 +基数词。如：the First World War 或 World War One，Lesson 8 =the eighth lesson。
○对于一些大序号我们通常只用一种表达法，即名词 + 基数词。如：Room 632；Bus
表达方式①；大约数的表示方法
②；加减乘除表示法
③；时间表示法
④
956○可用 a / the + number + 基数词 + 名词。如：a No.2 bus；the No.32 bus③
■■■■分数是由基数词和序数词一起来表示的。基数词作分子，序数词作分母，分子大于 1 时，
分母的序数词要用复数形式。如：3/4 three fourths 或 three quarters；1/3 one third 或 athird；24/25 twenty-four twenty-fifths；1/4 one quarter 或 a quarter；1/2 a half；1 1/2 oneand a half ；3 1/4 three and one fourth 或 three and one quarter■百分数用基数＋percent 表示。如：20％ twenty percent；3％ three percent■分数和百分数后面不能直接接名词或代词，而用以下形式：分数/百分数 ＋of + the/these/those/my+ 名词/代词, 其谓语动词与 of 后的名词在人称和数上保持一致。
■分数的其它表达形式：
○分子与分母之间加 in, 分子在前，分母在后，分子分母都用基数词。如：one in ten 十分
之一；five in eight 八分之五。
○分子与分母之间加 out of , 分子在前，分母在后，分子分母都用基数词。如：one outof ten 十分之一，five out of eight 八分之五。④小数用基数词来表示，以小数点为界，小数点左首的数字为一个单位，表示整数，数字
合起来读；小数点右首的数字为一个单位，表示小数，数字分开来读；小数点读作 point，o 读作 zero 或 o，整数部分为零时，可以省略不读。如：
*0.3 zero point three 或 point three 零点三
*10.52 ten point five two 十点二三
*22.67 twenty-two point six seven 二十五点六七①
■once, twice, three times, four times…■倍数+as + 形容词/副词（原级）+ as+比较对象。如：
They have three times as many cows as we do. 他们的牛的数量是我们的三倍。
*We have as many books as they. 我们的书和他们的一样多。
*The great fire burned down as many as twenty buildings.大火烧毁的大楼多达 20 座。
*(2009 辽宁卷) Peter’s jacket looked just the same as Jack’s, but it cost his.A. as much twice as ●B. twice as much as C. much as twice as D. as twice much as*(2005 安徽卷) John is the tallest boy in the class, _______ according to himself.A. five foot eight as tall as ●B. as tall as five foot eightC. as five foot eight tall as D. as tall five foot eight as*(2009 四川卷) My uncle’s house in the downtown area is much smaller than ours , but it istwice _______ expensive .●A. as B. so C. too D. very■倍数+形容词或副词的比较级+ than +比较对象或 by + 倍数用在比较级之后。如：
*This rope is two times longer than that one. 这根绳索比那个长出二倍。
*They produced more products in 2001 than those in 2000 by twice. 他们 2001 生产的产品比
2000 年多了二倍。
*The production of grain has been increased by four times this year. 今年粮食的产量增加了四
倍。
■倍数用在表示度量名词前，其基本结构为：倍数 + the +size / length / weight … + of + 表
示比较对象的名词。如：
*(2005 上海卷). A rough estimate, Nigeria is__________ Great Britain.
236
A. three times the size as B. the size three times ofC. three times as the size of ●D. three times the size of■也可用于倍数 + what+句子中。如：The college is twice what it was 5 years ago. 这个学院
是他五年前的二倍大。
○注意下面的表达方式：表示长/宽/高/深等意思时, 用数字+单位+形容词。如：Theclassroom is about eight meters long and six meters wide. 这间教室长八米宽六米。The river isabout four meters deep. 这条河深约四米。②
■用 ten、dozen、score、hundred、thousand、million 等数词的复数后加 of 短语来表示几十、
几百、上千、成千上万等大约数概念。
■用 less than、under、below、almost、nearly、up to 等来表示小于或接近某数目。如：Heis good at English, so he can finish the paper in less than two hours.■用 more than、over、above、beyond、or more 等来表示超 过或多于某个数目。如：
Peking University has a history of more than 100 years. 北京大学有一百多看的历史了。
■用 or、or so、about、around、some、more or less 等表示在某一数目左右。如： About 60people were present at that time. 当时大约有六十人在场。
■用 to、from … to…、between … and 表示介于两数词。如：His salary rises from 10 dollarsa week to 20 dollars a week.③
■"加"用 plus，and 或 add 表示；"等于"用 is，make，equal 等词表示。如：
2+3=? 可表示为：How much is two plus three?2+3=5 Two plus three is five． Two and three is equal to five．Two and three make five．Two added to three equals five．If we add two to/and three, we get five.■"减"用 minus 或 take from 表示。如：
10－6＝? How much is ten minus six?10-6=4 Ten minus six is four．Take six from ten and the remainder is four. Six (taken) fromten is four．■“乘”用 time（动词）或 multiply 表示。如：
3*4＝? How much is three times four?3*4=12 Three times four is/are twelve．Three fours is/are twelve．Multiply three by four，andwe get twelve．Three multiplied by four makes twelve．■“除”用 divide 的过去分词形式表示。如：16÷4=? How much is sixteen divided by four?16÷4＝4 Sixteen divided by four is four．Sixteen divided by four equals/gives/makes four． Ifyou divide 16 by 4, you get 4.④
■钟点：
○正读法：按时间表上的数字读；先读钟点数，后读分钟数。如：10：20→ten twenty *8：
36→eight thirty-six○表示几点过几分，用 past，多用在半小时以内（包括半小时）。分钟数前，时钟数在后，
采用倒读法。如：9：30→half past nine 7：05→five past seven○表示几点差几分，用介词 to，多用在半小时以上（不包括半小时）。也可用倒读法。如：
8：50→ten to nine 11：45→a quarter to twelve○表示整点。如：8：00→eight(o’clock)○表示在某个钟点，用介词 at。如：They begin to work at half past seven. 他们七点半开始
工作。
第九节第九节第九节第九节 副词副词副词副词
副词都是复合词①，其复合的内容大都以介词开头。副词复合的内容主要用
来限制、说明动作对象/状态对象与其发生/存在的时间对象、地点对象、方式对
○可以把 a.m.(午前)或 p.m..(午后)放在钟点后,表示时间。如：8:56 a.m. 上午 8:56■日期：
○年代用基数词，在某年要用介词 in。如：He was born in 1983. （1983 读成 nineteeneighty-three）○月份首字母要大写，在某月也用介词 in，如果有年代出现，在月份名后加年代，中间用
逗号。如：It happened in January, 1999. 这事发生在 1999 年 1 月。
○日期用序数词（序数词前加 the），在某日用介词 on。如：on the first ;on the eighteenth○月日同时出现时可有两种表示法：
○英国说法：顺序为先日后月。如：4(th) May（五月四日 —— 读成 the fourth of May）○美国说法：顺序为先月后日。如：May 4(th)（五月四日 —— 读成 May the fourth）○表示在某月某日，不管用在前还是在后，都用介词 on。如：The meeting will be held
on March 9(th). We’ll leave for Shanghai on 8th June.○年月日同时出现时，年代位于最后，其前加逗号。如：Mary was born on January lst,
1990.○表示“在几十年代”用 in + the + 逢十的数词复数。如：in the 1990s / 90’s / nineties
○星期和月份：
○星期：Monday（Mon.）星期一；Tuesday（Tues.）星期二；Wednesday（Wed.）星期三；
Thursday（Thurs.）星期四；Friday（Fri.）星期五；Saturday（Sat.）星期六；Sunday（Sun.）星期天（注意其缩写形式后的.是要保留的）
○月份：January（Jan.） 一月；February（Feb.） 二月；March （Mar.）三月； April （Apr.）四月；May（May）五月；June（Jun.）六月；July（Jul.）七月；August（Aug.）八月；September（Sept.）九月；October（Oct.）十月；November（Nov.）十一月；December（Dec.）十二
月
注意五月和九月，五月份没有缩写所以后面不用加.号，九月是 Sept 四位或者 Sep 三位的
缩写都可以，其他的都取前三位。
■年龄：
○用基数词表示年龄。如：He is ten (years old). The baby is one year old.○表示“在某人的几十岁”时，可用介词 in + one’s + 整十位数的复数形式。如：She is stillin her twenties. 她才二十几岁。
○表示“一个几岁的人”，可以有多种表达法。如：a boy of eight, a boy of eight years old, a boyof eight years of age, a eight-year-old boy。○与基数词合成的词，其中的名词用单数。如：a two-month-old baby, a five-year plan○人生的七期：baby→infant→child→youth→manhood→middle age→old age 婴儿/0→幼儿
7→儿童 12→青年 28→壮年 40→中年 65→老年①
传统语法关于副词的定义：副词是用以修饰动词、形容词、其它副词以及全句的词，表
示时间、地点、程度、方式等概念。而本语法认为副词仅仅是复合词，只是因为其复合的
内容较稳定（即，sb/sth 有关的不定内容相对较少），所以单独列出来一类，所以从定义上
可以看出两者是有本质区别的，但两者包括的词是有重叠性的，本语法定义的副词集合是
传统语法所定义的副词集合的子集。如，传统语法认为 tomorrow, here 等是副词，但本语
法认为其是名词，只是其前面介词通常省略。
238象、程度对象之间的关系。
副词通常有以下几类：时间副词①、地点副词
②、方式副词
③、程度副词
④、
频度副词⑤、句子副词
⑥、焦点副词
⑦⑧。
①常见的时间副词：
Then [at that time]（那时）、soon [within a short time] (即刻) 、ago [in the past]（以前）、recently[during a recent period of time]（最近）、 lately [in recent times]（近来）、 later [at a time in thefuture]（较晚地）、 finally [after a long time]（最后）、early（在早期。 注意为简洁就不一
一指出复合的内容了，借助词典在学习中慢慢体会，学习吧）、suddenly（忽然）、
immediately(马上)、already（已经）、 just（刚刚）等。
（注意传统语法还将 now, today, tomorrow, before, 等列为时间副词，但本语法认为这些词
不是副词，其只是其处于省略结构中。传统语法的其它副词种类也有类似情况，以后就不
一一讲了）②
常见的地点副词：
Away [to or at a distance in space or time (from sb/sth)]（远处；离开）、ahead [in front of sb/sth]（在某人或某事物的前面）、 abroad [in or to a foreign country or countries]（在国外; 到国
外）、indoors（在室内）、overseas（在海外）、halfway（半途;中间）、upstairs（在楼上）downstairs（在楼下）、up [In or to a higher position] （朝上）、down [From a higher to a lower place orposition] （向下）等。③
方式副词的特点：
方式副词一般由形容词+ly 构成相当于 in a way that is (形容词)，如 carefully [in a way that iscareful]（仔细地）、happily（快乐地）、quietly（悄悄地）、heavily（严重地）、warmly（温
暖地）、politely（有礼貌地）、angrily（愤怒地）等。④
常见的程度副词：
fairly（公平地）、pretty(相当)、rather（相当）、quite（十分地）、very（非常）、much（十分）、
too（太）、greatly（非常）、almost（几乎）, nearly（差不多）等。⑤
常用的频度副词：
Always [at all times]（总是）、continually（不停地）、frequently（频繁地）、occasionally(偶尔)、often（经常）、once（一次；曾经）、twice（两次；两倍）、repeatedly(重复地；)、sometimes（有时候）、usually（通常）、ever（在任何时候）、never（从不）、rarely（很少地）、seldom（很少）等。（频度副词也可归为时间副词）
■注：some time，sometime，some times 和 sometimes 是常用的几个词，它们形似而
含义不同。请记：分开是“一段”， 相连为“某时”。分开 s 是“倍、次”， 相连 s 是“有时”。如：
*I’ll stay here for some time．我将在这儿呆一段时间。
*Kate will be back sometime in February．凯特将在 2 月某个时候回来。
*Our school is some times larger than theirs．我们学校比他们学校大几倍。
*Joan goes to school on foot，but sometimes by bike．琼步行上学，但有时也骑自行车去
*(2010 湖南卷) Father ________goes to the gym with us although he dislikes going there.A. hardly B. seldom ●C.sometimes D. never⑥
句子副词的特点：
句子副词用于限制和说明整个句子，反映说话人的观点和看法，如 actually（实际上；实
在地；确实）, certainly（无疑地；确定地）, clearly（明亮地；明净地；明确地；清楚地；
显然地；无疑地）, definitely（明确地；确切地；一定地；肯定地）, evidently（明显地；
总结：副词只是一些复合内容相对稳定的复合词，没什么特别之处。关于显然地）, fortunately（幸运地；幸亏）, frankly（坦诚地）, honestly（诚实地；正直地；坦
诚地；实在地）, luckily（幸运地）, obviously（显然地；明白地）, perhaps（或许；大概；
可能）, possibly（可能地；也许；或许）, probably（或许；大概；可能）, surely（想必；
谅必；稳当地；确实地；踏实地）, undoubtedly（的确地）, unexpectedly（未料到地；意外
地） 等。如：
*Clearly, he didn’t say so. 显然他没有这样说。
*Frankly, you are wrong. 说实在的，你错了。⑦常见的焦点副词：
所谓焦点副词就是指对其所说明、限制的对象进行强调，使之成为人们注意的焦点的副词。
这类副词常见的 only（只有；才）, alone（单独地；独自地）, also（也；同样；并且）, even（甚至；即使） just（正好；恰好）, merely（仅仅；只不过）, really（真正地；踏实地；
实际上）, simply（简单地；简易地；朴素地；仅仅；只不过<非正>实在；简直；非常）, mainly（大部分地；主要地）, chiefly（主要地；首要地；尤其）, especially（尤其；特别）, exactly（精确地；准确地；确切地） 等。⑧
☆传统语法中的副词还包括以下几类（但按照本书的观点，他们也是复合词）：
■连接副词
○连接副词的分类：连接副词可分为两类，一类是用于连接句子或从句，常见的有 therefore（因此；为此；所以）, besides(而且；还有), ho wever, moreover（此外；而且）, still（仍
然；依旧；还是）, thus（如此；这样）, meanwhile（同时；其间）等；另一类是用于引导
从句或不定式，主要的有 when（什么时候）, why(为什么), where（在哪里）, how（怎么样）
等。
○连接句子或从句的连接副词，其性质类似于并列连词，使用时其前通常用分号或句号；
若其前用逗号，则通常带有并列连词(如 and)。如：
*(2006 江西卷) The hurricane damaged many houses and business buildings；_________, itcaused 20 deaths.A. or else B. therefore C. after all ●D. besides⊿
●besides [in addition to (sb/sth)] 除（某人[某事物]）之外（还有）: There will be five of us fordinner, besides John. 除约翰外, 还有我们五个人要一起吃饭。* Besides being heartbroken,she felt foolish.她觉得又笨又伤心。
●except [not including (sb/sth)] 除了（某人[某事物]）之外（表示所说的不包括在内）：Theoffice is open every day except Sundays. 除星期日外，这家咖啡屋每天都营业。* It's cool andquiet everywhere except in the kitchen. 除这间厨房以外，其它地方又凉快又安静。
●but [not including (sb/sth)]（用于否定词 nobody﹑none﹑nowhere 等和疑问词 who﹑where等之后, 以及 all﹑ everyone﹑anyone 等之后）：Everyone was there but him. 除了他之外,所有的人都在. * Nobody but you could be so selfish. 除了你之外, 谁也不会这样自私。*We all tried our best; however, we lost the game. / We all tried our best. However, we lost thegame. 我们都已尽了最大的努力，不过我们还是输了。
○注意，有的连接副词(如 however 等)后通常有逗号与句子的其他成分隔开。另外，这类
副词有的还可位于句中或句末。如：He may, however, come later. 不过，他也许一会儿就到。
We all tried out best. We lost the game, however. 我们都已尽了最大的努力，不过我们还是输
了。Peter is our youngest child, and we have three others besides. 彼特是我们最小的孩子，我
们另外还有三个。
■引导从句和不定式的连接副词：用于引导从句(名词性从句)或不定式的连接副词主要有
when, why, where, how 等。如：Tell me when we shall leave. / Tell me when to leave. 告诉我
什么时候离开。*I don’t know how I can find him. / I don’t know how to find him. 我不知道
240其分类，只要了解一下就可以了。
如何找到他。*Where we can get the money is just our problem. / Where to get the money is justour problem. 到哪里去弄这笔钱正是我们头痛的事。*That’s why he speaks English so well.那就是他为什么英语讲得这么好的原因。
■关系副词：
○关系副词的特点：关系副词用于引出定语从句，主要有 when（什么时候）, where(在哪
里), why（为什么）。如：Sunday is the day when very few people go to work. 星期日是没什
么人上班的日子。*That’s the reason why he dislikes me. 这就是他不喜欢我的原因。Do youknow a shop where I can find sandals? 你知道哪家商店我能找到凉鞋吗？
■疑问副词：
○疑问副词的特点：疑问副词有 when（什么时间）, where（在那里）, why（为什么）, how（怎么样） 等，用于引出特殊疑问句。如：Where do you come from? 你是哪里人？*Whenwill it be ready? 这什么时候能准备好？*Why was she crying? 她刚才为什么哭？
第十节第十节第十节第十节 形容词、副词的比较级和最高级形容词、副词的比较级和最高级形容词、副词的比较级和最高级形容词、副词的比较级和最高级
在英语中①，在表示“比较…”和“最…”时，形容词/副词要用特别的形式，称
为“比较级”和“最高级”，原来的形容词/副词称为“原级”，比较级和最高级的构
成规则见注释②③。
①
■通常形容词的排列顺序：通常顺序：限定词（these, those）＋数量形容词(three)＋描绘性
形容词(beautiful)＋大小、长短、高低等形体性形容词(large,long,high)＋新旧(old)＋颜色(red)＋国籍(Chinese)＋材料(wood)＋用途(writing)＋被限制名词(desk). 如：
*( 2005 北京卷) This __________ girl is Lind’s cousin.●A. pretty little Spanish B. Spanish little prettyC. Spanish pretty little D. little pretty Spanish
■ed 结尾的形容词与 ing 结尾的形容词的区别（注意用复合词的概念分析理解）：一般说来
-ing 形容词作表语，用来表示主语的性质，这时的-ing 形容词含有主动的意思，本身具有
一种影响力；-ed 形容词作表语，用来表示主语所处的状态，这时的-ed 形容词含有被动的
意思。它表达的某种状态的产生是由于外界事物施加影响的结果。如：That's an interestingquestion. interesting [attracting the attention] 那是个有趣的问题。I'm interested to hear aboutyour family. 我很想听听你家的情况。②
■规则变化：
○一般单音节词末尾加 er /est。如：strong/stronger/strongest。○音节：音节是读音的基本单位，任何单词的读音，都是分解为一个个音节朗读。在英语
中元音特别响亮，一个元音可构成一个音节，一个元音和一个或几个辅音音素结合也可以
构成一个音节。一般说来，元音可以构成音节，辅音不响亮，不能构成音节。但英语辅音
字母中有 4 个辅音[m]，[n]，[ng]，[l]是响音，它们和辅音音素结合，也可构成音节。它
们构成的音节往往出现在词尾，一般是非重读音节。英语的词有一个音节的，两个音节的，
多个音节的，一个音节叫单音节，两个音节叫双音节，三个音节以上叫多音节。如：take 拿，
ta'ble 桌子，pota'to` 马铃薯，pop`ula'tion 人口，congrat`ula'tion 祝贺。tel'ecommu`nica'tion电讯。
○划分音节的方法：元音是构成音节的主体，辅音是音节的分界线。两辅音之间不管有多
少个元音，一般都是一个音节。如：bed 床，bet 打赌，seat 坐位，beat 毒打，beaut 极
好的 beau'ty 美。两元音字母之间有一个辅音字母时，辅音字母归后一音节，如：stu'dent 学
生，la'bour 劳动。有两个辅音字母时，一个辅音字母归前一音节，一个归后一音节，如：
let'ter 信，win'ter 冬天。不能拆分的字母组合按字母组合划分音节。如：fa'ther 父亲，tea'cher教师。
○以-e 结尾，只加 r /st。如：large/larger/largest。○以“辅音字母+y 结尾的词，变 y 为 i，再加 er/est。如，busy/busier/busiest。○5 个元音字母：a，e，i，o， u。○重读闭音节单音节词如末尾只有一个辅音字母，须先双写这个辅音字母，再加 er/est。如：
sad/sadder/saddest。○闭音节：指元音字母后面有辅音字母(辅音字母 r 除外)构成的音节，如：leg, cross . 音节
按重读可以分为重读音节和非重读音节。重读音节： 指在双音节或多音节词中有一个发
音特别响亮的音节，叫重读音节，用重音符号“`”标于相应位置，其他音节为非重读音节，
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如 begin |be`gin|，单音节词作重读处理，但不标重音符号。
○其他双音节和多音节词都在前面加单词 more/most。Important/more important/mostimportant。■不规则变化：
○少数形容词/副词的比较级和最高级的构成是不规则的，主要有下面几个：good/well---better, bad/badly/ill---worse, many/much---more, little---less, far----farther/further,old----older/elder○下列形容词和副词的比较级和最高级有两种形式，often----- oftener , oftenest / more often ,most often ■friendly------ friendlier , friendliest / more friendly , most friendly ■clever-----cleverer, cleverest / more clever , most clever。○表示”最高程度”或”绝对状态”的形容词和副词没有比较级和最高级，如：empty , wrong ,perfect , excellent , favourite, true , right , correct。○本身具有"最"或"唯一"概念的形容词或副词没有比较级和最高级。如：maximal, mere,minimal, matchless, sole, only, unique]*例：(2006 北京卷) This washing machine is environmentally friendly because it uses _____water and electricity than _____ models.●A. less ; older B. less ; elder C. fewer ; older D. fewer ; elder③
■形容词比较等级的用法：
○表示两者的比较：形容词的比较级+than. 如：He is cleverer than the other boys. 他比其它
孩子聪明。
○表示两者以上的比较：the +形容词最高级（+名词）+of /in /among…如：He is the cleverestboy in his class. 他是他班上最聪明的孩子。
○表示两者是同等程度：as +形容词原级+as。如：He is as tall as I. 他和我一样高。
*(2005 湖北卷)28. What a table! I’ve never seen such a thing before. It is it is long.A. half not as wide as B. wide not as half as●C. not half as wide as D. as wide as not half■比较级句型：
○Who / Which + be +比较级, A or B ? 如：Which is more beautiful, Beijing or Shanghai? 那
个城市更漂亮些，北京还是上海？
○be + the 比较级 + of the two. (两个之中比较…的那一个)，如：Tom is the more polite of thetwo boys. 两个男孩中，汤姆有礼貌些。
○The + 形容词比较级…, the + 形容词比较级…（越…就越…），如：The harder youstudy ,the more/greater progress you make. 你越努力，取得的进步就越大。
○形容词/副词比较级 + and +形容词/副词比较级（越来越…）。如：Our city is more and morebeautiful. 我们城市城来越漂亮了。
○形容词/副词比较级 + than + any other +名词单数形，如：Shanghai is larger than any othercity in China. 上海比中国的其它任何城市都大。
○形容词/副词比较级 + than + the other +名词复数形式，如：It’s also cheaper than the otherstores. 这个也比其它商店的便宜。
■关于比较级的几个需要注意的问题：
○为了加强语气，可以在比较级前加表示程度的词，常见的有 much, far, even, still, a lot, alittle, any, rather, a bit, a great deal 等，如：We’d better wait a little longer. Peter and Tom willcome very soon. 我们最好还是多等一会儿，彼得和汤姆很快就来了。
*(2008 全国 I 卷)28. You’re driving too fast. Can you drive ______?A. more slowly a bit B. slowly a bit more ●C. a bit more slowly D. slowly more a bit
第十一节第十一节第十一节第十一节 句子的种类句子的种类句子的种类句子的种类
英语中共存在四种句子，即：陈述句（statement）、疑问句（Qestion）、祈
使句（Imperative）及感叹句（Exclamation）。
[1][1][1][1] 陈述句
陈述事实或观点的句子叫做陈述句，例：
� She drank a whole cup of milk. 她喝了满满一杯牛奶。
� I had a letter from the people who used to own the corner shop. 我收到从前街角
那家商店的老板寄来的一封信.
� The world exists in space and time. 世界存在於空间与时间之中.
陈述句的否定结构：如果陈述句的谓语第一部分为情态助动词或时态助动
词，在其后加上复合词 not，否则在其谓语前加上助动词 do（谓语时态为现在一
般时时）或 does(主语为第三人称，谓语时态为现在一般时时)或 did(谓语时态为
过一般去时)，并加上 not。例：
� She didn’t see him. 她没见他。(didn’t 是 did not 的缩写)
� She doesn't work here. 她不在此地工作。(doen’t 是 does not 的缩写)
� I don't like fish. 我不喜欢鱼。(don’t 是 do not 的缩写)
○less + 形容词的原级 + than 表示“不如、不及”， 如：This computer is less expensive thanthat one. 这台电脑比不如那台电脑便宜。
■最高级的句型：
○Who / Which + be +the+最高级, A, B, or C ? 如：Who is the most foolish, Jack, Tom or you ?谁是是愚蠢的, 杰克、汤姆还是你？
○be + the +最高级+in /of / among +比较范围，如：He is the laziest student in his class. 他是
他班的最懒的。
○~ + be + one of the + 最高级 + 复数名词（最……的……之一），如：The Yellow River isone of the longest rivers in China. 黄河是中国最长的河流之一。
○~ + be +the + 序数词 +最高级 +单数名词 + 范围（~是…….的第几……），如：China isthe third largest country in the world. 中国是世界上第三大国家。
244� You may not be chosen. 可能挑不上你。
� They aren't here. 他们没在这儿。(aren’t 是 are not 的缩写)
� I mustn't forget. 我决不能忘记。（mustn’t 是 must not 的缩写）
[2][2][2][2] 疑问句
疑问句是问一些事情，可分为：一般疑问句（GeneralGeneralGeneralGeneral QestionQestionQestionQestion）、特殊疑问
句（SpecialSpecialSpecialSpecial QestionQestionQestionQestion）、选择疑问句（AlterativeAlterativeAlterativeAlterative QestionQestionQestionQestion）和反意疑问句（TagTagTagTag
QestionQestionQestionQestion）①。
（1111） 一般疑问句
一般疑问句（一般用升调）是对句子本身提出疑问，其构成规则如下：如
果其谓语第一部分为情态助动词或时态助动词，将第一部分提至句子最前面，
其它部分不变，否则在句子的最前面加上助动词 do，does 或 did（注意 do，does，
did 已经体现了谓语动作的发生时间及其第三和称单数形式，所以主动词要用动
词原形）。例：
� Have you been living here? 你一直住在这儿吗？
� Is he not a student? 他不是学生吗？
� Do you believe him? 你相信他吗?
� Did they take you home? 是他们把你送到家的吗?
（2222） 选择疑问句
选择疑问句提出两个或两个以上可能的答案供对方选择。这类疑问句有两
种形式：一种是以一般疑问句的结构形式为基础，只是在语调上有所区别。这
一类选择疑问句通常都是在前一个供选择的答案用低升调，后一个用降调；如
①否定疑问句用来表示对某事感到惊讶，含批评意味。
Don't you know my address?难道你不知道我的地址吗？
Can't you speak English?你难道不会说英语吗？
Isn't it happy to live with us ?莫非和我们生活在一起不快乐？
果有两个以上供选择的答案，则在最后一个用降调，其余都用低升调，这种语
调上的特征往往是区别选择疑问句和一般疑问句的重要标志。例：
� Will you go there by bus or by train？ 你准备乘汽车，还是乘火车去那儿？
� What would you like，coffee or tea？ 你想要什么，咖啡还是茶？
How many pens do you have ，one or two？ 你有几枝钢笔，一枝还是两枝？
� Would you like a gin，or a whisky，or a beer？ 你是要喝杜松子酒，还是威士
忌酒，还是啤酒？
（3333） 特殊疑问句
以疑问词开头，对句中某一成分提问的句子叫特殊疑问句（多用降调）。常
用的疑问词有：what, who, whose, which, when, where, how ,why 等。特殊疑问句
有两种语序：
１．如疑问词作主语或主语的限定句的某一部分，其语序是陈述句的语序：
疑问词（＋主语）＋谓语动词＋其他成分？例：
� Who left? 谁离开了?
� whose bike is broken？谁的自行车坏了？
２．如疑问词作其他成分，即对其他成分提问，其语序是：疑问词＋一般
疑问句语序？例：
� What books have you got to read on the subject? 你研究这个问题要看什麽书?
� What time/date is it? 现在几点钟了/今天几号了?
（4444） 反意疑问句
反意疑问句又叫附加疑问句，是指当提问的人对前面所叙述的事实不敢肯
定，而需要向对方加以证实时所提出的问句①。其结构为：前一部分是一个陈述
①当对自己的看法较肯定时，前后都用降掉，反之则前降后升。
246句，后一部分是一个简单的问句。完成后一部分简单问句时，要根据前面陈
述句的动词时态和人称来选择适当的助动词进行提问，前后两部分的人称和动
词时态要保持一致。如果前一部分用肯定式，后一部分一般用否定式；反之，
前一部分为否定式，后一部分要用肯定式，即“前肯定后否定，前否定后肯定”①
①
■陈述部分的主语是 I，疑问部分要用 aren't I. 如：I'm as tall as your sister，aren't I?■陈述部分的谓语是 wish，疑问部分要用 may +主语。如： I wish to have a word with you,may I?■陈述部分用 no, nothing, nobody, never, few, seldom, hardly, rarely, little 等否定含义的词
时，疑问部分用肯定含义。如：TheSwede made no answer, did he / she?*(2009 湖南卷) You and I could hardly work together, ______?A. could you B. couldn’t I C. couldn’t we ●D. could we*(2009 上海卷) Sally’s never seen a play in the Shanghai Grand Theatre, ______?A. hasn’t she ●B. has she C. isn’t she D. is she■含有 ought to 的反意疑问句，陈述部分是肯定的，疑问部分用 shouldn't / oughtn't +主语。
如：He ought to know what to do, oughtn't he? / shouldn't he?■陈述部分有 have to +v. (had to + v.)，疑问部分常用 don't +主语（didn't +主语）。 如：Wehave to get there at eight tomorrow, don't we?■陈述部分的谓语是 used to 时，疑问部分用 didn't +主语或 usedn't +主语。如：He used totake pictures there, didn't he? / usedn't he?■陈述部分有 had better + v. 疑问句部分用 hadn't you? 如：You'd better read it by yourself,hadn't you?■陈述部分有 would rather +v.，疑问部分多用 wouldn't +主语。如：He would rather read it tentimes than recite it, wouldn't he?■陈述部分有 You'd like to +v. 疑问部分用 wouldn't +主语。如：You'd like to go with me,wouldn't you?■陈述部分有 must 的疑问句，疑问部分根据实际情况而定。如：He must be a doctor, isn't he?■感叹句中，疑问部分用 be +主语。如：What colours, aren't they?■陈述部分由 neither… nor, either… or 连接的并列主语时，疑问部分根据其实际逻辑意义
而定。如：Neither you nor I am engineer, are we?■陈述部分主语是指示代词或不定代词 everything, that, nothing, this, 疑问部分主语用 it。如：Everything is ready, isn't it?■陈述部分主语是不定代词 everybody, anyone, somebody, nobody, no one 等，疑问部分常用
复数 they，有时也用单数 he。如：Everyone knows the answer, don't they? (does he?)*Nobody knows about it, do they? (does he?)■带情态助动词 dare 或 need 的反意疑问句，疑问部分常用 need (dare ) +主语。如：We neednot do it again, need we ? *He dare not say so, dare you?
○当 dare, need 为实义动词时，疑问部分用助动词 do +主语。如：She doesn't dare to gohome alone, does she?■省去主语的祈使句的反意疑问句，疑问部分用 will you。如：Don't do that again, will you?Go with me, will you / won't you ?*(2007 北京卷) When you’ve finished with that book, don’t forget to put it back one the shelf,____?
[3][3][3][3] 祈使句
用来发出命令或指示（最主要），提出要求、建议等的句子叫祈使句（祈使
句的第二人称主语 you 通常不表示出来①），其谓语的第一部分为动词原形
②。如：
� Stand up! 起立！
� Don't③ touch me. 别碰我。
� Do④ be honest. 一定要诚实。
� Do let me go. 一定让我去吧。
� Never be late again next time. 下一次千万不要再迟到了。
A. do you B. don’t you ●C. will you D. won’t you○注意： Let's 开头的祈使句，后用 shall we? Let us 开头的祈使句，后用 will you?
如：Let's go and listen to the music, shall we? *Let us wait for you in the reading-room, willyou ?■陈述部分是"there be"结构的，疑问部分用 there 省略主语代词。如：There is somethingwrong with your watch, isn't there? *There will not be any trouble, will there?■否定前缀不能视为否定词，其反意疑问句仍用否定形式。如：It is impossible, isn't it? *Heis not unkind to his classmates, is he?■must 在表"推测"时，根据其推测的情况来确定反意疑问句。如：He must be there now, isn'the? *It must be going to rain tomorrow, won't it?①
下面几种情况祈使句的主语不省略：（引自百度文库文件：第十六章__祈使句）
■当说话人必须指明不同的事要求不同的人去做时。如: You clean the windows，and you(another man)mop the floor. 你擦窗户，你(指另一个人)拖地板。You go over there and sit nextto Tom，while he and I stay here. 你到那里坐在汤姆旁边，我和他留在这里。
■当说话人强调主语或上级对下级，长者对年青人或小孩讲话时，如: You take care whenyou cross the road.你过马路时要小心。You speak first.你先讲。You listen to me.你听我说。
You be careful. 你要仔细点。
■当祈使句以 Don't 开头又要加重语气时。如: Don’t you dare to cause any more trouble. 你
敢再捣乱。Don’t you be late again next time. 你下次不要再来晚了。
■当祈使句的主语是 someone，somebody，everyone，everybody 等泛指第三人称时。如:Someone open that window. 来个人把那扇窗户打开。Everybody be here at7:30. 大家 7:30 到
这里。
■当说话人有急躁或厌烦等情绪时。如: You do it right away. 你立刻做这件事。You mindyour own business,and leave this to me. 你别管闭事，把此事留给我好了。
■当祈使句谓语部分有 up，down，in，out，off，away 等时，且位于句首时。如: In you jump!你跳进去吧! Out you come。请你出来。
③（不管主语的人称）祈使句的否定形式一般是在谓语动词前加上 do not 或 don't，有时也
可用 never。若祈使句主语在句子中出现了，否定词 don't 或 never 要置于主语之前。④
（不管主语的人称）可以在祈使句的动词原形之前加上 do 表示强调。
248� Be careful. 小心。
� Have a coffee, please. 请喝杯咖啡。
� Please shut the door. 请把门关上。
� Don't be panic. 别恐慌。
� Somebody open the door. 来个人把门打开。
� Tom read the poem first. 汤姆先读这首诗。
� Parents with children go to the front. 带孩子的家长到前面去。
� Don't anyone make any noise. 谁也不要吵吵闹闹。
� Patience!① 要有耐心！
� Quickly! 快！
� No parking！ 禁止停车！
� Come early, and/then/and then you’ll catch the first bus. 早点来，你就能赶上第
一班汽车。
� Come early，or/or else/otherwise you’ll miss the first bus. 来早点，不然的话，
你就赶不上第一班汽车②。
[4][4][4][4] 感叹句
用来表达强烈的情感（惊讶、喜悦等）的句子叫做感叹句，常以 What 或
How 开头，它们与其限制的成份位于句首，其他部分用陈述句语序，主要有二
种形式：
1）What 开头的感叹句是用来强调名词的，其与强调的名词一同置于句首，
名词前可有其他的限制成分(如形容词或冠词)。单数可数名词前要加不定冠词 a /
①省略了谓语动词 have.
② (2005 辽宁卷) Follow your doctor’s advice, _________ your cough will get worse.●A. or B. and C. then D. so
an，复数可数名词或不可数名词前不用冠词。如：
� What a beautiful park it is! 好漂亮的一个公园。
� What a clever girl she is! 多么聪明的姑娘呀！
� What an interesting story it is! 多么有趣的故事呀！
� What beautiful flowers they are! 多么漂亮的花呀！
� What tall buildings they are! 多么高的楼房呀！
� What a cold, snowy day (it is)! 好冷的一个雪天！
2）How 开头的感叹句是用来强调形容词或副词的，其与这些成份一起位于句首。
如：
� How nice the pictures are! 多么漂亮的图画呀！
� How well she sings! 她唱得多好呀！
� How tall the buildings are! 多么高的楼房呀！
� How cool! 好凉快呀！
� ★How① I love you! 我多么爱你啊！
①注意 how 限制的就是 love，但 love 不提前，其它类似的情况也照这样处理。
250第十二节第十二节第十二节第十二节 语气语气语气语气
三种语气（moodmoodmoodmood）
语气是英语中一个非常复杂的概念，之所以复杂是因为语气和时态结合在
一起，这使得很多时候人们甚至感觉不到语气的存在。我们知道时态中的“时”
反映的是动作发生的时间；“态”反映的是动作的状态，那么究竟什么是语气呢？
简单点说，语气表示的是说话者对某一事件对象的看法。英语中共有三种
语气：
■1111、陈述语气
我们先来分析几个例子：
假如要你用英语翻译这样一句话：
1）玛丽是一个老师，说这话的人认为这是一个实事。
根据对象英语语法的规则你可能会这样翻译：Mary is a teacher，which (Mary
is a teacher) is a fact in the opinion of the speaker.
2）你打算下个月去中国，说这话的人认为这是一件确定的事。
根据对象英语语法的规则你可能会这样翻译：You are going to China next
month, which (I...nex month) is a certainty in the opinion of speaker.
但根据英语的表达习惯，如果说话的人认为其所说的是一个实事或是一个
确定的事件对象或是一个可能性极强的事件对象时①，那么 which (...) is /a fact/a
certainty/an uncertainty with strong possibility in the opinion of the speaker 这一部
分是可以省略的，而整个句子所表达的意思不变，我们称保留部分谓语的语气
为陈述语气。那么上面的两个例子可以省略为：
①当事件对象是一个可能性极强的事件对象时，我们可以认为其是一个事实，所以用陈述
语气。
1）Mary is a teacher.
2）You are going to China next month.
请看陈述语气的一些例子：
1）They are on holiday in the Lake District. 他们在英格兰湖区度假.
2）If anyone calls tell them I'm not at home. 有人来电话, 就说我不在家.
■2222、虚拟语气
根据英语的表达习惯，如果说话的人认为其所说的不是一个实事或不是一
个可能性极强的事件对象时，那么 which (...) is /not a fact/an uncertainty without
strong possibility in the opinion of the speaker 这一部分是可以省略的，而整个句子
所表达的意思不变，我们称保留部分谓语的语气为虚拟语气，通常保留部分的
谓语需要进行变化：即其谓语的“时”变为过去①②
。
①因为时间不可逆转，所以选择将“时”变为过去（即将“时”向后平移一位），这样通
过将一个事件对象置于一个不可能返回的过去时间对象当中，就表达了这个事件对象不是
一个实事或不是一个可能性极强的事件对象这一信息{因为就当今科技来说，回到过去是不
现实的。只有现在和将来对于人类来说才是现实/可能的。}②
个人认为如果一个事件对象的谓语应用了虚拟语气，只有当这个事件对象与现在事实/过去事实或将来事实可能相反或不是一个可能性极强的事件对象时，才有必要将这个事件
对象谓语的“时”变为过去。其它情况下完全没有必要修改其谓语。
但英语中却仍然存一两种没有必要改变却改变了其“时”的情况：
1）说话者认为某一事件对象不是实事，而是一个建议/命令/要求/义务/责任时：（因为复合
词 shall 可以表达这些意思，所以通常会将 shall 变成过去式 should）我们先来看一个例子：The judge orders that the prisoner should be remanded. 法官命令将犯
人还押候审。
分析：分析：分析：分析：从 orders 这个词，我们可以看出作者认为 the prisoner shall be remanded 这个事件对
象不是一个事实而是一个命令所以这个事件对象的谓语应用了虚拟语气，且将 shall 变成了
should（个人认为没必要把 shall 变成 should，从 order 这个词我们已经明白这个事件对象
是一个命令而不是一个事实了）。根据英语的习惯在与上例相似的下面一些情况下，事件
对象要用虚拟语气（将 shall 变成 should）：[1]事件对象作 ask, arrange, beg, advise, command, deserve, direct, desire, demand, deter mine,move, prefer, propose, intend, recommend, request, require, suggest, suppose, urge, vote 等词的
宾语，表建议/命令/要求/义务/责任时，事件对象的谓语应该为：(should)+动词原形+其它
谓语成分。例：
Mr. Chairman, I move that the money (should) be used for library books.主席先生，我提议把那
笔钱用来购买图书馆书籍。
I propose that the matter (should) be put to the vote at once .我提议将此问题立即付诸表决。
252现在我们来看一下谓语部分应用虚拟语气需要进行变化（谓语的“时”
变成过去）的情况：
■■■[1][1][1][1] 说话者认为某一事件对象是一个与现在////过去或极有可能与将来事
实相反的事件对象时。
我们先以 ifififif为例：事件对象是一个非真实条件////结果即在 ifififif非真实句中①
I suggest that we (should) set off at once. 我建议马上动身。
It was arranged that Mr Sam should go and help Bettie. 他们作了安排，由萨姆先生去帮助贝
蒂。
It has been decided that the sports meet should be postponed till next Friday. 已决定运动会延
期到下星期五。
[2]自然以上动作相应的名词作主语表建议/命令/要求/义务/责任时，作其表语的事件对象的
谓语也应该为(should)+动词原形+其它谓语成分。例：
His suggestion was that everyone should have map.他的建议是每人发一张地图。
My idea is that the electronic device should be tested at once. 我的意见是这一电子器件要立
即试验。
[3] 当事件对象表建议/命令/要求/义务/责任，且在以下结构: ItItItIt (be)(be)(be)(be) importantimportantimportantimportant (necessary,desirable, imperative, advisable, incredible, urgent, possible, essential, natural, preferable,insistent, crucial, better, best, ridiculous, vital) that… ItItItIt (be)(be)(be)(be) aaaa pitypitypitypity (shame, wonder, must,suggestion, proposal, requirement, request, desire, order, recommendation) that…中作主语时，
事件对象的谓语应该为：(should)+动词原形+其它谓语成分。例：
It is important that we (should) speak politely. 我们说话要有礼貌，这是很重要的。
It is advisable that a general announcement (should) be made to the staff. 最好给全体人员发
个总通知。
总结：总结：总结：总结：从[1][2][3]我们可以看到，只要说话者认为一个事件对象不是一个实事，而是表建
议/命令/要求/义务/责任时，且这个事件对象在一个句子中作名词性成分时，这个事件对象
的谓语一定要用虚拟语气且其谓语结构为：(should)+动词原形+其它谓语成分。(理解了这
一点之后，上面的三点根本不需要记忆)①
■[1][1][1][1] 有时，虚拟条件句中，结果主句和条件句的谓语动作若不是同时发生时，虚拟
语气的形式应作相应的调整。
○条件句的动作与过去事实相反，而主句的动作与现在或现在正在发生的事实不符。如：
*If you had taken my advice, you would be much better now 假如你接受了我的意见，你现在
就会好得多。
*If they had informed us, we would not come here now. 如果他们通知过我们的话，我们现在
就不会来这里了。
○条件句的动作与现在事实相反，而主句的动作与过去事实不符。如：
If he were free today, we would have sent him to American. 如果他今天有空的话，我们会已经
派他去美国了。
If Jim knew her, he would have greeted her. 要是吉姆认识她的话，他肯定会去问候她了。
○条件句的动作与过去发生的情况相反，而主句的动作与现在正在发生的情况相反。如：
If you hadn't been working hard in the past few years, things wouldn't be going so smoothly. 要
是没有过去几年努力的话，现在的一切不会进行得这样顺利
1111、表示与现在事实相反的情况：
if+if+if+if+主语++++过去时++++其他++++主语+should/would/could/might+do++should/would/could/might+do++should/would/could/might+do++should/would/could/might+do+其他
例：
� If I were your teacher, I would criticize you more severely. 如果我是你老师，我
会更严厉地批评你。(实事：我不是你老师，自然也不更严厉地批评你)
分析：因为 I am your teacher 和 I will criticize you more severely 两个都不是实
事所以两者的谓语都采用虚拟语气，且根据英语的习惯，两者的谓语都发生
If he had been working hard, he would be working in the office now. 要是他一直努力工作的
话，他现在已进了办公室了。
■[2] 当虚拟条件句的谓语动词含有 were, should, had 时，if 可以省略，这时条件句要
用倒装语序，即将 were, should, had 等词置于句首，这种多用于书面语。如：
*Were Jane to make an effort , she could do better. 要是简努力的话，她会做得好一些的。
*Had the management acted sooner ,the strike wouldn't have happened. 如果资方早些采取行
动，就不会发生罢工了。
*Had he learnt about computers, we would have hired him to work here. 如果她懂一些电脑知
识的话，我们已经聘用他来这里工作了。
■[3] 非真实条件句中的条件从句有时不表达出来，只暗含在复合词、介词短语、上
下文或其他方式表示出来，这种句子叫做含蓄条件句，在多数情况下，条件会暗含在短语
中，如 without…., but for….等，如：
*But for his help, we would be working now. 要不是他的帮助，我们还会在工作呢。
* (2009 安徽卷) But for their help, we the program in time.A. can not finish B. will not finish C. had not finished ●D. could not have finished*He would have helped us but that he was short of money at the time. 他那时候要不是缺钱话，
一定会帮助我们。
*Without your help, we wouldn’t have achieved so much. 没有你的帮助，我们不可能取得这
么大的成绩。
*We didn’t know his telephone number; otherwise we would have telephoned him. 我们不知道
他的电话号码，否则我们就会给他打电话。
* (2009 江苏卷) He did not regret saying what he did but felt that he _____ it differently.A. could express B. would express ●C. could have expressed D. must have expressed■[4] 有时，虚拟条件句中，主、条件句可以省略其中的一个，来表示说话人的一种强烈
的感情。
○省略条件句，如：
*He would have finished it. 他本该完成了。
*You could have passed this exam. 你应该能通过这次考试了。
○省略主句，如：
*If I were at home now. 要是我现在在家里该多好啊。
*If only I had got it. 要是我得到它了该多好啊。
254了变化，即其谓语的“时”变成了过去，所以 am 变成了 were（注意，be
的所以形式在应用虚拟语气后都要变成 were①），will 变成了 would。
� If I knew his telephone number, I would tell you. 如果我知道他的电话号码，我
就会告诉你。（事实：我不知道他的电话号码，自然也无法告诉你他的电话
号码）
� If there were no air or water, there would be no living things on the earth. 如果没
有水和空气，地球上就不会有生物。(事实：地球上既有空气也有水)
� If he were here ,he might be able to help.如果他在这里，他或许会帮忙的。(实
事：他没在这)
分析：he is here 和 he may be able to help 都不是实事，所以其谓语应用了虚
拟语气，两者谓语的“时”变成了过去，所以 is 变成了 were，may 变成了 might.
(注意后面的分析都是一样的，应用虚拟语气的事件对象的谓语的“时”变成了
过去，所以就不重复分析了)
� If I were a bird, I could fly freely in the sky.假如我是一只鸟儿，我就会在空中
自由飞翔。(实事：我不是一只鸟)
2222、表示与过去事实相反的情况
if+if+if+if+主语+had+had+had+had donedonedonedone ++++其他++++主语+should/would/could/might+have+should/would/could/might+have+should/would/could/might+have+should/would/could/might+have done+done+done+done+其他 例
③：
� If he had got up earlier, he could have caught the train. 假如他早点起来的话，他
本来能赶上那趟火车。(实事：他没有早点起来)
� If he had taken my advice, he would not have made such a mistake. 如果他听我
①在不规范的用法中也有用 was 的。
③ (2010 陕西卷) If we ___ the other road, we might have arrived here in time for the meeting.A. take ●B. had taken C. took D. have taken
的劝告的话，就不会犯这样的错误了。（事实：没有听我的话）
� If you had been more careful, the mistake might have been avoided. 如果你仔细
一点， 这个错误是可以避免的。（事实：没有仔细）
� If I had married her, I would have been unhappy.
要是当时我和她结了婚的话，那我是很不幸的。(事实：没有和她结婚)
3333、与将来的情况可能相反
if+if+if+if+主语+did/should/were+did/should/were+did/should/were+did/should/were totototo do+sth.+do+sth.+do+sth.+do+sth.+主语+should/would/could/might+do++should/would/could/might+do++should/would/could/might+do++should/would/could/might+do+其他
例：
� If he should come/came here tomorrow, I should/would talk to him. 如果他哪天
来这儿的话，我就跟他谈谈。 （事实：来的可能性不大）
� If it were to rain tomorrow, the football match would be put off.
如果明天下雨，足球比赛将推迟。(事实：明天下雨的可能性不大)
� (2009天津卷) This printer is of good quality. If it _______ break down within the
first year, we would repair it at our expense.
A. would ●B. should C. could D. might
[注 even if/though①, would rather/had rather② ,whish③, if only 和 as if/as though 也
①Even if he were here himself, he should not know what to do. 即使他亲自来也不知该怎么
办。
Even if he had been ill, he would have gone to his office. 即使生了病，他都去办公室。
Nobody could save him even though Hua Tuo should come here. 即使华佗在世也救不了他② I’d rather /had rather you had seen the film yesterday. 我倒想你昨天看过了这场电影。 I’drather/had rather you were here now. 我倒想你现在在这儿。 We’d rather/had rather you wenthere tomorrow. 我们倒想你明天去那儿③
1）表示与现在事实相反的愿望，谓语动词用过去式
I wish I were rich. 我恨不得我很富有. (实事：我不富有)I wish I had your brains.我希望我有你那样的头脑。(事实：我没有你那样的头脑)2）表示与过去事实相反的愿望，谓语动词：had+done(动词过去分词）
I wish you hadn't told me all this. 我倒希望你当初别把这一切都告诉我。(事实：当初你告诉
我了)
256有同 if 一样的用法
①，再注意一个经常遇到的应用虚拟语气的句式 It is
(high)time+事件对象②]。
■■■[2][2][2][2] 说话者认为某一事件对象不是一个可能性极强的事件对象时（因为复
合词 shall/mayshall/mayshall/mayshall/may 可以表达可能的意思，所以通常会将 shall/may/canshall/may/canshall/may/canshall/may/can 变成过去
should/mightshould/mightshould/mightshould/might）。这个可能性事件对象的谓语构成为：should/might/could+should/might/could+should/might/could+should/might/could+动词
原形++++其它谓语成分。例：
I wish I had known the truth of the matter.我希望我原来知道这件事的真相。（事实：我原来不
知道这件事的真相）
She wished she had stayed at home. 她懊悔的是她当时要是在家就好了。(事实：她当时不在
家)3）表示将来难以实现的愿望，谓语动词：should/would + 动词原形
I wish I should have a chance again.我希望我还能有一次这样的机会。（事实：很难再有这样
的机会了）①
（if only 表愿望的例子）：
If only I knew her name. 我要是知道她的名字就好了。
If only it would stop raining. 真希望雨能停。
If only they would tell me what they've decided. 但愿他们能把决定告诉我。
If only he'd remembered to buy some fruit. 他当时要是记得买些水果来该多好。
If only I had gone by taxi. 假若我是乘计程车去的就好了。
The pills might have cured him, if only he'd taken them regularly. 他要是按时服用这些药丸,本来是可能治得好的。
（as if/ though 的例子）：
They completely ignore these facts as if (as though) they never existed. 他们完全忽略了这些事
实，就仿佛它不存在似的。（与事实相反，谓语用虚拟语气。）
*(2006 全国卷 I)31. Eliza remembers everything exactly as if it ______ yesterday.A. was happening B. happens C. has happened ●D. happenedHe looks as if (as though) he had been hit by lighting. 他那样子就像被雷击了似的。（与事实
相反，谓语用虚拟语气。）
They talked as if they had been friends for years. 他们交谈起来似乎是多年的朋友一样。
He looks as if he were ill.他看上去仿佛病了。
This machine operated as though it had been repaired. 这机器运行良好，仿佛修理过一样。
It seems as if it were spring already. 现在仿佛已经是春天了。
It looks as if the weather may pick up very soon. 看来天气很快就会好起来。（实现的可能性较
大，谓语用陈述语气。）②
事件对象的谓语的“时”要为过去：例：
It is time we left.我们该走了。（事实：我们现在还没走）
It is time we went to bed. 我们该睡觉了。（事实：我们现在还没睡）
It is time we should left. 我们该走了。(事实：我们现在还没走。比较这一句和第一句，虽
然中文翻译的意思相同，其实两者还是有细微的差别的)
� He ran away lest he should/might be seen. 他怕人家看见他而跑开了.
� Lest anyone should/might think it strange, let me assure you that it is quite true.
我向你们保证那是真事, 以免有人觉得奇怪.
� In case it should/might rain, take a umbrella. 以防下雨，带把伞。
� If you should change your mind, do let me know. 万一你要改变主意, 一定要
告诉我.
� If he should have forgotten to go to the airport, nobody will be there to meet her.
要是他忘了去机场, 就没人去那儿接她了.
� Should anyone phone (ie If anyone phones), please tell them I'm busy. 有人打电
话来, 就说我很忙.
� I'm anxious that he should be well cared for. 我盼望他能受到很好的照顾。
� We're sorry that you should feel uncomfortable. 你觉得在这儿不舒服, 我们非
常抱歉。
� That he should speak to you like that is quite astonishing. 他竟然这样对你说话,
实在让人吃惊。
� I am delighted that he should take that view. 他有那种看法, 我十分高兴。
� I was thinking of going to see John when who should appear but John himself. 我
还想去看约翰, 想不到约翰来了。
� I turned round on the bus and who should be sitting behind me but my ex-wife.
我在公共汽车上转过身来, 谁料后面坐的竟是我的前妻。
虚拟语气总结：通过上面的学习你可能还觉得虚拟语气好像很复杂，觉得
要记忆的东西非常多，其实完全不是这么回事。理解好下面几点你就掌握好虚
拟语气了：
258[1][1][1][1] 虚拟语气应用的一个前提条件：说话者对某一事件对象持有看法。
[2][2][2][2] 如果说话者认为这个事件对象是一个与现在事实/过去事实或极有可能与将
来事实相反的事件对象时，那么将这个事件对象的谓语的“时”变成过去。
[3][3][3][3] 如果说话者认为这个事件对象不是一个可能性极强的事件对象时那么将这
个事件对象的谓语的“时”变成过去。（因为复合词 shall/may/can 可以表达可
能的意思，所以通常会将 shall/may/can 变成过去 should/might/could。这个
可能性事件对象的谓语构成为：should/migh/couldt+动词原形+其它谓语成分
①）
[4][4][4][4] 如果说话者认为这一事件对象不是实事，而是一个建议/命令/要求/义务/责任
时, 那么将这个事件对象的谓语的“时”变成过去。（因为复合词 shall 可以表
达建议/命令/要求/义务/责任，所以通常会将 shall 变成过去式 should）
[5][5][5][5] 注意我们前面分析中提到的 if,lest,as if,insisit 等一些词只是给我们起一个提
示作用，表明句子中的某一部分可能会用到虚拟语气，而不表明出现了这
些词就一定要用虚拟语气，关键还是要依据上面四条。
■3333．祈使语气
祈使语气表示所说的话是命令或请求。用祈使语气的句子的主语通常是第二
人称，且常省略，句子的谓语用动词原形②。例：
� Come here. 过来。
� Be a good boy. 要做个好孩子。
①来思考一个问题。牛津双解英语词典（第四版）上有这样一段话：CouldCouldCouldCould or mightmightmightmight express
more doubt or hesitation than maymaymaymay couldcouldcouldcould或 mightmightmightmight比 maymaymaymay更含怀疑或犹豫之意: That may beour taxi now! 那辆可能就是我们的计程车了. That could/might be our taxi (but I doubt it). 那辆有可能是我们的计程车（但我有所怀疑）。问题：为什么说 couldcouldcouldcould或 mightmightmightmight比 maymaymaymay更含
怀疑或犹豫之意。（提示：That may...now 这句话用的是陈述语气，而 That could/might be ourtaxi 这句话应用的是虚拟语气）②
因为根据语境，动作发生的时间属于可推知作息，所以没必要通过谓语动词的变化体现
出来
� Speak more slowly, please. 请讲慢些。
� Don't open the windows. 不要打开窗子。
� Do give me a call. 一定给我打电话。
260第十三节第十三节第十三节第十三节 调整句子成分的位置顺序调整句子成分的位置顺序调整句子成分的位置顺序调整句子成分的位置顺序
一般来说，英语的五种基本简单句句型的句子成分的位置是不变的，相关
联的句子成份一般遵循就近原则，但当句子进行复合省略或为了强调句中的某
一部分、平衡句子结构①等时，会将句子成分的位置进行相应调整
②。调整句子
成分的位置顺序(简称调序)的作用主要有以下几个方面：
一、构成疑问句
这在前面讲过，这里就不重复了。
二、强调句子某一部分
为强调句子的某一部分，通常将这一部分提至句子的最前面。例(加粗部分
为强调部分)③::::
���� NeverNeverNeverNever have I seen such a performance. 从未见过如此糟糕的表演。
� OnlyOnlyOnlyOnly inininin thisthisthisthis waywaywayway can you solve this problem. 只有用这种方法，你才可以解决
这个问题。
� Seldom/ScarecelySeldom/ScarecelySeldom/ScarecelySeldom/Scarecely does he go to that park. 他很少去那个公园了
� NowhereNowhereNowhereNowhere will you find the answer to this question. 无论如何你不会找到这个问
题的答案的。
� OnlyOnlyOnlyOnly afterafterafterafter hehehehe hadhadhadhad spokenspokenspokenspoken outoutoutout thethethethe wordwordwordword did he realize he had made a big
mistake. 只有当他已经说出那个字后才意识到自己犯了个大错误。
①英语句子是一个金字塔结构，一般来说主语在顶。如果主语太长的话就会采用 It 代替而
将主语本身置于句末。②
英语句子的自然语序是“主语 + 谓语”。如果将谓语的全部或一部分放在主语之前，这
种语序被称为“倒装”。谓语全部放在主语之前，为全部倒装；只把助动词，连系动词或
情态助动词放在主语之前，为部分倒装。③ (2009 重庆卷) Unsatisfied ______with the payment ,he took the job just to get some workexperience.A. though was he ●B. though he was C. he was though D. was he though
� NoNoNoNo soonersoonersoonersooner had I got home than it began to rain. 我刚到家就下起了雨。
� NotNotNotNot untiluntiluntiluntil thethethethe childchildchildchild fellfellfellfell asleepasleepasleepasleep did the mother leave the room. 母亲一直到孩子
入睡后离开房间。
� SeldomSeldomSeldomSeldom do I go to work by bus. 我很少乘公共汽车上班。
� HardlyHardlyHardlyHardly had she sat down when she heard someone knocking at the door .她还没
来得及坐下来，就听见有人敲门。
� SoSoSoSo unreasonableunreasonableunreasonableunreasonable was his price that everybody startled. 他的要价太离谱,令每个
人都瞠目结舌。
� ToToToTo suchsuchsuchsuch lengthlengthlengthlength did she go in rehearsal that the two actors walked out. 她的彩排
进行得那么长,以致于那两个演员都走出去了。
三、 承上启下
调序可把前一句说到的人或物，或与前一句有联系的人或物在下一句紧接
着先说出来，从而使前后两句在意思上的关系更加清楚，衔接更加紧密，起到
承上启下的作用。例：
� They broke into her uncle's bedroom and found the man lying on the floor, dead.
AroundAroundAroundAround hishishishis headheadheadhead was a brown snake. 他们破门进入她叔叔的卧室,发现他躺
在地板上死了。一条棕褐色的蛇缠在他头上。
� His answer was a disgrace; equallyequallyequallyequally regrettableregrettableregrettableregrettable was his departure immediately
afterwards.
� We really should not resent being called paupers. PaupersPaupersPaupersPaupers we are, and paupers
we shall remain. 我们确实不应因为被称作穷光蛋而愤愤不平。我们的确是穷
光蛋,而且还会继续是穷光蛋。
� Her face was stony and eveneveneveneven stonierstonierstonierstonierwas the tone of her voice.
262� A year ago, two crashes occurred, and moreoreoreore recentlyrecentlyrecentlyrecently has come the news of a
third.
四、避免重复
为了避免句子部分内容不必要的重复，常用"so+be"so+be"so+be"so+be动词（助动词、情态助
动词）++++主语""""或"neither/nor"neither/nor"neither/nor"neither/nor ++++ bebebebe动词（助动词、情态助动词）++++主语""""的句式①。
例：。
� A:His brother is（not）a college student; 他弟弟（不）是大学生。
B:so is mine.(nor is mine .) 我弟弟也是。(我弟弟也不是。)
� A:He used to have his further study abroad; 他曾去国外深造过。
B:so did I.(neither did I.) 我也去过。(我也没有。)
� A:One of my friends can speak three foreign languages; 我的一个朋友会说三门
外国语。
B:so can his wife.(neither can his wife .) 他的妻子也会。(他的妻子也不会。)
五、平衡结构
英语修辞的一个重要原则是尾重原则，即把句子最复杂的成分放在句尾以
保持句子平衡。在语言使用中为了避免产生头重脚轻、结构不平衡的句子,,,,我们
常使用调序。例：
� Soon appeared two attendants, dressed in white, leading between them the
exquisite and fascinating Diao Chan.
� On the ground lay some air conditioners, which are to be shipped to some other
cities.
� Then suddenly came out from the shelter of a grassy mound on the left a general
①其中第一个句式表示"与前面所述的肯定情况相同"，第二个句式表示"与前面所述的否定
情况相同"。
of youthful mien, but sitting his steed bravely and holding a sturdy spear.
� Running along either side of the courtyard were galleries hung with cages
containing a variety of different-coloured parrots, cockatoos, white-eyes, and
other birds.
� A rogue more cunning than Alan，it would be hard to imagine．
六、 使描写生动
有时为了增加语言效果，使叙述或描绘更加生动形象,,,, 可将表示方向的词
((((如:down,:down,:down,:down, up,up,up,up, out,out,out,out, in,in,in,in, off,off,off,off, on,on,on,on, awayawayawayaway等))))或拟声词(bang,(bang,(bang,(bang, crackcrackcrackcrack等))))置于句首。例:
� Up went the rocket into the air. 嗖地一声火箭就飞上天了。
� Down jumped the criminal from the third floor when the policeman pointed his
pistol at him. 当警察把手枪瞄准那个罪犯时,嘭地一下他就从三楼跳了下去。
� Boom went the cannon! 轰隆一声大炮开火了!
� Bang came another shot! 砰!又是一声枪响!
七、制造悬念,,,,渲染气氛
在新闻或文学创作中,有时为了内容的需要,或是为了强调,作者常常运用
调序来制造悬，渲染气氛。
调序是英语中一个重要的修辞手段。调序的使用丰富了我们的语言表达，
了解并掌握各种调序句式的用法，不仅会提高我们对英语语言的欣赏能力 , 对
英语表达能力的提高也将大有裨益。因此,写作中适当用一些调序句式定会使文
章表达更生动、有力①②。
①部分引自百库文库文件：1）完全倒装的四种主要类型 2）高中英语语法：倒装。
○英语中构成部分倒装的主要情形有：
■■■■1.1.1.1. 含否定意义的词(如 never, hardly, seldom, little, few, not until, not, not only, no sooner,no longer, nowhere, by no means, rarely 等)置于句首时，其后用部分倒装。如：
Never before have I seen him. 我以前没见过他。
Not a single word of English can he speak. 他连一个英语单词都不会说。
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Not until all the demands had been turned down did the workers decide to go on strike. 一直到
所有的要求遭到拒绝之后，工人们才决定罢工。
Scarcely had he sat down when his mobile phone rang. 他刚坐下，手机就响了。
No sooner had he handed in his paper than he realized his mistakes. 他刚交卷就意识到出错了
By no means should you tell him about it. 你绝不要告诉他这事。
(2005 天津卷) They have a good knowledge of English but little _______they know aboutGerman.A. have B. did C. had ●D. do(2009 全国 I)The computer was used in teaching. As a result, not only , but studentsbecame more interested in the lessons.A. saved was teachers’ energy ●B. was teachers’ energy savedC. teachers’ energy was saved D. was saved teachers’ energy
Hardly could he ________ this amount of work in such a short time. (2007 天津卷)●A. get through B. get off C. get into D. get down■■■■2.2.2.2. only+传统语法中的状语放在句首时，其后用部分倒装。如：
Only in this way can you use the computer well. 只有用这种方法你才能把电脑学好。
Only when he returned home did he realize what had happened. 当他回到家里时，才知道出了
什么事。
■■■■3.3.3.3. so / neither / nor 表示前面所说的情况也适合于后者时，用“so / neither / nor+助动词+主语”这样的倒装句式。如：
He can sing English songs and so can I. 他会唱英语歌，我也会。
Neither Peter wanted the responsibility，nor did his wife. 彼得不想担此责任，他妻子也不想
担此责任。
He didn’t see the film, and neither did I. 他没有看这部电影，我也没有看。
She is every beautiful and so was her mother when she was young. 她很美，她妈妈年轻时也很
美。
*(2007 江苏卷) — My room gets very cold at night.— ___________.A. So is mine B. So mine is ●C. So does mine D. So mine does■■■■4.4.4.4. 当虚拟条件句的谓语含有 were, should, had 时，可省略 if，将 were, should, had 置于
句首。如：
Had you worked harder at college, you would have got better job. 如果你在大学期间读书用功
些，现在就会找到一份更好的工作。
Were he better qualified, he would apply for the position. 要是他的条件再好些，他就申请这个
职位。________fired, your health care and other benefits will not be immediately cut off.
A. Would you be ●B. Should you be C. Could you be D. Might you be■■■■5.5.5.5. “so...that...和“such...that...”结构中的 so 或 such 位于句首时，其后要用倒装语序。
如：
So fast does light travel that we can hardly imagine its speed. 光速很快，我们几乎没法想像它
的速度。
(2009 山东卷)So sudden ________ that the enemy had no time to escape.A. did the attack B. the attack did ●C. was the attack D. the attack was(2006 福建卷)30._______homework did we have to do that we had no time to take a rest.●A. So much B. Too much C. Too little D. So littleSuch was his anger that he lost control of himself. 他是如此地生气，以至于他不能控制自己
了。
■■■■6666....一些表示频率的副词（如 many a time, often 等）位于句首时，其后要用倒装语序。如：
Many a time have I seen her taking a walk alone. 我多次看到她独自一人在散步。
Often did she come to my house in the past. 过去她常到我家来。
■■■■7777....在 as 引导的传统语法中的让步状语从句中，位于句首的可以是形容词、名词、副词，
还可以是谓语动词的一部分，从而形成从句的部分倒装。如：
Tires as he was, he continued the work. 虽然他累了，但是仍然继续工作。
■■■■8888.... 在以 the more...， the more...引导的倒装结构中，采用部分倒装；如果主句的主语较
长，可将谓语动词置于主语之前，形成完全倒装。如：
The more books you read（宾语提前），the wider your knowledge is（表语提前）．书读得越
多，知识就越渊博。
○英语中构成完全倒装的情形主要有：
■■■■1.1.1.1. 以 here, there, now, then, out, in, up, down, off, away 等方向性副词开头的句子，且句子
主语是名词时，句子用完全倒装。如：
Here comes the bus. 公共汽车来了。
Now comes your turn. 现在该你了。
Then came a new difficulty. 这时又产生了一个新的困难。
The door opened and in came Mr Li. 门开了，李先生进了来。
(2010 陕西卷) John opened the door. There _____ he had never seen before.A. a girl did stand B. a girl stood C. did a girl stand ●D. stood a girl○注：若主语为代词，则不用倒装。如：
The door opened and in she came. 门开了，她走了进来。
■■■■2.2.2.2. 将表语和传统语法中的“地点状语”(多为介词短语)置于句首加以强调时，其后通常
用倒装语序。如：
Among them was my friend Jim. 他们当中就有我的朋友吉姆。
Around the lake are some tall tree. 湖的四周有些高树。
■■■■3333.... as 引导的传统语法中的方式状语从句一般为正常语序，但是，如果主语比谓语长，可
将谓语动词置于主语之前，形成完全倒装。如：
He believed，as did all his family，that the king was the supreme lord. 他和他全家人一样，都
认为国王是至高无上的君主。
■■■■4444....由 than 引导的传统语法中的比较状语从句一般为正常语序。但是，如果主语较长，可
将谓语动词置于主语之前，形成完全倒装：
Western Nebraska generally receives less snow than does eastern Nebraska. 内布拉斯加西部地
区的降雪通常比东部地区少。②
○试析：
They put to death all who did not stand in with them。In the center was Qu Yi with eight hundred bowmen and ten thousand of foot and horse.Strong as the enemy are, they are not necessarily able to break down our walls, especially whendefended by you and your people."No, William, the same spirit that makes you restless and discontented now, would be with you,no matter how greatly improved might be your external condition.In Meiwo were hidden many young ladies of good families.Then he saw away among the tents a huge banner swaying dangerously with the force of thewind and on the point of falling.But the watchful Li Ru had noticed standing behind Ding Yuan a particularly dangerous lookinghenchman of his, who was now handling his halberd threateningly, and whose eyes were blazingwith anger.
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Him they had deserted, whether in sheer panic or out of revenge for his ill words and blows Iknow not; but there he remained behind, tapping up and down the road in a frenzy, and gropingand calling for his comrades.He carried a broad-brimmed hat in his hand, while he wore across the upper part of his face,extending down past the cheekbones, a black vizard mask, which he had apparently adjusted thatvery moment, for his hand was still raised to it as he entered.For what fault is Counselor Liu Tao to be put to death?One of them, a Taoist, he recognized as the Father Obscurus who, on the occasion when he lastsaw him, had jokingly advised Big Beaver to divorce his wife.But try as she might to scare him, there was still something very endearing about her.I shot an arrow into the air,It fell to earth, I knew not where;Try as he might, he couldn’t open the door.Long live the People’s Republic of China!,Yet still in his face one saw the watchful look, the slight vacancy of a cripple.But Lu Zhi also said, "Long have I known this man. In appearance innocent, he is a very wolf atheart. Let him in, and calamity enters with him. Stop him, do not let him come, and thus will youavoid upheaval."Stupid and tactless was He Jin, yet stood he highest in office."To what household do you belong, young gentlemen?" asked the farmer.The cavalcade had not proceeded far when they saw coming towards them a large body ofsoldiers with fluttering banners hiding the sun and raising a huge cloud of dust.I desire to depose the Emperor and set up the Prince in his place. What think you?But the watchful Li Ru had noticed standing behind Ding Yuan a particularly dangerous lookinghenchman of his, who was now handling his halberd threateningly, and whose eyes were blazingwith anger.I, handmaid of an emperor, would grieve if I followed him not.There he saw among the mulberry trees a yellow flag under which marched a small company.Surged up his wrath within him as the billows heavenward leap.Just after this came the news of the defeat and misfortune of Cao Cao.Then will I restore this temple and order sacrifices at the four seasons.Down he leaped,From all sides poured in gifts of grain.To work their wicked will now join three again.In no other way can I wash away my shame.Only thus can I satisfy my vengeance.and only by Ma Chao's desperate efforts were the pursuers driven off.Still would Liu Bei have put from him such a post.Little he cares for the Imperial Rector's reputation or my life."Well," said he, "my mate Bill would be called the captain, as like as not. He has a cut on onecheek and a mighty pleasant way with him, particularly in drink, has my mate Bill.the whole eight hundred men let fly their arrows in a cloud.To these requests his brothers added their persuasion.As the main eating implement, they Chieses use chopstics every day.Strong as the enemy are, they are not necessarily able to break down our walls, especially whendefended by you and your people.Scion of the family I may be.Now here is the Cao family with no end of gear.Still more innocent are the people.Behind Sun Jian, Generals Cheng Pu, Huang Gai, and Han Dang stepped forth; behind YuanShao, Generals Yan Liang and Wen Chou were ready to act.He was a good teacher, thought Tom.
第十四节第十四节第十四节第十四节 主谓一致主谓一致主谓一致主谓一致
我们知道句子的主语有单复数及人称的变化。而根据英语语法规则如果谓
语为现在时①,其谓语需要根据主语的人称和数的不同而有所变化。即：谓语要
与主语在人称和数上保持一致（前面我们已经说过，其实这种一致在大多数时
But by this time we had all long ceased to pay any particular notice to the song; it was new, thatnight, to nobody but Dr. Livesey, and on him I observed it did not produce an agreeable effect,for he looked up for a moment quite angrily before he went on with his talk to old Taylor, thegardener, on a new cure for the rheumatics.And therein seemed to be horsemen innumerable, who swept to attack the imperial troops.Never mind how many there are of them.Hardly were the words spoken when there came out a youth general with a clear, whitecomplexion as jade, eyes like shooting stars, lithe of body and strong of limb.Their steeds galloped off they knew not whither, while the two men, each dropping his spear,began a hand to hand struggle.Sun Ce is here stillYuan Shu went not to destroy the tiger, but insteadAgainst a dragon forth his army led.It was pitiful! There was the young emperor, after reigning less than half a year, deposed andanother put in his place.Having suffered so much, the capacity for suffering had to some extent left him. He remainedstrange and bright and cheerful, almost, one might say, chirpy, with his ruddy, healthy-lookingface, arid his pale-blue, challenging bright eyes.It was obvious in the anxious brightness of his eyes, how proud he was, after the great shock, ofbeing alive.The traveller from the coast, who, after plodding northward for a score of miles over calcareousdowns and corn-lands, suddenly reaches the verge of one of these escarpments, is surprised anddelighted to behold, extended like a map beneath him, a country differing absolutely from thatwhich he has passed through.What I want to know is this: Supposing that I have here in my pocket some clue to where Flintburied his treasure, will that treasure amount to much?""I don't!" said my sister. "I'd never do it again! I know that. I may truly say I've never had thisapron of mine off since born you were.These facts Miss Mary was not slow to take advantage ofStill more strange was it to see him in the heaviest of weather cross the deck.How the faces of the tailor and his needlewoman brightened instantly, as if a gleam of sunshinehad penetrated the room.The issue is how would additional combat forces, additional marines, for instance, in HelmandProvince, increase the speed of the build-up of the Afghan army?From all sides poured in gifts of grain.Try as he might, he couldn’t open the door.Yet still in his face one saw the watchful look, the slight vacancy of a cripple.①
如果谓语为过去时且其第一部分为 be，如果主语是 you，be 采用 were 形式；如果主语
为 I/she/he/it，be 采用 was 形式；如果主语不是 I/you/she/he/it 时，当其表达单数概念时，
be 采用 was 形式，当其表达复数概念时 be 采用 were 形式。
268候是没有意义的，但既然是习惯我们只好遵守）。
人称一致：如果主语是第一人称单数I，谓语的第一部分动词如是be则 be
采用 am 形式/如是其它动词，则其它动词采用原形；如果是第二人称单数 you，
be 采用 are 形式/其它动词采用原形; 如果是第三人称单数 she/he/it, be 采用 is 形
式/其它动词采用第三人称单数形式①。
数一致：如果主语不为 I/you/she/ he/it 时，当其表达单数概念时，其谓语采
用单数形式（即谓语的第一部分动词采用第三人称单数形式。注:如果其谓语的
第一部分为 be，则采用 is 形式）；当其表达复数概念时，其谓语采用复数形式（即
谓语的第一部分动词采用原形。注：如果其谓语的第一部分为 be，则采用 are
形式）
现在我们来看看主谓一致的三原则：
一、 语法一致
主语为单数形式，谓语动词也用单数形式；主语为复数形式，谓语动词也
用复数形式。不可数名词作主语，谓语动词用单数②， 如：
� The boy likes English. 那个男孩喜欢英语。
� I am swimming. 我正在游泳。
� You are a good guy. 你是个好人。
� She is watching TV. 她在看电视。
� The students of our class play football well. 我们班学生球踢得不错。
� They are drinking wine. 他们在喝酒③。
①动词的第三人称单数形式在讲“时态”时已经讲过。
②如果主语是第一人称单数 I，be 采用 am 形式；如果是第二人称单数 you，be 采用 are 形
式; 如果是第三人称单数 she/he/it, be 采用 is 形式。③ (2010 全国卷卷 II ) Barbara is easy to recognize as she’s the only of the women who ____evening dress.A. wear ●B. wears C. has worn D. have worn
二、 意义一致
主语形式虽为单数，但意义为复数，谓语动词用复数；主语形式为复数，
而意义为单数，谓语动词用单数。如：
� The crowd were surrounding the government official. 人群包围了这位政府官
员。
� My family are having dinner now. 我们家人现在在吃饭。（family 指家中全体
成员，有复数含义）
� His family has moved into the new house. 他家已经搬到新房子里去了。
（family 指整个家，用作单数）
� Two hours is enough. 二小时就够了。（two hours 指一个时间段，看作单数）
三、 就近原则
就近原则即谓语动词的单复数形式取决于最靠近它的主语。
� There is a book and two pencils on the desk.桌子上有一支钢笔和两支铅笔。
� He or I am in the wrong. 他或是我错了。
� Neither my friends nor I was able to persuade him to accept our advice. 我和我
的朋友都说服不他接受我们的建议。
通过学习原则 1 和原则 2 后我们发现，其实是主语意思（而不是形式）上
单/复数概念决定了其谓语的形式①，即如果主语的意思表单数，则其谓语采用单
数形式；反之则采用复数形式②。
而原则 3 所说的是一些特例（也可以说是一个与原则1、2 自相矛盾的原则
③），这需要我们记忆。
①但 you（你）除外，因为其为单数，但谓语还是要用 are。
②其实主谓一致只要理解这一点就够了。（不过还需要记忆原则 3 这个错误原则）
③同时也进一步说明了主谓一致原则是多么无聊的一个原则。
270一些容易出错的主谓一致关系请见注释
①。
①
■如果主语是不定式，动词-ing 形式或句子时，谓语动词用单数。
■表示时间、金钱、距离、度量等名词作主语时，一般看作一个整体，其谓语动词用单数。
如：
*two years is not a long time. 2 年的时间并不长。
*Thirty minutes is enough for the work. 30 分钟就足够完成这项工作了。
*Three pints isn’t enough to get me drunk. 三品脱还不至于把我灌醉。
*(2007 江西卷) A survey of the opinions of experts ___ that three hours of outdoor exercise aweek ____ good for one’s health.A. show; are ●B. shows; is C. show;is D. shows;are■and 连接两个或两个以上单数名词或代词作主语时，谓语动词有以下两种情况：
○and 连接两个或两个以上不同的人或物作主语时，谓语动词用复数。如：
*She and I are all teachers. 我和他都是老师。
*Time and tide wait for no man. 岁月不饶人。
○如果连接两个或两个以上的并列结构是指同一个人或物，或指同一概念时，谓语动词用
单数，这时 and 后面的名词前不加冠词，如：bread and butter (涂黄油的面包) , soda andwater(汽水), aim and end(目的), coffee and milk(加牛奶的咖啡), salt and water(盐水), knifeand fork(刀叉), 做主语时,谓语动词用单数。如：
*The professor and writer is speaking at the meeting. 那位教授兼作者正在会上发言。(是同一
个人，但具有两种不同的身份)*The bread and butter is served for breakfast. 早饭供应黄油面包。
*The bread and the butter are on sale. 正在出售黄油和面包。
■用 and 连接的并列主语被 each, every 或 no 限定时，谓语动词用单数。如：
*Every boy and every girl in the class is diligent. 班里的每个男孩女孩都很用功。
■each of +复数代词, 谓语动用单数。复数代词+ each, 谓语动词用单数。如：
*Each of us has a book. 我们每人都有一本书。
*The suites each have their own private entrances. 每个套间都有它们各自单独的入口
■不定代词 all, more, some, any, none 等作主语时，谓语动词视情况而定。谓语动词可用单
数，也可用复数；但当它指代不可数名词时看作单数，谓语动词用单数。如：
*All the potatoes are rotten. 所有的马铃薯都烂了。
*All the potato is rotten. 整个马铃薯烂了。
*None of us are /is perfect. 人无完人。
*None of the money is left. 一点钱也没剩下。
*(2010 四川卷) Such poets as Shakespeare widely read，of whose works，however，somedifficult to understand.●A. are；are B. is；is C. are；is D. is：are■当 everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody 等复合代词
作主语时，相应的代词一般采用单数形式。如：
*If anyone calls, tell him I’ll be back later. 如果有人找我，就说我一会回来。
*Someone wants to buy the house. 有人想买这座房子。
*Everyone thinks he is the center of universe. 每个人都认为自己是宇宙的中心。*Somebodyhas lost his car keys. 有人把汽车钥匙丢了。
*Nothing is found in the room. 在屋里找不到什么东西。
■名词如 clothes, trousers, scissors, goods, glasses 等作主语时，谓语动词必须用复数[注意：
第十五节第十五节第十五节第十五节 强调句强调句强调句强调句但是这类表示成双的东西的名词前有( ) pair(s) of 修饰时,谓语动词与 pair 的单复数保持一
致]；以 s 结尾的词，但表示学科、国家、机构、书籍、报刊等名称（news 新闻）作主语
时谓语动词用单数。如：
*The pair of glasses fits you well. 这幅眼镜很适合你。
*Politics is a complicated business. 政治学很复杂。
*I don’t think the news in the newspaper is true. 我认为这份报纸上的消息不是真的。
*Maths is hard to learn. 数学难学。
■集体名词作主语，谓语动词可用单数，也可用复数，主要由句子的意思决定。强调整体
时用单数，强调整体中的个体的用复数。这类名词有 people, family, class, population, crowd,team, ground 等。如：
*The Chinese people are brave and hardworking.中国人民是勤劳勇敢的。
*His family is moving next month. 他家下个月要搬家。
*The whole family are watching TV. 全家人都在看电视。
■有些名词单复数形式相同，作主语时，谓语动词由上下文决定。这类名词有 deer, sheep,means, Chinese, Japanese, fish 等。如：
*Not every means is useful. 并非每种方法都有效。
*Not all means are useful. 并非所有的方法都有效。
*A sheep is over there. 那边有只羊。 *Some sheep are over there. 那边有些羊。
■某些集体名词，如 people，police，cattle 等，只当复数看待，谓语动词用复数。如：
*The police are looking for the missing child. 警察正在找失踪的孩子。
*The Chinese people are brave and hardworking.中国人民是勤劳勇敢的。
■由山脉、群岛、瀑布、运动会等 s 结尾的专有名词作主语，谓语用复数。如：
*The Olympic Games are held once every four years. 奥运会每四年举行一次。
■在“主语+主语后面带有 with, along with, together with, as well as, besides, like, without,except, including, but 等引导的短语时，谓语动词必须与前面的主语在人称和数上保持一
致，这是因为上述短语只起限制主语的作用，而非主语的一部分。如：
*The teacher as well as the students is in the library. 老师和学生都在图书馆里。
*The man together with his wife and children sits on the sofa watching TV. 那个人和他妻儿老
小坐在沙发上看电视。
*(2005 上海卷) Professor Smith, along with his assistants,______ on the project day and night tomeet the deadline.A. work B. working ●C. is working D. are working*(2006 辽宁卷) The father as well as his three children ____ skating on the frozen river everySunday afternoon in winter.A. is going B. go ●C. goes D. are going■The+形容词表示一类人，如 the blind （盲人），the living （生者），the dead（死者），therich（富人），the poor（穷人），the young（年轻人），the old（老人）等，谓语动词用复数
形式；表示抽象概念物或个别事物，如 the unexpected（出乎意料的事），the unknown（未
知的事），the beautiful（美丽）等，谓语动词则用单数形式。如：
*The sick in the accident have been taken to the hospital. 事故中受伤的人已经被送到医院了。
*The beautiful is not always the useful. 漂亮的不一定总有用。
■如果主语由 more than one...或 many a...构成，尽管从意义上看是复数内容，但它的谓语
动词仍用单数形式。如： *More members than one is against your plan. 许多成员反对你的计划。 *Many a student has been sent to plant trees. 很多学生被派去植树.
272It is /was +强调部分+that/who/whom +其他成分。这个句型用来强调除谓
语以外的各种句子成分①,被强调部分必须放在 it is/was 后面，如果强调的部分是
人，可以用 who/whom 来代替 that②。我们先来看一个例子：
We will have a meeting in the room tomorrow. 我们明天在这房间开会。
强调主句：It is we that/who will have a meeting in the hall tomorrow.
强调宾语：It is a meeting that we will have in the room tomorrow.
强调时间：It is tomorrow that we will have a meeting in the room.
强调地点：It is in the room that we will have a meeting tomorrow.
在前面我们分析过这样两个例子：It was I who met him in the park. 是我在公
园遇到他的。It was in the street that I saw him. 我是在街上见到他的，通过分析
■the rest of, half of, majority of, part of, a lot of, lots of, one of, a number of, a plenty of,percent of 以及分数词等作主语时，谓语动词的单复数取决于后面名词的。如：
*A part of the teachers have arrived. 部分老师已到了。
*A part of the apple has been eaten by the mouse. 这个苹果的一部分被老鼠吃了。
*(2006 浙江卷) The company had about 20 notebook computers but only one-third _______used regularly. Now we have 60 working all day long.A. is B. are C. was ● D. were⊿
About, around, some, or so 均可来表示"大约"。前三个词通常放在被限制的成分之前，
而 or so 多置于其后。如：about/around/some one hundred students 大约 100 名学生；This pieceof equipment weighs 10 tons or so. 这件设备重 10 吨左右。
■在表存在的 there be 句式中，主语是两个或多个并列名词（短语），be 的形式与最近的
一个名词（短语）保持一致。如：
*There is a book, two pencils on the desk. 有一本书两支铅笔在桌子上。
*There are two cups, a pen on the desk. 有二个杯子，一枝钢笔在桌子上。
■由 here, there 等引导的倒装句中，若主语不止一个时，谓语动词与最近的主语保持一致。
如：
*Here is a pen and two books for you. 这枝钢笔和二本书是给你的。
■用连词 or, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also 等连接并列主语时， 谓语动词应
与最近的主语保持一致。如：
*Neither you nor I am wrong. 你和我都没错。
*Neither I nor you are wrong. 你和我都没错。
*Either the boy or the girl knows him well. 不是这男孩就是那女孩了解他。
*Not only you but also he is wrong. 你和他都错了。①
强调谓语在助动词 do 一节中我们已经学过了。②
注意，去掉 It is /was...that/who/whom 后，剩余句子的结构和句意是完整的。
我们发现 it 在这种强调结构作形式主语，结构本身也不复杂，这里就不再多述①。
①○试析：It was because it was raining hard that I came home late. 正因为下大雨，我才迟
回家的。*It was not until it stopped that we got off the bus. 公共汽车停了我才下车的。
*(2010 安徽卷) It was from only a few supplies that she had bought in the village thehostess cooked such a nice dinner.A. where ●B. that C. when D. which*(2008 全国 II) It was in New Zealand ___ Elizabeth first met Mr. Smith.●A. that B. how C. which D. when
274第十六节第十六节第十六节第十六节 直接引语和间接引语直接引语和间接引语直接引语和间接引语直接引语和间接引语
引用别人的话有两种方式，一种是讲述别人的原话，并把它放在引号里，
这叫直接引语；另一种是用自己的话来转述别人①，并且不用引号，这就是间接
引语②。直接引语改为间接引语时，若引述动词是现在/将来时，则间接引语中的
动词、时间、时态的形式不变。但是如引述动词为过去时，间接引语中的谓语
动词、时间、时态、地点、人称等一般要作相应的变化，详见注释③。
①注意灵活处理只要能正确地表达别人话就可以了。
②间接引语在多数情况下构成宾语。
③引自百度文库文件：直接引语变间接引语的七点变化。
■1、时态的变化
直接引语变为间接引语时，若主句为过去时，变为间接引语的宾语通常要将时态往后推一
个，即现在一般时变为过去一般时，将来一般时变为过去将来时，现在进行时变为过去进
行时，现在完成时变为过去完成时，过去一般时也变为过去完成时，等等(若直接引语为过
去完成时，变为间接引语可以不变；若直接引语中有情态助动词 can, may，也应变成过去
式 could, might，情态助动词 must 可以变为 had to，也可不变，should, ought to, had better 可
以不变)。如：
She said, Don't you know my telephone number 她说：你难道不知道我的电话号码吗？
→ She asked me whether I knew her telephone number or not. 她问我是知道她的电话号码。
Do you like this one or that one Tom asked. 汤姆问：你是喜欢这个还是那个？
→ Tom asked me whether I liked this one or that one. 汤姆问我是喜欢这个还是那个。
He said, “I’m waiting for her.” 他说：“我在等她。”→He said that he was waiting for her. 他说他在等她。
“It will rain soon,” he said. 他说：“很快就会下雨。”→He said that it would rain soon. 他说很快就会下雨。
“She can swim,” he said. 他说：“她会游泳。”→He said that she could swim. 他说她会游泳。
○注：下面情况下其时态不变
（1）若直接引语为客观真理，格言，如：
The geography teacher said, “The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.” 地理老师说：“太阳
在东方升起，在西边落下。”→The geography teacher said that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west.（2）直接引语含有有特定的过去时间，如：
He said, “ was born in 1954.” 他说：“我是 1954 年生的。”→He said that he was born in 1954. 他说他是 1954 年生的。
（3）直接引语表经常性习惯，如：
He said to the doctor, “ I smoke three packs every day.” 他告诉医生说：“我每天抽三包烟。”
→He told the doctor that he smokes three packs every day. 他告诉医生说他第天抽三包烟。
（4）直接引语所述事实在当时和目前同样生效，如：
He said, “I'm a boy, not a girl.”他说：“我是男生不是女生。”
→He said that he is a boy ,not a girl. 他说他是男生不是女生。
第十七节第十七节第十七节第十七节 标点符号标点符号标点符号标点符号The teacher said ,” World War II ended in 1945.” 老师说：“第二次世界大战在 1945 年结束。”
→The teacher said that World War II ended in 1945.” 老师说第二次世界大战在 1945 年结束。
（5）如果直接引语中含有 since, when, while 等开头的表示过去时间的句子，在变为间接
引语时，只改变主句中的谓语动词，如：
He said to me, “I have taught English since he came here.”他对我说：“自从他来他就在教英
语了。”
→He told me that he had taught English since he came here. 他告诉我说自从他来他就在教英
语了。
■2、表示时间的词语的变化
直接引语变间接引语时，有些表示时间的词语根据意义也要相应的改动：如将 now 改为
then，将 today 改为 that day，将 tonight 改为 that night，将 yesterday 改为 the day before，将 this month 改为 that month，将 last week 改为 the week before，将 three years ago 改为 threeyears before，将 tomorrow 改为 the next day，将 next year 改为 the next year，等。如：
He said, “I’m very busy now.” 他说：“我现在很忙。”→He said that he was very busy then. 他说他当时很忙。。
以上变化有时应视情况而定，若在当时转述，now 不必改为 then；若在当天转述，today,yesterday, tomorrow 等不必改为 that day, the day before, the next day 等；若在当周转述，thisweek, last week 不必改为 that week, the last week；若在当年转述，this year, last year 不必改
为 that year, the last year 等。
■3、代词的变化
在直接引语变为间接引语时，有些代词也要作相应的变化，如指示代词 this 和 these 通常
变为 that 和 those。同时人称代词、物主代词、反身代词等也要根据具体情况作出合理的调
整。如：
He said, “I think this is the best.” 他说：“我认为这是最好的。”→He said that he thought that was the best. 他说他认为那是最好的。
“I’ll send you a card, Sue,” Ann said. “休，我将给你寄一张明信片，”安说。
→Ann told Sue she’d send her a card. 安告诉休她将给她寄一张明信片。
注：若场所和地点不发生改变，this 和 that 也可以不变。
■4、表示地点的词语的变化
主要涉及到 here，它在间接引语中通常要变为 there。如：
“I’ve live here for 10 years,” he said. 他说：“我在这儿已住了 10 年。”→He said that he had lived there for 10 years. 他说他在那儿住了 10 年。
注：若在当地转述，则 here 也可不必改为 there。■5、动词的变化
直接引语变为间接引语时，有个别动词也可能需要改变，如 come 改为 go，bring 改为 take等。如：
“He will come today.” she said. 她说：“他今天会来。”→She said that he would go that day. 她说他那天会去。
注：若地点和场所未发生改变，come 和 bring 等也可不变。
■6、词序的变化
对于直接引语为疑问句的情形，由于变为间接引语后“疑问句”变成了宾语，所以要注意将
疑问句词序改为陈述句词序。如：
“Do you know this man?” he asked. “你认识这个人吗？”他问。
→He asked if [whether] I knew that man. 他问我是否认识那个人。
“Is anyone late for class?” he asked. 他问道：“上课有人迟到吗？”→He asked if [whether] anyone was late for class. 他问上课是否有人迟到。
276
英语中的常用的标点符号主要有下面一些，由于英语是“法治”语言，所
以掌握好标点符号的正确用法非常重要①。
句号（Full Stop / Period，"."②）
逗点（Comma，","③）
“What do you do in the evening?” he asked “你一般晚上做什么?”他问。
→He asks what I did in the evening. 他问我晚上一般干什么。
■7、句式的变化
有时由直接引语变为间接引语时，其句式也要发生变化。如当直接引语为祈使句时，变为
间接引语时，通常应将祈使句改用 ask [tell, order] sb (not) to do sth 句式。如：
“Come early tomorrow, Jim,” he said. 他说：“吉姆，明天早点来。”→He told Jim to come early the next day. 他叫吉姆第二天早点来。
He said, “Don’t open the door.” 他说：“别开门。”→He told me not to open the door. 他叫我别开门。
“What a lovely day it is today!” said the visitor.“今天天气多好啊!”游客说。
→The visitor said what a lovely day it was that day. (间接引语)→The visitor said that it was a lovely day that day. (间接引语)○注：
(1)(1)(1)(1) 除动词 ask, tell, order 外，有时也可能用其他动词。如：
“Let’s have a cup of milk.” said the young man. “我们饮杯牛奶吧!”这位年轻人说。→The young man suggested having a cup of milk.→The young man suggested that we should have a cup of milk.
“Stay here for dinner.” My aunt said over and over. “在这儿吃饭吧，”我姑妈反复地说。→My aunt insisted on my staying for dinner.→My aunt insisted that I should stay there for dinner.“Remember to switch off all the lights,” she said. 她说：“记着把所有的灯关掉。”→She reminded me to switch off all the lights. 她提醒我把所有的灯关掉。
(2)(2)(2)(2) 若祈使句中没有呼语，应根据句意给动词 ask, tell, order 等补上适当的宾语。如：
“Be quiet, Tom,” the teacher said. “汤姆，安静点，”老师说。
The teacher told Tom to be quiet. 老师叫汤姆安静。
①以下标点符号的用法参考了《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》（第六版）附录 4（第 2078 页）
关于标点符号的用法，也参考了一些网络上的资料。②
主要用法如下：
■用于句子结束处（疑问句用?， 感叹句用！），例：You seem very much alive today. 你今
天好像非常活跃。
■用于英文单词的缩写，例：Mrs., a.m., P.S. 等。但要注意的是当缩写的字母形成了一个
单词的时候就不要使用句点，例：IBM, DNA 等。
■用于互联网和电子邮件地址，例：网址 http://dictionary.reference.com/ 本人邮件地址[email protected]③
主要用法如下：
冒号（Colon，":"①）
分号（Semicolon，";"②）
引号（Quotation Marks，双引号"""；单引号"'"③）
■用于分隔一系列平等的简单内容，不过在 and 之前常省略，例：I want to buy a pen, a bagand a watch. 我想买一只笔，一个袋子和一个手表。
■用于分隔平行句，例：Tom, whose family is very rich, is a good student. 汤姆是个好学生，
家庭富有。[注意限定句之前一般是不能有逗号的（这条规则可以说是针对传统语法语法中
所说的限制性定语从句的），但也有特殊情况，例：In the summer, they got married. 他们在
夏天结婚了。]■用于将呼语，插入语，副词同句子其它部分分开，例：Jim, can you help me? 吉姆你能帮
我一一上吗？
■用于将附加疑问句同句子的其它部分分开，例：You love me, don’t you? 你爱我，不是吗？
书写对话时用于某某说之前，例 “You are a good guy, ” she said. 她说，“你是个好人”。
■用于短小的引语前，例：Her brother said, “You are his friend.” 她兄弟说你是他朋友。①
主要用法如下：
■用于对后面内容的介绍或解释，例：This is his plan: go swimming. 这就是他的计划：去
游泳。
■用于名单之前，特别是一个竖排的名单，例：
We transferred three employees to new branches: 我们调三个人去新的分树机构
• Wang to New York City 王去纽约
• Mike to Tokyo 迈克去东京
• Mark to Paris 马克去巴黎
■用于一个正式的引用之前，例：The teacher said: "don’t be late nex time." 老师说：“下次
别迟到。”②
主要用法如下：
■在句子中如果已经使用过逗号，为了避免歧义的产生，就用分号来分隔相似的内容，例：
The employees were Tom, the manager; White, the engineer; and Dr. Jack. 雇员如下：汤姆（经
理），吉姆（工程师）和杰克（医生）。
■用于分隔两个平行句：He is thin; I am fat. 他瘦我胖。③
引号分单引号(single quotation marks) 和双引号(double quotation marks) 。
○单引号只用在一个直接引语中所含有的另一个直接引语上。表示直接引语。当直接引语
超过四行或多于 40 个字词时, 一般不用引号而改用黑体字以便与文章的其它部分界线清
晰，例："Well, "the foreigner said to him ," you look like an engineer. "○句号和逗号必须置于引号(双引号和单引号) 之内，例：
*He told the gunman ,"I refuse to do that "；his knees , however , were shaking even as he saidthose words.*She called this schedule of activities her "load "：work , study , exercise , recreation , and sleep.○冒号与分号必置于引号外。
*The teacher asked , "Could you understand me"？*Did the teacher ask ,"Have they gone"？*Did the teacher ask ,"They have gone ？"*The frightened girl screamed ,"Help"!
278破折号（Em Dash，"—"①
）
问号（Question Mark，"？"②）
感叹号（Exclamation Mark，"!"③）
连字符（Hyphen，"-"④）
*The fellow only said ,"Sorry !"*He interrupted me , "Now , listen"——and went on saying.○问号、感叹号和破折号有时置于引号之内, 有时置于外号之外。如果所引内容本身是疑
问句或感叹句或带有破折号, 问号、感叹号或破折号一般放在引号之内。否则,放在引号之
外。
○标明短篇出版物的标题, 诸如杂志、报纸上的文章、短诗、短篇故事和整部书的某一章
节。
*Have you read"The Old Man and the Sea"？*Chapter three is entitled"The Internet . "○表示所用的词语具有特殊意义。另外,当俚语出现在较正式的文章中, 也用引号引起来,以表示文风的有意转变。*The report contained the"facts"of the case.*The speaker owns a"fat farm"in California , which slims down rich overeaters for ＄2 , 500 aweek.○用于表示引起读者注意的词语, 或读者不熟悉的特殊词语。*It is customary to say"Youpre welcome" whenever anyone says"Thank you. "*"SOS"is a message for help from a ship or aircraft when in danger.①
主要用法如下：
■在非正式英语中，用以代替冒号或分号，表示后面所说的是对前面的总结或结论，例：
Men were shouting, women were screaming, children were crying—it was chaos. 男人在喊，女
人尖叫，孩子们大哭—完全乱成了一遍。
■单个使用或成对使用，用以分隔句中的评语或事后想到的补充说明，例：He knew nothingabout it — or so he said. 他对它一无所知，或者说他如是说。②
用于问句后，例：what’s your name？你的名字叫什么？③
用于感叹句后，how beatufil you are! 你好漂亮啊！④
主要用法如下：
■连字号主要用于某些前缀(如: self-,ex-和 all-) 后和构成复合单词词。例:ex-husband(前夫),brand-new（全新的）,poorly-dressed（衣着破烂的）I have forty-thousand or fifty-thousand dollars.I want to obtain the whole-year or half-year lease of the apartment.■当两个或两个以上复合词并用, 而各复合词连字号后的部分相同时, 各复合词的相同部
分只出现一次，例：the whole-or half-year lease。■当某复合词中出现重复的字母或过多的元音, 使阅读困难时, 可用连字号把前缀和词根
分开，例：non-nuclear, re-use, semi-independent。■构成某些复合数字（在英文写作中，100 以下的数字应该用英文单词写出来，不可用阿
拉伯数字代替），例：twenty-one during the years 1949-1999。■有时, 用作名词的分数可以不用连字号, 但所有用作形容词的分词均须加连字号。
如: one fourth [也可 one-fourth ] of those surveyed。■用于一个词的一部分要移行, 一般按音节间断开单词加连字号（例如：ha-ppy,不可断为
括号（Parentheses，小括号"( )"；中括号"[]"；大括号"{}"①）
省略号（suspension points, “...”②）
英国英语和美国英语标点符号的差异③。
hap-py……）,或根据发音,不要把单个字母留在行尾或行首。注意一页中最后一个单词不能
使用连字号将其置于两页。①
主要用法如下：
■标出表顺序的数字和字母(如: (1) 、(2) 等) 。
■用来表示其中插入的或附加的解释成分。这个插入成分可以是单词、词组或句子。但要
注意,括号会削弱强调作用，因此，如果要强调插入的句子成份,则要用破折号，例：Theymight take a walk together (remember feet) and see the neighborhood with fresh , new eyes.②
其主要用法如下：
■表示直接引语中的省略，如：Max wrote ,"...in one word ,manps consciousness , changes with every change in the conditionsof his material existence...."○句后的省略号和句号的写法应是在一条直线上的四个黑点。前三个黑点表示省略号,后一
个黑点表句号。
■表示说话中的犹豫或迟疑，如："If that the way you think...just go back to school ,"he said.■表示段落或整行词句的省略, 须使用一整行黑点。③
■引号的用法的注意点：
○属于引语的逗号、句号在美国英语中位于引号内，而在英国英语中多位于引号外；○引
语内再套用引语时，美国英语中双引号在外单引号在内，而英国英语中的单引号在外、双
引号在内。
○在美国英语中，如果省略号恰好在句尾，就用四个点，如:I'd like to...that is...if you don'tmind....■冒号用法的注意点：
○在小时与分钟之间，美国英语多用冒号，英国英语多用句号；
○美国英语中，信件或演说词的称呼语之后用冒号，而在英国英语中多用逗号。
280第十八节第十八节第十八节第十八节 构词法构词法构词法构词法
英语单词的构成是有规律，这种规律称为构词法。掌握构词法对我们更好
地理解词义、认识新词和扩大词汇量都有重要意义。英语构词法主要有转化法、
派生法、合成法、混合法、截短法和首尾字母结合法六种①。
一、转化法
英语中，有的名词可作动词，有的形容词可作动词，这种把一种词性用作
另一种词性而词形不变的方法叫作转化法②。
� Let's have a swim.咱们游泳吧。
� We lunched together.我们在一起吃了午餐。
� We will try our best to better our living conditions.我们要尽力改善我们的生活
状况。
二、派生法
在一个词根（base）③的前面或后面加上词缀（affix）, 产生新词，这种构词
法称为派生法（derivation）。我们称加在前面的词缀叫前缀(prefix), 加在后面的
词缀叫后缀(suffix)。
1．前缀
前缀是加在一个词根前面的音节，它并不是独立的单词，但本身有一定含
义，其通常仅改变变原词义。
①还有一种叫反转法（但不常用），即把名词的词尾去掉形成动词，如：editor 变为 edit（编
辑）。②
可以用复合词的概念来帮助理解。③
英语单词构词法的核心部分，在于词根，词的意义主要是由组成单词的词根体现出来的。
词根可以单独构成词，也可以彼此组合成词，通过前缀后缀来改变单词的词性和意义。（词
根和词缀叫构词语素）也就是说，单词一般由三部分组成：词根、前缀和后缀。词根决定
单词意思，前缀改变单词词义，后缀决定单词词性。
� anti-anti-anti-anti-表示""""反对，相反"""" antiwar 反战的（anti+war 战争），antipathy
反感（anti+pathy 感情）
� by-by-by-by-表示""""在旁边，副的"""" byproduct 副产品（by+product 产品）；byway
小道（by+way 小路）
� com-,con-com-,con-com-,con-com-,con-表示""""共同"""" combine 联合，结合(com+bine 捆→捆在一起
→结合)，concentric 同中心的(con+centric 中心的)
2．后缀
后缀是加在一个单词后面的音节，它本身一般也有一定含义，通常改变单
词的词性，有的也可改变词义。
���� -ise-ise-ise-ise 表动词后缀，和-ize-ize-ize-ize相同，是-ize-ize-ize-ize的变体，“…化” memorise
记住（memory 记忆），publicize 宣传（public 公开的）
� -less-less-less-less表形容词,"","","",""无…的，不…的” effortless 不费力的（effort 努力），
homeless 无家可归的（home 家）
� -like-like-like-like表形容词,,,,“像…一样” steellike 钢铁般的（steel 钢），childlike
孩子般的（child 孩子）
� -most 表形容词，“最…的” headmost 最前面的（head 头）outmost 最
外面的（out 外面）
三、合成法
合成法，即将两个或多个单词组合在一起形成一个新词。如：weekweekweekweekend 周末,
manmanmanman-made 人造的, overoveroveroverthrow 推翻，everyeveryeveryeverywhere 到处，anyanyanyanything 任何东西，ininininside
在……里面
四、截短法((((缩略法))))
282截短法，即将单词缩写，词义和词性保持不变，主要有截头、去尾、截
头去尾等形式。如：aeroplane→plane 飞机（截头），lablablablaboratory→lab 实验室（去
尾），influenza→flu 流感（截头去尾）。
五、混合法
混合法，即将两个词混合或各取一部分紧缩而成一个新词。如：news
broadcast→newscast 新闻广播，smoke and fog→smog 烟雾。
六、首尾字母缩略法
首尾字母缩略法，即用单词首尾字母组成一个新词。读音主要有两种形式，
即各字母分别读音；作为一个单词读音。如：very important person→VIP (读字
母音)要人；大人物，television→TV (读字母音)电视。
英语常见词根①、前缀②、后缀
③请见注释（资料均来自百度文库）。
①■常见词根：
ag=do, act 做，动 agent 代理人
agri, agro=agriculture 田地，农田 agriculture 农业，农艺
ann, enn=year 年 annual 每年的，年度的
astro, aster=star 星 astronomy 天文学
audi, audit=hear 听 audible 听得见的
bell=war 战争 rebellion 反叛，反抗
bio, bi=life 生命，生物 biology 生物学
brev=short 短 abbreviate 缩短，节略
ced, ceed=go 行走 precedent 先行的，在前
cept=take 拿，取 exception 例外，除外
circ=ring 环，,圆 circle 圆，圈，环状物
cid, cis=cut, kill 切，杀 suicide 自杀
claim, clam=cry, shout 喊叫 exclaim 呼喊，惊叫
clar=clear 清楚的，明白的 clarify 澄清；使清楚
clud, clus=close, shut 关闭 exclude 排斥，拒绝，接纳
cogn=know 知道 cognition 认知
cord=heart 心 cordial 衷心的，诚心的
corpor, cor=body 体 corporation 团体，社团
cred=believe, trust 相信，信任 credibility 可信，可靠，
cruc=cross 十字 crucify 把……钉在十字桇上；折磨
cur=care 关心，挂念，注意 security 安全
cru, curs, cour, cours=run 跑 cruise 巡航舰
di=day 日 diary 日记
dit=give 给 edit 编辑
dict,dic=say 言，说 dictator 独裁者，口授者
duc, duct=lead 引导 conduct 引导，指导，经营
ed=eat 吃 edible 可以吃的，食用的
ev=age 年龄，时代 longevity 长寿，长命
fact, fac=do, make 做，作 factory 工厂
fer=bring, carry 带，拿 different 不同的，相异的
flor, olour=flower 花 florid 如花的，华丽的
flu=flow 流 fluency 流利，流畅
fus=pour 灌，流，倾泻 refuse 拒绝，拒受
geo=earth 地 geography 地理学
gon=angle 角 trigon 三角形
grad=step, go, grade 步，走，级 gradual 逐步的
gram=write 写 telegram 电报
graph=write, writing 写，画 photograph 照相，拍照
gress=go, walk 行走 progress 进步
hap=chance,luck,accident 机会，偶发 happen 发生，巧遇
hibit=hold 拿，持 exhibit 展出，展览
hospit, hosp=guest 客人 hospitable 好客的
idio=particular, own, private, proper 特殊的，个人的，专有的 idiom 惯用语，方言
insul=island 岛 insular 岛的，偏狭的
it=go 行走 exit 出口，退出
ject=throw 投掷 projection 投掷，发射
lect, leg, lig=choose, gather 选，收 elect 选举
lev=raise 举、升 elevate 抬起，使升高
liber=liberty 自由 liberation 解放
lingu=language 语言 linguist 语言专家
liter=letter 文字，字母 literate 识字的，有文化的
loc=place 地方 local 当地的
log=speak 言，说 dialogue 对话
loqu=speak 言说 eloquent 有口才的，雄辩的
lun=moon 月亮 lunar 月亮的，似月的
nanu, man=hand 手 manuscript 手稿
mar=sea 海 marine 海上的，航海的
medi=middle 中间 mediate 居中调解，调停
memor=memory,mindful 记忆，记住的 memory 记忆，记忆力
milit=soldier 兵 military 军事的，军队的
mini=small,less 小 minimum 最小数
mir=wonder 惊奇，惊异 admire 赞赏，钦佩
mort=death 死 mortal 终有一死的
mot=move 移动 motion 运动，动
nomin=name 名 nominal 名义上的，有名无实的
nov=new 新 novel 新的，新奇的
numer=number 数 numeral 数字，[语]数词
oper=work 工作 operation 手术，工作，操作
ori=rise 升起 orient 东方，东方的
284第十九节第十九节第十九节第十九节 英语不规则动词表英语不规则动词表英语不规则动词表英语不规则动词表paci=peace 和平 pacify 使和平，抚慰
past=feed 喂，食 pasture 放牧、牧场，吃草
pel=push, drive 推，逐，驱 propel 推动
pend, pens=hang 悬挂 pendent 悬空的，悬而未决的
pet=seek 追求 compete 竞争，比赛
phon=sound 声音 phone 电话
plen=full 满，全 plenty 大量，丰富
pone=put 放置 postpone 推后，推迟
popul=people 人民 population 人口，全体居民
port=carry 拿，带，运 import 输入，进口
pos=put 放置 expose 揭露，揭发
preci=price 价值 precious 宝贵的，珍贵的
pur=pure 清，纯 purify 使纯净
rect=right, straight 正，直 correct 改正，纠正
rupt=break 破 rupture 破裂，使裂开
sal=salt 盐 salary 薪水
sci=know 知 science 科学
sec, sequ=follow 跟随 sequence 继续，连续
sect=cut 切割 section 切开，一部分
sent, sens=feel 感觉 sentiment 感情，思想感情
son=sound 声音 sonic 声音的，音速的
spect=look 看 spectate 出席，观看
spir=breathe 呼吸 inspire 鼓舞，吸入
tail=cut 切，割 tailor 裁缝，成衣商
tain, ten=hold 握，持，守 contain 容纳，包含，内装
tect=cover 掩盖 detect 侦查，发觉
tempor=time 时 temporary 暂时的，临时的
tend, tens=draw 拉 tension 拉紧，引力
tent, tract=draw 拉，抽，引 tractor 拖拉机
urb=city 城市 suburb 郊区，近郊
ut=use 用 utility 效用, 有用
vac, vacu=empty 空 vacancy 空白，空虚
vad, vas=walk, go 行走 invasion 入侵，侵略
vari=change 变化 variable 可变的，反复的
ven=come 来 convene 召集（会议），集会
vert, vers=turn 转 subvert 推翻，颠覆
vi, via=way 路 via 取道，经由
vis, vid=see 看 visible 可见的，看得见的
vit=life 生命 vital 充满活力的
viv=live 活 vivid 活泼的，有生气的②
■常见前缀：
一．表示否定的前缀
1．dis－加在名词、形容词，动词之前。
disadvantage（缺点）dishonorable（不光彩的）disagree（不同意）
2．in-加在形容词，名词之前
incorrect（不正确的），inability（无能，无力），inaccurate（不准确的）
3．im-加在字母 m,b,p 之前
impossible（不顺能的），impolite（不礼貌的），impudence（厚颜无耻）
4．il-加在以 1 开头的词前
illegal（非法的），illiterate（文盲的，无文化的）illogical（不合逻辑的）
5．ir-加在以 r 开头的词前
irregular（不稳定的），irresistable（不可抵抗的），irresolvable（不能分解的，不能解决的）
6．un-加在名词，形容词，副词之前
unfinished（未完成的）undoubted（无疑的）unemployment（失业）
7．non-加在形容词，名词前
non-existence（不存在），non-essential（不主要的），non-electrical（非电的）
8．mis－加在动词、名词之前
misunderstand（误解），misjudge（误判），misleading（误导），misfortune（不幸）
9．dis-加地动词之前
disappear（消失），disarm（解除武装），disconnect（失去联系）
10．de-加在名词，形容词之前
demobilize(遣散；使…复员) decolor (脱色, 漂白)11．anti-加在名词、形容词之前
anti-Japanese（抗日战争），anti-social（厌恶社会的，反社会的），antidite（解毒药）
12．counter-加在名词、动词前
counterattack（反攻，反击），counteract（抵抗，阻碍）counterrevolution（反革命）
二.表示“前 before”的前缀
1．pre-preconception（成见），pre-exsiting（先于……而存在的），pre-selection（选举前的） preface（前言）
2．Ante-anteroom（前室，接待室），antecessor（先行者，先驱者）
3．Fore-forehaed（前额），foreground（前景），foreman（工头，领班），foresee（预见，先见），foretell（预言）
4．Pro-programme（计划），prologue（序幕）
5．Ex-ex-president（前任总统）ex-wife（前妻）
三.表示“后－post”的前缀
1．post-post-war（战后），post-plsition（后置词），postmeridian（下午）
四．表示“低”、“下”的前缀
1．Hypo-Hypocrisy（伪善，虚伪），hypothesis（假设），pypocholoride（次氯酸盐）
2．Infra-Infra-red（红外线），infrahuman（低于人类的），infrasonic（亚声的，次声的）
3．Sub-Sub-editou（副编辑），sub-way（地铁），sub-conscious（下意识的），submarine（海下的），
subtropical（亚热带的），subtitle（副标题）
五．表示“回”、“再次”、“向后”的前缀
286
1．Re-Refuel（给…加油），retranslate（再译），reinforce（加强），reconstruct（重建），return（返
回）
2．Retro-Retrograde（倒退的），retrospect（回顾）
六．表示“共同”、“和”的前缀
1．Co-co-exist(共存)，co-operate（合作），co-education（男女同校）
七．表示“相互”、“之间”的前缀
1．Inter-Interchangeble（可互换的），interdipendert（互相依靠的），international（国际的），inter-national（交往）
八. 表示“出”、“超出”的前缀
1．Ec-Eclipse（蚀），ecstasy（狂想）
2．Extra-Extraordinary（非凡的），extramural（校外的），extrasensory（超感觉的）
九.表示“超过”的前缀
1．hyper-, preter-, super-, sur-, ultra-hyper-sensitive（过敏的），preterhuman（超人的）
十．其它的前缀
1．auto-自automatic（自动的），auto-autobilgraphy（自传）
2．mal-坏，恶
Malnutrition（营养不良），maltreat（虐待）
3．Micro-Microscope（显微镜），microtome（切片机）
4．Tele-远Telegram（电报），telephone（电话），telescope（望远镜）
5．Demi-,semi-hemi-Semi-circle（半圆），hemisphere（半球），demilune（半月，新月）
6．Uni-, mono-（单一, 单独）
Monotone（单调），monologue（独白），uniform（制服）
7．Bi-,di-二Biyearly（二年一次的），biweekly（二周一次的），dichloride（二氯化物）
8．Tri-三Triangle（三角），tripld（三角架）
9．Multi-多multi-colored（颜色多样的），multi-national（多国的）
10．Poly –多Polygon(多角形)，polytomic(多原子的)11．Arch－首领
archbishop（大主教），architect（建筑师）
12．bene-善，好
benefit（利益），benevolence（善意）
13．homo-同
homosexual（同性恋的），homograph（同形异义字）
14．neo 新
neo-colonialism(新殖民主义)，neolithic（新石器时代的）
15．ortho-正确，直
orthogonal（直角的），orthodox（正统）
16．philo-挚爱
philosopher（哲学家）
17．proto-原始
protohydrogen（初氢），prototype（原型），protoplasm（原生质）
18．pseudo-假的, 伪的, 冒充的
pseudonym（匿名），pseudo-communism（假共产主义）
19．a-,ab-,abs-（只有在 t,c 之前）从，自
avoid（避免），absent（缺少的），abstain（抑制），abstract（吸引）
20．Apo-,aph-来自
apology（道歉，谢罪），apostle（倡言者，先驱）
21．se-分离
separation（分开），secure（安全的），sedition（煽动叛乱）
22．para-防parachute（降落伞），
23．omni-所有的，公共的
omnibus（公共汽车），omnipotence（万能）
24．pan-全，泛
Pan-American（全美的），pancean（万灵药），panorama（风景的全貌;万花筒）
25．panto-全pantisocracy（乌托邦大同世界），pantoscopic（视野广大）
26．dia-通过，借以
diagonal（对角的），diagnosis（诊断），dialogue（对话）
27．Per-通过，彻底，不利
perambrlate（走来走去），perfect 极好的
28.trans-通过，横过
transcript（抄本, 副本; 记录），translation（翻译），trxnsparent（透明的），transport（运输），
trans-plant（移植）
29．Com-,con-,cor-,col-共同，和，完全
comment（评论），compile（编辑），correlation（相互关系），collect（收集），corruption（贪
污腐败），collaborate（合作，合著）
30．syn-共同
synonym（同义词），synchronization（同步），syntonic（谐振的），synthetic（人工的，合
成的）
31．meta-和，在……之后
metaphor（比喻），metaphysics（形而上学）
32．Cis-在这一边
cisatlantic（大西洋这边的）
33．pen-几乎，相近
peninsular（.住在半岛上的居民,半岛(状)的, 形成半岛的）
34．en-,em-往……里，使……encamp（扎营），enable(使……能)，endear（使……受喜爱）,embrace（拥抱,抓住(机会)）
288原形 过去式 过去分词
35．intro 内在
intracardiac（心脏内部的），intramolecular（分子内部的），intracelular（细胞内部的）
36．intro-到……中
introduce（介绍），introspect（反省，内省）
37．dys-坏dyspepsia（消化不良），dysentry（痢疾）
38．Eu-优，美好
eulogy（颂词），euphony（悦耳的声音）
39．ambi-,amphi-两者
amphibian（两栖的），ambidextrous（两只手都很灵巧的;心怀二意的;非常灵巧的）
40．penta-五pentagon（五角大楼），pentagram（五角星），pentameter（五步诗句）
41．sex-六sexangle（六角），sexennial（六年一度的）
42． sept-七September 九月（古罗马的七月），septennial（七年一度）
43．hepta-七heptab（七个成套之物）,heptagon（七角形）
44．octa-,octo,oct 八octagon（八角形），octuple（八倍）October (十月)45．nona-,ennea-九nonagon（九角形），ennead（九个一组）
46．deci-,deca-十decimal（十进位的），decagramme（十克）
47．centi-百centimeter（厘米），centipede（蜈蚣）
48．milli-千millenias（千年的），millimeter（毫米）
49．Kilo-千kilowatt（千瓦），kilometer（千米）
③■常见后缀：
一、名词后缀
常见的此类后缀及其具体含义如下：
1．-ster，-eer，-er（or）意为：从事某种职业或参与某种活动的人（person engaged in anoccupation or activity）例词：gamester，gangster，songster，engineer，profiteer，mountaineer，auctioneer，driver，teacher，director，actor，professor2．-let 意为：小或者不重要的东西（small，unimportant things）例词：booklet，leaflet，starlet3．-ette 意为：1）小的东西（small）例词：cigarette 2）假的东西（imitation）例词：leatherette3）女性（female）例词： usherette4．-ess 意为：女性（female）例词：actress，poetess，hostess，paintress5．-hood 意为：时期（status；etc．）例词：boyhood，childhood，manhood6．-ship 意为：才能，状态，资格，品质等（skill，state，condition，status，quality）例词：
leadership，friendship，membership，lectureship，sportsmanship7．-ful 意为：量（the amount which noun contains）例词：cupful，handful， mouthful，spoonful
abide abode, abided abode, abided8．-tion，-ion 意为：1）状态，行动等（state；action；etc．）例词：action，oppression，possession，
education，starva- tion 2）机构等（institution；etc．）例词： organization，foundation9．-ment 意为：状态，行动等（state； action；etc．）例词：movement，enslavement，pavement10．-al 意为：动作（action）例词：arrival，refusal，revival，recital，removal11．-age 意为：程度，数量等（extent； amount；etc．）例词：wastage，coverage， acreage，
shrinkage，breakage，hostage12．-ness；-ity（ty）意为：状态，品质（state；quality；etc．）例词：happiness， usefulness，
selfishness，kindness，rapidity，activity，sanity，changeability13．-ism 意为：道义，主义，学说等（doctrine of，practice of）例词：idealism， impressionism，
absenteeism，racism二、动词后缀
常见的此类后缀及其具体含义如下：
1．-ify 意为：转为，变为（to turn into，to make or become）例词：beautify， diversify，simplify2．-ize；-en 意为：使……，变得……（to make or become ；to make into）例词：modernize，
popularize，legalize，hospitalize，symbolize，ripen，widen，heighten，threaten3．-ate 意为：增加，使……（give or add，make or become）例词：originate， hydrogenate，
validate，differentiate三、形容词后缀：
常见的此类后缀及其具体含义如下：
1．-ful 意为：充满，有（full of；hav- ing；giving；etc．）例词：useful，pitiful， hopeful，helpful，forgetful，thankful， fearful2．-less 意为：没有，无（without；not giving）例词：speechless，childless，harmless，hopeless，meaningless3．-ly 意为：有……品质的（having the qualities of）例词：beastly，manly， brotherly，friendly4．-like 意为：像……的（like）例词： childlike，statesmanlike，tiger-like5．-y；-ish 意为：像……一般的（somewhat like）例词：meaty，sandy， silky，hairy，leafy，
watery，foolish，girlish，blackish，thinnish6．-some 意为：像……一样的；引起……的；有……品质的（like；causing； having the qualityof）例词：troublesome，burdensome，wholesome，tiresome，bothersome7．-able（ible）意为：能……的；可以……的（able to be ；capable）例词： changeable，
readable，drinkable，comfortable，expansible，convincible8．-ed 意为：有……的（having，etc．）例词：wooded，pointed，moneyed， odd-shaped9．-al 意为：有……属性的，……类型的（nature of，typical of）例词：cultural，personal，regional，musical10．-ary（ory）意为：属于……的，与……相连的（belonging to；connected with）例词：
revolutionary，imaginary， contradictory11．-ous 意为：富含……的；有……品质的；像……的（full of；having the quality of；like）
例词：glorious，erroneous，malicious，gracious12．-ic（ical）意为：……类的；属于……的（typical of；belonging to）例词： historic，historical，methodic，methodical，dramatic，heroic13．-ive 意为：有……属性的；有某种倾向的（having the nature or quality of；given or tendingto）例词：attractive， talkative，restrictive，defensive，preventive，constructive，sensitive四、其它后缀
常见的此类后缀及其具体含义如下：
1．-ly 意为：以……方式（in a...manner；etc．）
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alight alighted, alit alighted, alit
arise arose arisen
awake awoke awoke, awaked
be was, were been
bear bore borne, born
beat beat beaten
become became become
befall befell befallen
beget begot begotten, begot
begin began begun
behold beheld beheld
bend bent bent
bereave bereaved, bereft bereaved, bereft
beseech besought, beseeched besought, beseeched
beset beset beset
bespeak bespoke bespoken, bespoke
bespread bespread bespread
例词：happily， boldly，attentive- ly，strangely2．-ward（s）意为：表示方式或动作的方向（manner and direction of movement）例词：onward（s），backward（s），earthward（s），homeward（s），eastward（s）3．-wise 意为：1）按照……方式（in the manner of）例词：crabwise，clockwise2）就……而言（as far as ...is concerned）例词：weatherwise ，educationwise
bestrew bestrewed bestrewed, bestrewn
bestride bestrode bestridden, bestrid, bestrode
bet bet, betted bet, betted
betake betook betaken
bethink bethought bethought
bid bade, bid bidden, bid
bide bode, bided bided
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten, bit
bleed bled bled
blend blended, blent blended, blent
bless blessed, blest blessed, blest
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast, broadcasted broadcast, broadcasted
browbeat browbeat browbeaten
build built built
burn burnt, burned burnt, burned
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burst burst burst
buy bought bought
can could -
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
chide chid, chided chid, chidden, chided
choose chose chosen
cleave cleaved, cleft, clove cleaved, cleft
cleave clave cloven
cling clung clung
clothe clothed, clad clothed, clad
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
crow crowed, crew crowed
cut cut cut
dare dared, durst dared
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
dispread dispread dispread
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed, dreamt dreamed, dreamt
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
fly fled fled
fly flied flied
forbear forbore forborne
forbid forbade, forbad forbidden
294
forecast forecast, forecasted forecast, forecasted
fordo fordid fordone
forego forewent foregone
foreknow foreknew foreknown
forerun foreran forerun
foresee foresaw foreseen
foreshow foreshowed foreshown
foretell foretold foretold
forget forgot forgotten, forgot
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
forswear forswore forsworn
freeze froze frozen
gainsay gainsaid gainsaid
get got got, gotten
gild gilded, gilt gilded
gird girded, girt girded, girt
give gave given
go went gone
grave graved graven, graved
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
hamstring hamstringed, hamstrung hamstringed, hamstrung
hang hung hung
hang hanged hanged
have had had
hear heard heard
heave heaved, hove heaved, hove
hew hewed hewed, hewn
hide hid hidden, hid
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
inlay inlaid inlaid
keep kept kept
kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled
knit knitted, knit knitted, knit
know knew known
lade laded laded, laden
296
lay laid laid
lead led led
lean leaned, leant leaned, leant
leap leapt, leaped leapt, leaped
learn learnt, learned learnt, learned
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
lie lied lied
light lit lit
light lighted lighted
lose lost lost
make made made
may might -
mean meant meant
meet met met
melt melted melted, melten
misdeal misdealt misdealt
misgive misgave misgiven
mislay mislaid mislaid
mislead misled misled
mistake mistook mistaken
misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood
mow mowed mowed, mown
must must -
ought ought -
outbid outbade, outbid outbidden, outbid
outbreed outbred outbred
outdo outdid outdone
outeat outate outeaten
outfight outfought outfought
outgo outwent outgone
outgrow outgrew outgrown
outlay outlaid outlaid
outride outrode outridden
outrun outran outrun
outsell outsold outsold
outshine outshone outshone
298
outshoot outshot outshot
outsit outsat outsat
outspend outspent outspent
outspread outspread outspread
outthrow outthrew outthrown
outthrust outthrust outthrust
outwear outwore outworn
overbear overbore overborne
overbid overbid overbidden, overbid
overblow overblew overblown
overbuild overbuilt overbuilt
overbuy overbought overbought
overcast overcast overcast
overcome overcame overcome
overdo overdid overdone
overdraw overdrew overdrawn
overdrive overdrove overdriven
overeat overate overeaten
overfeed overfed overfed
overfly overflew overflown
overgrow overgrew overgrown
overhang overhung overhung
overhear overheard overheard
overlade overladed overladed, overladen
overlay overlaid overlaid
overleap overleapt, overleaped overleapt, overleaped
overlie overlay overlain
overpay overpaid overpaid
override overrode overridden
overrun overran overrun
oversee oversaw overseen
oversell oversold oversold
overset overset overset
oversew oversewed oversewed, oversewn
overshoot overshot overshot
oversleep overslept overslept
overspend overspent overspent
overspread overspread overspread
overtake overtook overtaken
300
overthrow overthrew overthrown
overwind overwound overwound
overwrite overwrote overwritten
partake partook partaken
pay paid paid
precast precast precast
prechoose prechose prechosen
prove proved proved, proven
put put put
quit quitted, quit quitted, quit
read read read
reave reaved, reft reaved, reft
rebuild rebuilt rebuilt
recast recast recast
reeve rove, reeved rove, reeved
relay relaid relaid
rend rent rent
repay repaid repaid
reset reset reset
retell retold retold
rid rid, ridded rid, ridded
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
rive riven riven, rived
run ran run
saw sawed sawn, sawed
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew sewed sewn, sewed
shake shook shaken
shall should -
shave shaved shaved, shaven
shear sheared shorn, sheared
shed shed shed
302
shine shone, shined shone, shined
shoe shod, shoed shod, shoed
shoot shot shot
show showed shown, showed
shred shredded, shred shredded, shred
shrink shrank, shrunk shrunk, shrunken
shrive shrove, shrived shriven, shrived
shut shut shut
sing sang, sung sung
sink sank, sunk sunk, sunken
sit sat sat
slay slew slain
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid, slidden
sling slung slung
slink slunk slunk
slit slit slit
smell smelt, smelled smelt, smelled
smite smote smitten, smote
sow sowed sown, sowed
speak spoke spoken
speed sped, speeded sped, speeded
spell spelt, spelled spelt, spelled
spend spent spent
spill spilt, spilled spilt, spilled
spin spun spun
spit spat, spit spat, spit
split split split
spoil spoilt, spoiled spoilt, spoiled
spread spread spread
spring sprang, sprung sprung
stand stood stood
stave staved, stove staved, stove
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stank, stunk stunk
strew strewed strewn, strewed
stride strode stridden, strid
304
strike struck struck, stricken
string strung strung
strive strove, strived striven, strived
swear swore sworn
sweat sweat, sweated sweat, sweated
sweep swept swept
swell swelled swollen, swelled
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
thrive throve, thrived thriven, thrived
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trodden, trod
unbend unbent unbent
unbind unbound unbound
unbuild unbuilt unbuilt
underbid underbid underbidden, underbid
underbuy underbought underbought
undercut undercut undercut
underdo underdid underdone
underfeed underfed underfed
undergo underwent undergone
underlay underlaid underlaid
underlet underlet underlet
underlie underlay underlain
underpay underpaid underpaid
underrun underran underrun
undersell undersold undersold
underset underset underset
undershoot undershot undershot
understand understood understood
undertake undertook undertaken
underwrite underwrote underwritten
undo undid undone
306
undraw undrew undrawn
unfreeze unfroze unfrozen
ungird ungirded, ungirt ungirded, ungirt
unhang unhung unhung
unknit unknitted, unknit unknitted, unknit
unlade unladed unladed, unladen
unlay unlaid unlaid
unlearn unlearnt, unlearned unlearnt, unlearned
unmake unmade unmade
unreeve unrove, unreeved unrove, unreeved
unsay unsaid unsaid
unset unset unset
unsling unslung unslung
unspeak unspoke unspoken
unstick unstuck unstuck
unstring unstrung unstrung
unswear unswore unsworn
unteach untaught untaught
unthink unthought unthought
untread untrod untrodden, untrod
unweave unwove unwoven
unwind unwound unwound
upbuild upbuilt upbuilt
upcast upcast upcast
uphold upheld upheld
uppercut uppercut uppercut
uprise uprose uprisen
upset upset upset
upsweep upswept upswept
upswing upswung upswung
wake waked, woke waked, woken, woke
waylay waylaid waylaid
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
wed wedded, wed wedded, wed
weep wept wept
wet wetted, wet wetted, wet
will would -
win won won
308
wind winded, wound winded, wound
wit wist wist
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
withhold withheld withheld
withstand withstood withstood
work worked worked
work wrought wrought
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written
第二十节第二十节第二十节第二十节 感叹词感叹词感叹词感叹词
感叹词（interjection, interj.）是用来表示说话时表达的喜怒哀乐等情感的词
（如：Oh my God! Shit;Damn; Whoops; Ouch!）。它不构成后面句子的一个语法
成分，却在意义上与它有关连，后面的句子一般说明这种情绪的性质、原因。
如：
*God, what a stupid thing to do! 天哪, 多么愚蠢的事呀!
*Damn! I've lost my pen. 倒霉! 我钢笔丢了。
*Whoops! I nearly dropped the tray. 哎哟! 我差点儿把托盘弄掉了。
感叹词较为简单这里不再多叙。
310第十一章第十一章第十一章第十一章 部分传统英语语法概念部分传统英语语法概念部分传统英语语法概念部分传统英语语法概念
在前面的章节中我们对对象英语语法有了一个全面的认识，但对于学习传
统语法的英语学习者来说，要认识、学习、理解一种全新的语法体系显然不容
易。为解决这一问题，作者在这一部分将简单介绍一下传统语法中的一些重要
概念，以帮助读者实现理解上的转变（当然你也可以完全忽略这一部分）。
第一节第一节第一节第一节 句子成分概说句子成分概说句子成分概说句子成分概说
根据传统英语语法①，句子成分是句子中起一定功用的一个组成部分。句子
是由各个句子成分所构成的。英语句子共有8 种句子成分：
1） 主语：它是一句的主体，是全句所述说的对象。
例：The watchwatchwatchwatch is beautiful. 手表很漂亮。
2） 谓语或谓语动词：它是述说主语的动作或状态的。
例：Tom isisisis clearningclearningclearningclearning the room. 汤姆正在打扫房子。
3） 宾语②：即及物动词的动作对象或介词所联系的对象。
①注意下面的传统语法概念多引自《薄冰高级英语语法》，世界知识出版社 2000 版，以后
引用就不一一说明了。② I gave him a book. 我给了他一本书。
传统语法认为，这里的 him 是间接宾语, a watch 是直接宾语, 这种间接宾语和直接宾
语同时出现的情况叫双宾语，或宾补。双宾语由直接宾语和间接宾语组成。直接宾语是谓
语动词的承受者，间接宾语表示谓语动作的方向（对谁做）或动作的目标（为谁做），间
接宾语紧接在谓语动词后，但它不能单独存在。它和直接宾语组成双宾语。常用的能接双
宾语的及物动词有：give, teach, buy, lend, find, hand, leave, sell, show, read, pay, make, offer,build, pass, bring, cook，如：Please show me your passport. 请出示你的护照。I’ll fetch you achair.我给你拿一只椅子。（a chair 是直接宾语，you 是间接宾语）
间接宾语可以用一个由 to 表示动作方向）或 for 表示动作目标）引起的短语来表示。这时，
间接宾语置于直接宾语之后。我们可以把上面例句改写为：Please show your passport to me.*I'll fetch a chair for you.○下面几种情况，通常要用介词 to 或 for 引起的短语：
例：I knock the doordoordoordoor. 我敲门。The note is in the bookbookbookbook. 便条夹在书里。
4） 表语：表示主语的的身份或特征，置于系动词之后。
例：He is a singer.singer.singer.singer. 他是个歌唱家。The elephant is bigbigbigbig. 这头象很大。
5） 定语①：它是限定或修饰名词或相当于名词的词，常由形容词或相当于形
容词的短语或从句但任。形容词常置于名词之前，相当于形容词的短语或
从句置于名词之后。
例：
� The littlelittlelittlelittle girl is in the bedroom. 小女孩在卧室里。
� The tiger inininin thethethethe cagecagecagecage is white. 笼子里的老虎是白色的。
� The girl wearingwearingwearingwearing aaaa hathathathat slept. 戴帽子的女孩睡着了。
� The girl drinkingdrinkingdrinkingdrinking waterwaterwaterwater is beautiful. 正在喝水的那个女孩漂亮。
� The girl totototo comecomecomecome is Lily. 要来的那个女孩叫莉莉。
� The dog which/thatwhich/thatwhich/thatwhich/that isisisis inininin thethethethe roomroomroomroom is mad. 屋子里那条狗是疯的。
� The person whomwhomwhomwhom/that/that/that/that IIII sawsawsawsaw was a coach. 我看到的那个人是位教练。
6） 状语：它是修饰动词、形容词、副词以及全句的，常由副词或相当于副词
的短语或从句担作任。
■当直接宾语是人称代词（it／them），间接宾语是名词时：或两个宾语都是人称代词时。
如：The watch is Tom’s. Please give it to him. 这块手表是汤姆的。请把它给他。
■当强调间接宾语时。如：Mother cooks breakfast for us every day. 母亲每天都为我们做早
饭。
■当间接宾语比直接宾语长时。如：On the bus, he often gives his seat to an old person. 在公
共汽车上，他经常把座位让给老人
○带有双宾语（直接宾语和间接宾语）的主动句变为动句，其主语可以是直接宾语，
也可以是间接宾语。如：He lent me a pen.→被动：1）I was lent a pen(by him). 2）A pen waslent to me(by him). （注：当 cost，promise，wish 等带双宾时，不能变成被动态）①
按照传统语法，形容词的两个基本句法功能就是作定语和表语，但有的形容词只能作定
语（如：live, main, chief），有些形容词却只能作表语 [很多以 a－开头的形容词，如 asleep，
afraid，awake，alone，aware，alive， ablaze 等。这类形容词（是复合词）之所以不能作
定语用是因为在历史上，形容词中的 a－原为介词，作 in（在之中）解，所以其本质上是
一个介词短语] ，请在以后的学习中多积累（注意多运用复合词的概念帮助理解）。
312例：
� The students sing inininin thethethethe classroomclassroomclassroomclassroom. 学生们在教室唱歌。
� The teachers meet inininin thethethethe morning.morning.morning.morning. 老师们早上会面。
� I do it inininin thisthisthisthis way.way.way.way. 我按照这种方式做。
� The cake is made bybybyby me.me.me.me. 我做了这个蛋糕。
� Jim knocked the door withwithwithwith aaaa stick.stick.stick.stick. 吉姆用棍子敲门。
� He was veryveryveryvery angry. 他非常生气。
� WhenWhenWhenWhen hehehehe sawsawsawsaw her,her,her,her, he waved. 他一看见她就摆了摆手
� I carefullycarefullycarefullycarefully examined the machine. 我仔细地检察了机器。
7） 补语：它是用来补充主语和宾语的意义的，一般都着重于说明主语或宾语
的身份或特征。
例：
� I made him crycrycrycry. 我弄得他哭了。
� I saw him walkwalkwalkwalk acrossacrossacrossacross thethethethe road.road.road.road. 我看到他过马路。
� We consider him aaaa goodgoodgoodgood teacher.teacher.teacher.teacher. 我们认为他是一个好老师。
� He is said totototo bebebebe aaaa goodgoodgoodgood teacher.teacher.teacher.teacher. 据说他是个好老师。
� I saw Mary playingplayingplayingplaying basketball.basketball.basketball.basketball. 我看到玛丽在打篮球。
� They were considered totototo bebebebe men.men.men.men. 人们认为他们是男人。
� She described Gary asasasas shy.shy.shy.shy. 据她描述，加里有些害羞。
� He ordered the gate totototo bebebebe opened.opened.opened.opened. 他命令把大门打开。
� She cut the meat intointointointo cubes.cubes.cubes.cubes. 她把肉切成小块。
� He woke to find everybody gone.gone.gone.gone. 他醒来后发现竟然所有的人都走了。
� They entered the building disguised asasasas cleaners.cleaners.cleaners.cleaners. 他们化装成清洁工人的模
样进入大楼。
8） 同位语：当两个指同一事物的句子成分放在同等位置时，一个句子成分可
被用来说明或解释另一个句子成分，前者就叫做后者的同位语。这两个句
子成分多由名（代）词担任任。两者的语法形式相同，但功用不同。同位
语通常多放在其所说明的名（代）词之后。
例：
� The headmaster of the school, PeterPeterPeterPeter, is kind. 这所学校的校长彼得很善良。
我们可以看到对象英语语法可以很好地解释传统语法中各种句子成分概
念。
314第二节第二节第二节第二节 动词动词动词动词
传统语法称表示动作或状态的词为动词。
根据其在句中的功能，动词可分为四类，分别是：实义动词、系动词、助
动词、情态助动词①。
动词根据其后是否带有宾语，可分为两类，分别是：及物动词、不及物动
词。
动词根据是否受主语的人称和数的限制，可分两类，分别是：限定动词、
非限定动词②③
。
①☆http://baike.baidu.com/view/1114719.htm.
动词按其基本词汇意义可以分为动态动词（Dynamic Verb)和静态动词（Stative Verb)。 静
态动词表示一种静止状态，包括“存在”和“拥有”的动词，如 be,have, own, belong, exist,hold(容纳）等；表示度量的动词，如 cost, weigh, measure 等；表示五官感觉的动词，如 see,hear, taste, smell, feel 等；以及 表示心理状态的动词，如 believe, think, know, remember,forget, understand, love, like ,hate, detest(讨厌）等。
一般来说，静态动词是不能用于进行时，因为他们不是一个持续的动作，但是当进行时与
频度的词 always，constantly，continually，forever 等连用时，此时静态动词也是可以有进
行时态的，因为此时表示的是令人不满的或者厌烦的事。如: You're always seeing somethingstrange. 你总是看奇怪的东西。I'm continually forgetting people's name. 我总是忘记别人的
名字。②
如：She sings very well. 她唱得很好。（sing 受主语 she 的限制，故用第三人称单数形式
sings。）*She wants to learn English well. 她想学好英语。（to learn 不受主语 she 的限制，没
有词形变化，是非限定动词。）
英语中共有三种非限定动词，分别是：动词不定式、动名词、分词。③
☆以下用法引自：http://zhidao.baidu.com/question/112091450.html动词不定式和动名词均可在及物动词后面作宾语,但在使用过程中应注意以下几点（显然按
照对象英语语法作宾语这种说话并不准确）:■依照惯用法, agree, choose, decide, hope, fail, wish, refuse, expect, manage, plan, intend,pretend, promise, offer, afford, demand 和 arrange 等及物动词后面常接动词不定式作宾语｡例
如: What did they decide to do? 他们决定干什么? *She failed to come to school yesterday.她昨天没来上学｡ *I hope to be back soon. 我希望早点回家｡
■依照惯用法, finish, enjoy, mind, keep, miss, avoid, consider, imagine, practise, delay, escape,excuse, allow, suggest 等及物动词后面常接动名词作宾语｡例如: We can finish building thebridge before the end of next month. 我们可以在下个月底之前建好这座桥｡ *Would youmind opening the window? 请您开一下窗户,好吗?■依照惯用法, prefer, hate, begin, start, continue, cease 等及物动词后面跟动词不定式与跟动
名词作宾语,意义上没有多大的差别｡例如: After the teacher left the classroom, the studentsbegan to do/doing their homework. 老师离开教室后,学生们开始做作业｡ *They continued toread/reading English. 他们继续读英语｡
根据动词的组成形式，可分为三类，分别是：单字词①、短语动词、动词短
但在下列情况下,宜用动词不定式作宾语,而不用动名词｡
○like, love, prefer, hate 等与 would 或 should 连用时｡例如: I’d prefer to stay home towatch TV. 我宁可呆在家里看电视｡
○begin, start, continue 等本身用的是进行体时｡例如: She was starting to do her homework.她开始做作业｡
○begin, start, cease, continue的主语是物而不是人时｡例如: It began/started to rain. 天开始下
雨｡ *The ice ceased to melt(融化) in winter. 冬季冰不再融化｡
○begin 等及物动词后接 know, understand, realize 等表示心理状态的动词｡例如: They beganto realize the importance of learning a foreign language well. 他们开始意识到学好一门外语的
重要性｡
■下列动词后面既可接动词不定式作宾语,也可接动名词作宾语,但两种结构的意义有区别:○remember, forget, regret 等后接动词不定式作宾语时,说明动词不定式表示的动作发生在
后, remember 等动词表示的动作发生在前;这些动词后接动名词作宾语时,说明动名词表示
的动作发生在前, remember 等动词表示的动作发生在后｡试比较: She told me to go and lockthe door. She didn’t remember locking the door after supper. 她叫我去锁门,她不记得晚饭后锁
过门了｡ *Remember to turn off all the lights when you leave the classroom. 你离开教室时,别忘记把所有的灯关掉｡
○try, mean, can’t help, go on 等动词后接动词不定式和动名词时,意义有明显的差别:○try 后面的动词不定式是表目的, try to do sth 意为“尽力做某事”; try 后面的动名
词是作宾语, try doing sth 意为“尝试做某事”｡例如: He tried not to be late for the meeting. 他
争取开会不迟到｡ *The soup is a little salty. Try adding some water to it. 汤咸了点,加点水试
试看｡
○mean 后面的动词不定式和动名词都是作宾语｡ mean to do sth 意为“打算(意图)做某事”;mean doing sth 意为“意味着做某事”｡例如: They didn’t mean to go and help you. 他们不打算
去帮助你们｡ *His words meant going to help you without delay. 他的话意味着他将毫不迟疑
地前去帮助你们｡
○help 后面的动词不定式和动名词都是作宾语｡ can’t help to do sth 意为“不能帮忙做某事”;can’t help doing sth 意为“禁不住去做某事,情不自禁地做某事”｡例如: I’m sorry I can’t help toclean the room. 对不起,我不能帮助打扫房间｡ *They couldn’t help laughing when they heardthe joke. 听到这个笑话,他们不禁大笑起来｡
○go on 后面的动词不定式是作目的状语｡ go on to do sth 意为“接下去做另一件
事”; go on 后面的动名词是作宾语｡ go on doing sth 意为“继续做同一件事”｡例如: They wenton to do some exercises after reading the text. 读完课文后,他们接着做练习｡ *We went ondoing our homework after he left. 他走后我们继续做作业｡
■need, want, require 等动词后面跟动名词的主动形式和跟动词不定式的被动式,都表示被
动意义｡试比较: The problem requires solving/to be solved immediately. 这个问题需要立即予
以解决｡
■stop 之后的动名词为宾语, stop 之后的动词不定式为目的状语｡试比较: We stoppedworking. 我们停止工作｡ *We stopped to have a rest. 我们停下来休息一下｡ *When it beganto rain, we stopped working to have a rest. 天开始下雨,我们停止工作,休息一下｡①如：The English language contains many phrasal verbs and verbal phrases. 英语里有许多短语
动词和动词短语。（contains 是单字动词。）
316语
①。
①下面部分引自百度文库课件：英语短语动词和动词短语的区别
传统语法认为：短语动词(Phrasal Verbs)与动词短语(Verb Phrases)在英语里是两个不同的概
念。短语动词是一种固定习语，一般由动词加小品词(副词或介词)构成；而动词短语是一
种自由词组，是由动词加介词构成的短语结构。英语里有些动词与介词或副词构成短语动
词后表达一个概念，其作用和意义相当于一个单独的动词，可当及物动词或不及物动词使
用。如：arrive at=reach ■call on=visit■come about =happen■care for=like■go up=rise■keep on=continue■make out=understand■put off=postpone■ring up=telephone在意义上，这两种动词具有共同特点，即它们所表示的意义不是动词和副词或介词各自词
义的简单结合，而往往相当于一个实意动词，但短语动词与动词短语归根到底不是同一个
概念，在用法上，二者还是有着本质的区别，这一点从以下几个方面体现：
1）能否接宾语
动词短语相当于一个及物动词，其后 要接宾语意义才完整；而短语动词并不全都接宾语。
如：We should pay much attention to the environment protection. 该句中如果去掉介词宾语 theenvironment protection，句子就变成了 We should pay much attention to，从意义上讲是一个
病句。
而短语动词用在及物句中可以接宾语，用在不及物句中则不能接宾语。如：It took mea while to adapt to the new job. 是一个及物句，因为动词短语 adapt to 后面接了 the new job。
但 The fire went out at 10 o’clock.是一个不及物句，因为该句是一个完整的句子，动词短语
went out 后无需宾语。
2）宾语的位置
动词短语接宾语时，无论宾语是代词还是名词，都只能放在介词之后。如： He takesafter his mother /her. 但我们不能说 He takes his mother after，也不能说 He takes her after. 再
如：The schoolgirl looked quickly at the price list. 我们不能说 The schoolgirl looked quicklythe price list at.
而及物的短语动词则不同，接代词作宾语时，宾语要放在动词和副词之间；接名词作
宾语时，宾语可以放在动词和副词之间，也可以放在动词与副词之后。如：Another wavecame, sweeping down a lot of trees and sweeping her down too. 该句中，a lot of trees 是一个
名词词组，可以放在短语动词 sweep与副词 down之间，也可以放在动词 sweep与副词 down之后，但 her 是一个宾格代词，必须放在动词 sweep 与副词 down 之间。
3）关于其被动结构
动词短语可以接宾语，所以大部分含有动词短语的句子都可以变为被动语态。如：Theyare talking about their new teacher. 如果我们把这一句话改为被动语态，就变成了：Their newteacher is being talked about by them. 但并非所有含有动词短语的句子都可以变为被动语
态，因为英语中有不少动词短语用主动形式表达被动意义。如：This car belongs to a ladycalled Linda. 该句中 belong to 就不用于被动。又如：Great changes have taken place in Chinain recent years. 但不能说 Great changes have been taken place in China in recent years. 再如：
The Second World War broke out in 1939. 但我们不能说：The Second World War was brokenout in 1939.
同样的，并不是所有的短语动词都能用于被动句，而只有及物的短语动词才能用于被
动句。The boss turned down the workers’ demand for higher pay. 此句中 turn down 是一个加
了宾语的短语动词，可以变成一个被动句：The workers’ demand for higher pay was turneddown by the boss. 再看下面的句子：She promised the children they could stay up for theirfavorite TV programme.该句中 stay up 是一个不及物的短语动词，所以不能变成被动句。
4）副词的位置
动词有五种形态，分别是：原形、第三人称单数形式、过去式、过去分词、
现在分词。
系动词
系动词亦称联系动词（Link Verb），作为系动词，它本身有词义，但不能单
独用作谓语，后边必须跟表语（亦称补语），构成系表结构说明主语的状况、性
质、特征等情况。说明：有些系动词又是实义动词，该动词表达实义时，有词
义，可单独作谓语①。
有些动词短语可以在动词与介词之间加入副词（作状语）。如：He looked carefully at theman. He waited anxiously for the bus.
而短语动词则不能在动词与副词之间加入副词（作状语）。 如：The car broke downsuddenly. 我们不说 The car broke suddenly down.
5）发音时重音的位置
短语动词的重音落在副词上。如：Watch out! There is danger ahead. Danger! Keep out.而动词短语的重音则落在动词上。如： The children are looking forward to seeing Nei
Haisheng soon. Let us drink to his success.6）可拆性与不可拆性
如何区别动词短语与短语动词? 这里有一个便捷的方法可以检验，即看在定语从句中
可不可以拆开，可以拆开的是动词短语，不能拆开的便是短语动词。请看下面的例句： (1)This is the girl who/whom I learn the news from.可以把这个句子改成：This is the girl fromwhom I learn the news . (2) This is the book that/ which you can refer to .可以改成 This is thebook to which you can refer. 以上两句中，learn from 和 refer to 中的介词 from 与 to 分别
可移至关系代词 whom 与 which 之前，即定语从句中的先行词 the girl 与 the book 分别
作了这两个介词的宾语，由此可以判定 learn from 和 refer to 是动词短语而非短语动词。
下面再看两个例句：（1）The baby whom you looked after yesterday was an orphan. 此句
不能改成 ：The baby after whom you looked yesterday was an orphan. 因为如果把 look after拆开后已经不再具有“照看，照料”的意义了，由此可以判定 look after 是一个短语动词。
（2）The sports meet which you mention will be put off till next week. 此句不能改成：Thesports meet off which you mention will be put off till next week. 因为如果把 put off 拆开后已
经不再具有“延期，推迟”的意义了，由此可以判定 put off 是一个短语动词。
本语法认为，动词短语这一概念根本没有意义，可以不用理。而短语动词其实就是一些形
式固定的复合词，需要在平时的学习中多积累。①
下面部分引自，百库课件：2011 年高考英语语法专题复习-动词短语
传统语法认为，系动词有以下几类：
1）状态系动词
用来表示主语状态，只有 be 一词。例如：
He is a teacher. 他是一名教师。（is 与补足语一起说明主语的身份。）
2）持续系动词
用来表示主语继续或保持一种状况或态度，主要有 keep, rest, remain, stay, lie, stand。例如：
318助动词
协助主要动词构成谓语动词的词叫助动词。被协助的动词称作主要动词。
助动词自身没有词义，不可单独使用①。
He always kept silent at meeting. 他开会时总保持沉默。
This matter rests a mystery. 此事仍是一个谜。
3）表像系动词
用来表示"看起来像"这一概念，主要有 seem, appear, look。例如：
He looks tired. 他看起来很累。
He seems （to be）very sad. 他看起来很伤心。
4）感官系动词
感官系动词主要有 feel, smell, sound, taste。例如：
This kind of cloth feels very soft. 这种布手感很软。
This flower smells very sweet. 这朵花闻起来很香。
5）变化系动词
这些系动词表示主语变成什么样，变化系动词主要有 become, grow, turn, fall, get, go, come,run。例如：
He became mad after that. 自那之后，他疯了。
She grew rich within a short time. 她没多长时间就富了。
6）终止系动词
表示主语已终止动作，主要有 prove, turn out, 表达"证实"，"变成"之意。例如：
The rumor proved false. 这谣言证实有假。
The search proved difficult. 搜查证实很难。
His plan turned out a success. 他的计划终于成功了。（turn out 表终止性结果）
但本语法认为英语中只有 be 一个系动词，学习了复合词后你会发现其实其它的所谓的
系动词只不过是复合词。①
助动词协助主要动词完成以下功用，可以用来：
a. 表示时态。例如：
He is singing. 他在唱歌。
He has got married. 他已结婚。
b. 表示语态。如：
He was sent to England. 他被派往英国。
c. 构成疑问句。例如：
Do you like college life? 你喜欢大学生活吗？
Did you study English before you came here? 你来这儿之前学过英语吗？
d. 与否定副词 not 合用，构成否定句。例如：
I don't like him. 我不喜欢他。
e. 加强语气。例如：
Do come to the party tomorrow evening. 明天晚上一定来参加晚会。
He did know that. 他的确知道那件事。
最常用的助动词有：be, have, do, shall, will, should, would。■助动词 be 的用法
1）be +现在分词，构成进行时态。例如：
They are having a meeting. 他们正在开会。
English is becoming more and more important. 英语现在越来越重要。
2） be + 过去分词，构成被动语态。例如：
The window was broken by Tom.. 窗户是汤姆打碎的。
English is taught throughout the world. 世界各地都教英语。
■助动词 have 的用法
1）have +过去分词，构成完成时态。例如：
He has left for London. 他已去了伦敦。
By the end of last month, they had finished half of their work. 上月未为止，他们已经完成工
作的一半。
2）have + been +现在分词，构成完成进行时。例如：
I have been studying English for ten years. 我一直在学英语，已达十年之久。
3）have +been +过去分词，构成完成式被动语态。例如：
English has been taught in China for many years. 中国教英语已经多年。
■助动词 do 的用法
1）构成一般疑问句。例如：
Do you want to pass the CET? 你想通过大学英语测试吗？
Did you study German? 你们学过德语吗？
2）do + not 构成否定句。例如：
I do not want to be criticized. 我不想挨批评。
He doesn't like to study. 他不想学习。In the past, many students did not know the importance of English.过去，好多学生不知道英语的重要性。
3）构成否定祈使句。例如：
Don't go there. 不要去那里。
Don't be so absent-minded. 不要这么心不在焉。
说明：构成否定祈使句只用 do，不用 did 和 does。4）放在动词原形前，加强该动词的语气。例如：
Do come to my birthday party. 一定来参加我的生日宴会。
I did go there. 我确实去那儿了。
I do miss you. 我确实想你。
5）用于倒装句。例如：
Never did I hear of such a thing. 我从未听说过这样的事情。
Only when we begin our college life do we realize the importance of English. 进了大学以后，
我们才认识到英语的重要性。
说明：引导此类倒装句的副词有 never, seldom, rarely, little, only, so, well 等。
6）用作代动词。例如：
---- Do you like Beijing? --你喜欢北京吗？
---- Yes, I do. --是的，喜欢。（do 用作代动词，代替 like Beijing.）He knows how to drive a car, doesn't he? 他知道如何开车，对吧？
■助动词 shall 和 will 的用法
shall 和 will 作为助动词可以与动词原形一起构成一般将来时。例如：
I shall study harder at English. 我将更加努力地学习英语。
He will go to Shanghai. 他要去上海。
说明：在过去的语法中，语法学家说 shall 用于第一人称，will 只用于第二、第三人称。现
在，尤其是在口语中，will 常用于第一人称，但 shall 只用于第一人称，如用于第二、第三
人称，就失去助动词的意义，已变为情态助动词，试比较:
320第三节第三节第三节第三节 名词性从句名词性从句名词性从句名词性从句
根据传统语法，在句子中起名词作用的句子叫名词性从句 (Noun Clauses）。
名词性从句的功能相当于名词词组, 它在复合句中能担任主语、宾语、表语、同
位语、介词宾语等，因此根据它在句中不同的语法功能，名词性从句又可分别
称为主语从句、宾语从句①、表语从句和同位语从句。名词性从句由下列词引导：
that, whether, if②, as if , as though, what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whomever,
whose, which, whichever , when, where, how, why, whenever, wherever, however。
He shall come. 他必须来。（shall 有命令的意味。）
He will come. 他要来。（will 只与动词原形构成一般将来时。）
■助动词 should, would 的用法
1）should 无词义，只是 shall 的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，只用于第一人称。
例如：
I telephoned him yesterday to ask what I should do next week. 我昨天给他打电话，问他我下
周干什么。
比较："What shall I do next week?" I asked. "我下周干什么？"我问道。
可以说，shall 变成间接引语时，变成了 should。2）would 也无词义，是 will 的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，用于第二、第三人
称。例如：
He said he would come. 他说他要来。
比较："I will go," he said. 他说："我要去那儿。"变成间接引语，就成了 He said he wouldcome。原来的 will 变成 would，go 变成了 come.。①
在主从复合句中，若主句的主语为第一人称，这类动词后面接含否定意义的宾语从句时,要把从句的否定词转移到主句中去｡这类动词有 think, believe, expert, imagine, suppose, feel,guess, fancy 等。如：To tell you the truth, I don't suppose he can give you any help in such a shorttime, can he?在回答对方提问时,这类动词的常用句式为“I expect so/not”｡ 如:—We don't believe we can make such an attempt, can we?—I expect not.② whether 与 if 均为 “是否” 的意思。但在下列情况下，whether 不能被 if 所取代：
1. 主语从句，如：Whether he will come is unknown.2. 表语从句，如：The question is whether you should accept it.3. 同位语从句，如：The question whether he’ll attend the meeting is not decided.4. 从句作介词的宾语，如：I’m not interested in whether they’ll go or not. It depends on whetherwe have got enough money.5. 直接跟不定式连用，如：She hasn’t decided whether to go or not.
第四节第四节第四节第四节 副词副词副词副词
根据传统语法，副词是用以修饰动词、形容词、其它副词以及全句的词，
表示时间、地点、程度、方式等概念，例：
� I do notnotnotnot like you. 我不喜欢你。
� WhenWhenWhenWhen visiting London I like to travel by bus. 我游览伦敦时喜欢坐公共汽车.
� I watched her asasasas she combed her hair. 她梳头的时候我一直看着她.
� He stood up slowlyslowlyslowlyslowly. 他慢慢的站起来。
� The stream has dried upupupup. 溪水已乾涸。
� It sat very quietlyquietlyquietlyquietly on the chair in the cold, dark, dirty room. 它静静地坐在这间
又冷又暗又脏的房间里的椅子上。
� The song is nononono longerlongerlongerlonger popular. 这首歌已不再流行了。
� He shaved the hair offoffoffoff his legs. 他剃掉了腿上的寒毛。
� The plane took offoffoffoff. 飞机起飞了。
� I pulled the nail outoutoutout of the wall. 我将钉子从墙里拔了出来。
� You love me moremoremoremore than he loves me. 你比他更爱我。
� It is the mostmostmostmost popular sport in the world. 这是一项世界上最受欢迎的体育运
动。
� He speaks sosososo fastfastfastfast that none can catch him. 他说话太快， 没人听得明白。
� He was tootootootoo fat to move. 他胖得动不了。
� I like long walk, especiallyespeciallyespeciallyespecially in winter. 我向来喜欢远距离散步，特别是在冬天。
� I onlyonlyonlyonly love you！ 我只爱你！
我们可以看出其实传统语法当中的副词就是复合词，可以展开进行分析。
322第五节第五节第五节第五节 定语从句定语从句定语从句定语从句
根据传统语法，用作定语的从句叫做定语从句。定语从句一般皆放在其所
修饰的名词或代词之后，这种名词或代词就叫做先行词。引导定语从句的关联
词为关系代词为关系副词。关系代词在定语从句中可用作主语、宾语、定语等；
关系副词在定语从句中用作状语。
用作关联词的关系代词有 who, whom, whose, that, which 等。它们在从句中
作宾语时在口语中常被省略。
用作关联词的关系副词有 when, where, why 等。在定语从句中用作时间、地
点、原因等状语。
定语从句和定语一样，也有限制性和非限制性之分。
1）限制性从句，不可缺少，否则会影响全句的主要思想，这种定语从句前
面一般不用逗号。
例：
� The dog which/thatwhich/thatwhich/thatwhich/that isisisis inininin thethethethe roomroomroomroom is mad. 屋子里那条狗是疯的。
� The person whomwhomwhomwhom/that/that/that/that IIII sawsawsawsaw was a coach. 我看到的那个人是位教练。
� The basketball IIII likelikelikelike is red. 我喜欢的那个篮球是红色的。
� The boy IIII seeseeseesee is a student. 我看到的那个男孩是个学生。
� China is not the country itititit waswaswaswas. 中国已不是过去的中国了。
� I like the room thethethethe girlgirlgirlgirl isisisis inininin. 我喜欢女孩所在的那个房间。
� The deep pool whichwhichwhichwhich isisisis inininin thethethethe foresforesforesforest is big. 森林里的那口深塘很大。
� The big red fish whichwhichwhichwhich IIII seeseeseesee inininin thethethethe supermarketsupermarketsupermarketsupermarket is pretty. 我在超市里看到的那
条红色大鱼很漂亮。
� The big elephant is moving a heavy box onononon whichwhichwhichwhich IIII amamamam standingstandingstandingstanding. 这只大象正在
移动我站着的一个沉重箱子。
� The girl whosewhosewhosewhose mothermothermothermother isisisis MaryMaryMaryMary is crying. 那个妈妈叫玛丽的女孩在哭。
2）非限制性定语从句，如果缺少了，也不会影响全句的主要思想，前面一
般皆有逗号。
例：
� Tom, whowhowhowho lovesloveslovesloves ChinaChinaChinaChina, is a teacher. 汤姆是个老师，他喜欢中国。
� The cat, whichwhichwhichwhich IIII lovelovelovelove, is small. 这只小猫很小，我喜欢它。
� Jim, whomwhomwhomwhom IIII hatehatehatehate, is ugly. 吉姆很丑，我讨厌他。
� He hates me, whichwhichwhichwhich upsetsupsetsupsetsupsets memememe. 他讨厌我，这使我心烦。
� I love the small cake, whichwhichwhichwhich isisisis mademademademade bybybyby memememe. 我喜欢这个小蛋糕，它是我做。
� A black cat is on a white table, whichwhichwhichwhich isisisis inininin aaaa bigbigbigbig roomroomroomroom. 一只黑色的猫在一张白
色的桌子上，桌子在一个大房子里。
从上面的例子我们可以看到，传统语法中的限定性定语从句和非限制性定
语从句分别和对象英语语法中的限定句和平行句相似。
324第六节第六节第六节第六节 状语从句状语从句状语从句状语从句
根据传统语法，用作状语的从句叫做状语从句。引导状语从句的关联词是
一些从属联词。
状语从句可根据其用途分为时间状语从句、地点状语从句、原因状语从句、
结果状语从句、程度状语从句、目的状语从句、条件状语从句、让步状语从句、
方式状语从句 9种：
1) 时间状语从句：表示时间，其所用的关联词有 as, after, before, once, since, till,
until, when, whenever, while, as long as, as soon as, now (that)等。例：
� You shoud do it beforebeforebeforebefore youyouyouyou forget.forget.forget.forget. 趁早动手, 免得忘了。
� I arrived afterafterafterafter hehehehe left.left.left.left. 我在他走后到的。
� He left asasasas soonsoonsoonsoon asasasas hehehehe heardheardheardheard thethethethe news.news.news.news. 他一听到这事儿就走了。
� OnceOnceOnceOnce hehehehe goes,goes,goes,goes, we can clean up. 他一走，我们就能清理。
� WhenWhenWhenWhen hehehehe sawsawsawsaw herherherher, he waved. 他一看见她就摆了摆手。
� We can leave wheneverwheneverwheneverwhenever you'reyou'reyou'reyou're ready.ready.ready.ready. 你什么时候准备好我们就可以动身。
� I watched her asasasas sheshesheshe combedcombedcombedcombed herherherher hair.hair.hair.hair. 她梳头的时候我一直看着她。
� We wait untiluntiluntiluntil thethethethe rainrainrainrain stops.stops.stops.stops. 我们等到雨停了再说吧。
� I can learn whilewhilewhilewhile IIII work.work.work.work. 我可以边工作边学习。
� I haven't played rugby sincesincesincesince IIII leftleftleftleft university.university.university.university. 自从大学毕业后我就再也没
踢过橄榄球了。
� The ball goes up very high afterafterafterafter itititit hitshitshitshits thethethethe ground.ground.ground.ground. 这球着地后蹦得很高。
有些副词，如 directly 和 immediately（还有关联词：hardly/scarcely...when，
no sooner...than），也可以引导时间状语状语从句，其意义相当于 as soon as。例：
� I will come directly I have finished. 我一做完就来。
� They phoned immediately they reached home. 他们到家后马上打了电话。
� Scarcely had she entered the room when the phone rang. 她一进屋电话就响
了。
� He had no sooner/No sooner had he arrived than he was asked to leave again.
他刚到就被支走了.
有些表时间的短语也可引导时间状语从句，如 the instant, the minute, the
moment, the day, the year, each (every) time, next time, the first (second, last) time,
by the time 等。例：
� TheTheTheThe instantinstantinstantinstant IIII sawsawsawsaw him,him,him,him, I knew he was the man from China. 一看到那个男
人，我就知道他来自中国。
� TheTheTheThe daydaydayday hehehehe arrived,arrived,arrived,arrived, it rained. 他到达的那天是雨天。
� EveryEveryEveryEvery timetimetimetime IIII comecomecomecome, he is reading. 我每次来，他都在读书。
� NextNextNextNext timetimetimetime youyouyouyou come,come,come,come, please bring your composition. 你下次来，请带来你的
作文。
� ByByByBy thethethethe timetimetimetime thisthisthisthis letterletterletterletter reachesreachesreachesreaches youyouyouyou I will have left the country. 你接到这封
信时, 我已离开这个国家了。
2) 地点状语从句：表示地点，其所用的关联词有 where, wherever, anywhere 等。
例：
� He lives wherewherewherewhere thethethethe climateclimateclimateclimate isisisis mild.mild.mild.mild. 他住在一个气候温暖的地方。
� Sit whereverwhereverwhereverwherever youyouyouyou likelikelikelike. 您愿意坐在哪儿都行。
� AnywhereAnywhereAnywhereAnywhere sheshesheshe goesgoesgoesgoes, he goes too. 不论她去哪儿，他也去哪儿。
3) 原因状语从句：表原因或理由，其所用的关联词或短语有 because, as,
326since,inasmuch as, insomuch as, by reason that, for the reason that,
considering (that), for fear (that), in that, now that, on the ground (s) that, seeing
that, in case, [because of, by virtue of, in (the) ligh of, in vies of, on account of,
owing to, due to+the fact]的结构等①。例:
� I bought the old car becausebecausebecausebecause itititit waswaswaswas cheap.cheap.cheap.cheap. 因为便宜，我买了这辆旧车。
� AsAsAsAs she'sshe'sshe'sshe's beenbeenbeenbeen illillillill she'll need some help. 她由于生病需要些帮助。
� Since we've no money we can't buy a new car. 因为我们没钱, 没法买新汽
车.
� Inasmuch as we have no money, it is no good thinking about a holiday. 因为
我们没有钱,所以考虑休假是没有用的。
� This statement was important insomuch as it revealed the extent of their
knowledge. 这一陈述显示了他们了解情况之多, 因而十分重要。
� She escaped forforforfor fearfearfearfear thatthatthatthat hehehehe wouldwouldwouldwould killkillkillkill her.her.her.her. 因害怕被他杀，她逃走了。
� The house is expensive, consideringconsideringconsideringconsidering itsitsitsits roofroofroofroof isisisis broken.broken.broken.broken. 考虑到屋顶是坏的，
这座房子有些贵。
� NowNowNowNow thatthatthatthat youyouyouyou mentionmentionmentionmention it,it,it,it, I remember the incident. 经你一提, 我想起那件
事了。
� SeeingSeeingSeeingSeeing thethethethe weatherweatherweatherweather isisisis bad,bad,bad,bad, we'll stay at home. 因为天气不好, 我们要呆在
家里了。
� Privatization is beneficial inininin thatthatthatthat itititit promotespromotespromotespromotes competition.competition.competition.competition. 私营化是有益
的，因为它能促进相互竞争。
� Her claim was disallowed onononon thethethethe ground(s)ground(s)ground(s)ground(s) thatthatthatthat sheshesheshe hadhadhadhad notnotnotnot paidpaidpaidpaid herherherher
①看起来很复杂吧！其实通过下面例子的分析你会发现这些并不需要刻意去记忆。
premium.premium.premium.premium. 她要求赔款遭到拒绝, 原因是她事先没有交纳保险费。
4) 结果状语从句：表结果，其所用的关联词有 that, so(that), such that, with the
result that 等。例：
� He speaks sosososo fast thatthatthatthat nonenonenonenone cancancancan catchcatchcatchcatch himhimhimhim. 他说话太快， 没人听得明白。
� Our country has so much coal thatthatthatthat sheshesheshe cancancancan exportexportexportexport largelargelargelarge quantities.quantities.quantities.quantities. 我们国
家的煤炭非常丰富， 可以大量出口。
� There is so rapid an increase in population thatthatthatthat aaaa foodfoodfoodfood shortageshortageshortageshortage isisisis caused.caused.caused.caused. 人
口增长如此迅速， 以致造成了粮食短缺。
� It was very so cold thatthatthatthat thethethethe riverriverriverriver froze.froze.froze.froze.天气寒冷， 河水都结冰了。
5) 程度状语从句：表示动作或状态所达到的程度，其所用的关联词有 so (that),
such that, as (so) far, as (so) long as, to the degree (extent) that, in so far as 等。例：
� She was so angry (that)(that)(that)(that) sheshesheshe couldn'tcouldn'tcouldn'tcouldn't speak.speak.speak.speak. 她气得说不出话来。
� It was such a boring speech (that)(that)(that)(that) IIII fellfellfellfell asleep.asleep.asleep.asleep. 这讲演枯燥无味, 听得我都
睡着了。
6) 目的状语从句：表示目的，其所用的关联词有 so, so that, in order that 等。例：
� I stayed sosososo thatthatthatthat IIII couldcouldcouldcould seeseeseesee youyouyouyou. 我留下来以便能见到你。
� He left early inininin orderorderorderorder thatthatthatthat hehehehe wouldwouldwouldwould arrivearrivearrivearrive onononon time.time.time.time. 他早早动身好按时到
达。
� I gave you a map sosososo youyouyouyou wouldn'twouldn'twouldn'twouldn't getgetgetget lost.lost.lost.lost. 我给你一张地图, 这样你就不会
迷路了。
7) 条件状语从句：表条件。条件有真实条件和非真实条件。前者表现实的或可
能变成现实的条件，后者表非现实的或不可能或不大可能变为现实的条件。
真实条件状语从句用直陈语气，所用的关联词有 if, unless, suppose, supposing
328(that), assuming (that), providing (that), provided (that), in the event (that),
just so (that), given that, in case (that), on condithion (that), as (so) long as 等。
� IfIfIfIf youyouyouyou havehavehavehave finishedfinishedfinishedfinished eatingeatingeatingeating you may leave the table. 你要是吃完了, 就可以
离席了。
8) 让步状语从句：表“虽然”、“尽管”、“即使”等概念，其所用的关联词有 though,
although, if, even though (if), when, while, whereas, granting that, granted that,
admitting (that), for all (that), albeit, in spite of the fact 等。
� ThoughThoughThoughThough theytheytheythey lacklacklacklack officialofficialofficialofficial supportsupportsupportsupport they continue their struggle. 他们虽然没
有得到官方的支持, 但仍继续奋斗。
9) 方式状语从句：表示动作的方式，其所用的关联词有 as, as if, as though, the
way, how 等。比较状语从句也是一种方式状语从句，其所用的关联词有 as (或
so)...as, than, according as, in proportion as 等。例：
� She runs asasasas IIII dodododo (run).(run).(run).(run). 她像我一样跑。
� Pat is taller thanthanthanthan IIII am.am.am.am. 帕特比我高。
� He is asasasas talltalltalltall asasasas hishishishis father.father.father.father. 和他父亲一样高。
� You love me more thanthanthanthan hehehehe lovesloveslovesloves me.me.me.me. 你比他更爱我。
� He behaved asasasas ifififif nothingnothingnothingnothing hadhadhadhad happened.happened.happened.happened. 他装作若无其事的样子。
第七节第七节第七节第七节 非限定动词非限定动词非限定动词非限定动词
根据传统英语语法，非限定动词是动词的非谓语形式。非限定动词与限定
动词不同。限定动词在句中用作为主，受主语的人称和数的限制。非限定动词
在句中不可单独用作谓语，不受主语的人称和数的限制；它在句中可以用作其
它句子成分。非限定动词有3种，即不定式、动名词和分词。
一、动词不定式一、动词不定式一、动词不定式一、动词不定式
不定式有二种形式：一是带 to的不定式，一是不带 to的不定式。后者即
通常所谓的动词原形式。
不定式在句中不能单独用作谓语，但可用作主语、表语、宾语、定语、状
语、宾语补足语、主语补足语等。
二、现在分词二、现在分词二、现在分词二、现在分词
根据传统语法，分词是一种非限定动词，包括现在分词和过去分词两种。
现在分词由动词原形加词尾-ing 构成。现在分词作为非限定动词在句中不可用作
为主，也不用作主语或宾语，但可以用作表语、定语、状语和补足语等。
三、过去分词三、过去分词三、过去分词三、过去分词
根据传统语法，过去分词也是一种非限定动词，其在句中不可以作谓语，
它相当于形容词或副词，在句中可用作表语，定语、状语、补足语等。■
