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Majestic Drag: Monarchical Performativity and the King's Body TheatricalAuthor(s): Mark FrankoSource: TDR (1988-), Vol. 47, No. 2 (Summer, 2003), pp. 71-87Published by: The MIT Press
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a j e s t i c
r a g
Monarchical
Performativity
and
the
King's
Body
Theatrical
MarkFranko
Cet
oeil
courtois,
mbitieux,
n,
simple,
doux,
hagard, spre,
delicieux
(This eye-courtly,
ambitious, efined,
imple,
weet,
hagard, arsh,
delicious).
-La
Voye
de
Laict
ou
Le Chemin
desHeros
au Palaisde
lagloire
1623)
I
want
to
think the critical
theory
of
performance
and
performativity
hrough
the historical ens of
kingship
in
I7th-century
French
spectacle.'
In
doing
so,
I will
posit
a link
between the
king's
two bodies
and the
performance/performativity
dualism
as theorized
byJudith
Butler.
Ernst
Kantorowicz has chartedthe doctrine
of the
king's
two bodies-one naturaland
mortal,
the other
politic
and immate-
rial-from the late middle
ages
until
early modernity
(I957).
For
Kantorowicz,
the
phenomenal body
of
the
king publicly
demonstrated
and
guaranteed
sover-
eignty
and stable
political
identity
by
virtue of
embodiment,
which
thereby
ob-
tained a
theological
dimension.
The term
embodiment,
notesJudith
Butler:
drawn
as it is from
theological
contexts
[...]
tends to
figure
the
body
as a
mode of incarnation
and, hence,
to
preserve
the external and dualisticrela-
tionship
between
a
signifying immateriality
and the
materiality
of the
body
itself.
(I990:I
52,
nI5)2
This material and
symbolic figuration
of
the
body
to which Butler refers
s
that
of
performativity.
Yet,
although
kingship
is
generally
understood to
exemplify
patriarchalpower through hypermasculine dentity,
this does
not
alwaysprove
to
be true
in
early 17th-century
ballet. And this fact is
significant
in
the
context
of
ballet's
political
entailments.
Confronting
Kantorowicz with ballet on the one
hand,
and Butler with Kantorowicz on
the
other,
enables us
at once to
question
an
allegory
of
the modern
power
of sex
in
the
early
modern sex of
power.
In
other
terms,
I
wish to
compare
the
sex/gender/power
matrix that
emerged
from
The Drama
Review
47,
2
(T178),
Summer
2003.
Copyright
)
2003
New York
University
ndthe
Massachusetts
nstitute
f Technology
71
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72
Mark Franko
speech
act
theory
to
historical
performance
materials.These
materials
enable
us
to
rethink
the issue
ofperformativity
in a
dimension
not
necessarily
commanded
by discursivity
alone.3The
question
that
emerges
from the encounter
between
Kantorowicz
and
Butler
mediatedvis-a-vis
court
ballet
is: Does
I7th-century
Eu-
ropean
monarchical
performativity
take
a
symbolic
claimto the
unified
sovereign
subject?
Kantorowicz
interprets
the historical
dualism that
lurks within
royal
embodi-
ment asan affirmation
of the
juridicopolitical
status
of
kingship through
its
power
to
safeguard
against despotism
and
justify monarchy
as a
system
of
governance.
But his
two-body theory guarantees
more than
anything
else the
perpetual
nature
of
sovereignty.4
The
body
natural
is
mortal,
but the
body politic-and
hence
monarchy
itself-is
eternal.
The
two-body
theory presents
an
interesting
case
of
performativity,
which
Butler understands
asa
process
of reiteration
or
citationality.
There is no
power
that
acts,
she
specifies,
but
only
a
reiterated
acting
that
is
power
in its
persistence
and
instability
(I993:9).
Performativity
underscores
the
active exercise
of
continuity
through persistent
yet
unstable
actions of the
body
natural.This body is fundamentallytemporal (mortal)
although
the
identity
it
confirms
through continuity
appears
a-temporal.
Performativity
has
implications
for the
historic
body
politic
and
draws us
into
that areawhere
repeated
acts
have
been
cultivated
n
the
interestsof
power:
court
theatre.
If
ritualsof
state can be seen
to
promote
symbolic continuity,
court
ballets
are
generally
considered
political
in
a
very
local and
temporal
sense:
they
are
often
interpreted
through
the
circumstances
specific
to
diplomacy
(see
Canova-
Green
1993).
Court
ballet is to be
distinguished
from the
ceremonial,
although
not,
as we
shall
see,
from
ritual. The
instability
Butler
pinpoints
in
performative
identity
by
virtue of its
necessity
to
repeat
itself is evident in
the
king's body
the-
atrical: hat
is,
in
his
reiterated
performances.
Two Bourbon kingswere dancers n ballets,which were
major
vehiclesof their
representative
ublicness
(see
Habermas
1991:1
).
Moreover,
theatre s
conven-
tionally
repetitive
and thus
not
foreign
to the
iterative
conditions
requiredby
per-
formativity.
Austin,
of
course,
disqualifies
ceremony,
ritual,
and
theatre from
the
performative
function
by
calling
them
nonserious or
parasitic,
in
a
peculiar
way
hollow
or void
(I975:I8-19,
25).
He is
thinking
of the
modern
stage,
however,
where
performance
is
no
longer
the life of
power.5
Etienne
Thuau
envisaged
17th-century spectacle
as
transcending
ts
immedi-
ately
aesthetic
dimension
to
become a form
of
public
persuasion.
He
argued
that
royal performances
enabled the
public
to
visualize
the
religious
aspect
of
monar-
chy,
whereas
the
philosophical
and
theoretical
underpinnings
of
raison
d'etatoc-
curredonly in writing.6I shallargue that court balletsfulfilled a more
complex
function
related
to
what Louis
Marin
([198I] I988)
has
called
the
phantasms
f
raison
d'etat.7
This is
to
say
that the
body
naturalas
perceived
in
dance is
a
complex
(rather
han
hollow
or
void)
body,
despite
the
fact
that
Kantorowicz
grants
com-
plexity
solely
to
the
crown or
the
corpus
mysticum
I957:382).8
The
complexity
of
the
body
natural
resides n
its
performative
rather han
juridical
status.It
is,
in
fact,
not a
body
natural
but a
body
heatrical.
his
body
calls
us to a
considerationof
the
combined
aesthetic,
political,
and
ritual
functions of
court
ballet.9
By
ritual
I
do
not
intend
a
synonym
for
ceremonial or
for
repeated
action.
Rather,
I
adopt
an-
thropologist
Carlo
Severi's
apprehension
of
the
ritual
image,
which
contains con-
tradictory
visual
and
narrative
onnotations
200I).
The
contradictory
onnotations
of the image emerge through aesthetic form. When Louis XIII or Louis XIV
danced
in
officially
sanctioned
ballets,
the
person
of the
monarch
took
up
an ar-
tistic
medium.
His
aesthetic
choices
became
discerniblefrom
within
an
organized
movement
system
by
virtue
of his
particular
execution
and
phrasing,by
virtue,
in
sum,
of
his
theatricality,
understood as
the
heightening
of
physical
presence,
its
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Majestic
Drag
73
1.
The
demons'mount
rom
La Delivrance de Re-
^ ̂ -^^ -̂^ X-- -t- 0-i-
-
|-vinaud.
The
king
is
presum-
. .
ably
seated
on
the
ground
o
that
he
can
arise
and
dance
with
Renaud
(Durand
*
r:'S~~3:~~~~~
J
^
^
1617).
(Courtesy
f
Cliche
,i'Uiifi
fB
BibliothBque
ationale
de
France,
Paris)
expressiveness
see
Franko
I986:5).
I
use the
term
expressive
here
without call-
ing upon the relationshipof embodiment between performanceand immaterial
meaning.
It
is
important
not to lose the theatrical ense of
this
term. The
king
was
on
view as a finite
physical
and
temperamental
character-an artistat work-and
evaluated
by
his
subjects
as
such without direct reference o
legal
and
uridical
the-
ory. Finally,
we
must
avoid
the
fallacy
implicit
in
artistry
hat
the
king's
artistic
agency
was
wholly
autonomous;
it
was
modified
by
the collective
enterprise
of
theatre.
I
am
arguing
that the act of
dancing
itself
personalized
the
royalpersona.
Usu-
ally,
the
opposite
is
argued:
the direct
trajectory
rom
the
king's
phenomenal ap-
pearance
to
his
body
politic
is
taken for
granted.
Although
the
fiction of a
sempiternal
body
politic
may
have
intruded
upon spectator
awareness,
what
the
spectator
beheld
was
the mobilized
body
natural
even
when its
regalquality,
ts
dignitas,
was
theorized
as
undying
(see
Franko
2000:35-SI).
Were
this not
so,
we
would not be
talking
about
spectacle.
Furthermore,
even
the construction
of
a
mobilized
body
politic
took
place
in
and
through
theatricalnorms that mediate
between
the
material
body
and its construction as a
spectacular ntity.1?
Live
per-
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74
MarkFranko
formance,
where
attention is riveted on
moment-by-moment
production, rarely
has such
direct accessto
the
theological
dimension. Theatre does
not
work
through
embodiment
but
through
bodification.
It is
thus
difficult to
imagine
the
king's
dance
attaining
a
religious
function for its audience.
His
ballet roles
did not
furnish
fables hat
fed his
royal
mythology
such
as,
for
example,
the
mythology
that
pertains
to the king'scurativepower. One possibleexception was the Apollo role filly un-
dertaken
only
by
Louis XIV.
I
shall
not
be
discussing
this role
per
se but instead the more
frequently
encoun-
tered
Apollo
function :
spectacular
nstanceswhere
the
interaction of
light
with
refracting
materialssuch
as
mirrors
sewn into costume fabric
visually
multiplied
and/or
fragmented
royal dentity.
Where
the
performance
of
royal
myth
becomes
power
itself
(the
sun),
power
is realized
through
a
visual
splintering
of
the
body
image.
The effect of
light
on
the
perception
of
the
body,
attested to in
period
ac-
counts,
enhanced the
ambiguities
inherent in the
king's
double
casting
in
certain
ballets.
I contend this
aggregation
of
effects
promoted
the
dispersion
of
[his]
sub-
jective
autonomy
(Hare
I993:I44).
Thus,
the
question
of his
personalization
be-
comes detachedfrom thatof his subjectivity.
When it comes to the
body,
Butler
argues,
sex and
gender
are
politicalcatego-
ries of
description
I990:I13).
It
is
difficultto
assess he
politics
of
the
king's
sex/
gender
in
ballets.
The
relationship
of
his
biologically
male
body
to
the
ideologically
overdetermined level
of
symbolic representationpresupposed by kingship
effec-
tively
severs the
king's
body
natural rom its
singular
and
particular
xistence even
as
it
weds
his
embodied
(theologically
invested)
political
identity
to
the most
visible and visceralforms of
power.
These are the two traditionsof
the
analytics
of
power
in
relation
to
sex that
Foucault
warns us
away
from in The
History
of
Sexu-
ality
(I990:88-9I).
I
want
to
suggest
that the
king's
ballet
performances
standout
as
excessively
lacking (lacking
in
the mode of
excess)
with
respect
to
the
patriar-
chal, phallocentric model of sex, gender, and power, whose political categories
these
performances
are assumedto consolidate in each
performance.
Just
as sexual
identity
for Butler is
performatively
constituted
by
the
very
'expressions'
hat are
said to be
its
results
I990:25),
so the
king's body
theatricalmaintains
a
question-
able
relationship
o sexual and
political
performativity.
That is to
say,
far
from act-
ing
as a
prop
or
support,
the
king's body
theatrical s
potentially
as
suppressed
as
Butler's
drag
because its
meaning
is a dramatic
and
contingent
construction
(139).I
Yet,
in
the
instance
I
shall
describe,
which
has
no
cross-dressing,
I
shall
theorize
this
dramatic
and
contingent
construction
as
majestic
drag.
Al-
though
it is
a
performative
phenomenon,
it does
leave textual traces.
The
theoretical
questions
are
as follows: Can
the monarch's
stage
appearances
fulfill the function of a.reiterativeand citationalact that sustainshispoliticaliden-
tity?
This
would be the
principle
of
performativity
according
to
Butler. It is
a
ritual
process,
she
specifies,
taking place
in
time
through
the
reiterationof
norms
(I993:IO).
If
performance,
in
Butler's
terms,
grants agency
to the
actor,
whereas
performativitygrants
agency
to the
action
performed,
how
is
the
king's
dancing-which
is as
assuredly
political
as
it
assuredlyprojects
his sex
and
gen-
der-how is this
dancing,
then,
an
instance of his
performativity?
How,
finally
can
performativity
square
with
Severi's sense of
ritual as a
paradoxical
represen-
tation of
positive
and
negative
values
(200o:189)?
I
shall
approach
this
question
initially
by
pointing
out:
(i)
that there is a
mediating theatricality
n
monarchical
performativity,
and
(2)
that
the
construction of
the unified
sovereign
subject
s
not
alwaysthe inevitableresult of theatricalperformativity. t is a calculatedeffect of
court
ballets,
in
other
terms,
to fail
to deliver
the
body
politic.
Elsewhere,
I
have situated the
king's body
natural n the
context of
his cross-
dressed roles in
burlesque
ballets,
a
phenomenon
very suggestive
of
drag,
but
linked
historically
to
political
tensions over
absolutism
(see
Franko
1998:64-84). I
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MajesticDrag
75
Here
my goal
is
to reconsider the
king's
sexed and
gendered
identity
in the con-
text
of narrativeballets
engineered
to
support
absolutism.
This subversion
has
no
evidently
subversive
political
context.
The
source of the
work
we
shall
examine
here is
Torquato
Tasso's
epic
poem
Jerusalem
Delivered
I58I).
This
ballet,
like
the
poem
it is based
on,
is set
during
the crusadeto the
Holy
Land n
o099. Renaud,
the irascibleChristian
warrior
of this
campaign,
is
abducted
by
the
Muslim
ma-
gician
Armide. Rather than
kill
him,
however,
Armide
falls
n love with
Renaud,
and he with her.
In one
court ballet based on the
epic
poem,
La Delivrance e
Re-
naud
(I617),
we have the
ambiguities
of
cross-dressing
with
respect
to the
king's
identity
without
his
actual
cross-dressed
ppearance.
nstead,
his
gender
instability
arises
through
association
with the
relationship
between
Armide and
Renaud.
The
visual
impact
of travesti
s
substituted for
by
other
theatrical,
scenographic,
and
choreographic
strategies.
Through
the roles
he
plays,
the
king
mirrors Re-
naud
in
his weaknessand
Armide in her
strength.
This
procedure
s faithful
to
its
literary
source.
Giovanni
Careri
(1999)
analyzes
2. The
fire
demon costume
worn
by
Louis
XIII
(lower
center)
n
La
Delivrance
de
Renaud
(Durand
1617).
(Courtesy
f
Cliche
Bibliotheque
ationale
de
France,
Paris)
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76
Mark
Franko
the inversion
of sexual
roles that occurs
between
Renaud and
Armide
in
Tasso's
epic
poem
as an
important stage
in what Norbert
Eliasreferred
o as the civiliz-
ing
process
(I982).
For
Careri,
Renaud's
excessive sexual
desire must be
con-
verted
into
exceptional aggressive power
in
order
for traditional
masculine
identity
to become
consolidated.
Indeed,
for
Careri,Jersusalem
elivered
s one of
the
founding
texts of'modern' Europeanaffectivity I999:43).I3Most important
for
my
discussion,
Careri
points
out that
Tasso nsists on this
civilizing process
in
order
to
achieve
perfect political
form, i.e.,
the absolute
power
of
the Chris-
tian
king
(44).
Thus,
the
king's
reenactment of
this
founding
text
brings
the
question
of sexual and affective
identity (royalsubjectivity) together
with
that
of
political
and
ideological
power
(royalrepresentation).
In La
Delivrance
e
Renaud,
Louis
XIII
played
ideologically incompatible
roles:
a
Fire Demon
in
the
service of Armide and then
Godfrey
of
Bouillon,
leader
of
the victorious Francs
n the
siege
ofJerusalem.
Somewhat
paradoxically,
he
Fire
Demon
may
be an
early attempt
to
stage
Sun
King iconography
(plate
I).
Kan-
torowicz traces this
image
to Sol
Oriens,
a
god
of
sunrise: He is not identified
with Aurora, he specifies, the roseate Dawn who precedesSunrise.He is Sun-
rise
itself,
the Rise
in
timeless
perpetuity
(I963:II9).I4
To
return
from
the
east,
as
Renaud and
Godfrey
do at
the end ofJerusalem
Delivered,
s a
politicohistorical
requirement
of solar
iconography.
Kantorowicz tracesthe
genealogy
of the
politi-
cal sun
god
back to
Trajan,
noting
that
oriens
(east)
signifies
Orient and sun-
rise
at
the same time
(126).
If
Renaud is to return from the east he must
vanquish
his
passionate
engagement
with
magic, femininity,
and
fire-Armide's
allegorical
attributes.
The ballet
begins
with the
very
scene fromJerusalem elivered n which
Careri
focuses his
analysis
of
the inversion of sexual
roles
that occurs
through passionate
gazing
into the beloved's
eyes.Is
Armide,
however,
is
absentfrom this scene
in
the
ballet.Exultantin his voluptuous passionfor the absentenchantress,Renaud re-
clines
in
Armide's
grotto.
The famous
warrior,
having
betrayed
Godfrey,
s
now
a
victim of
love,
which means above all that he is the
prey
of
emotions.
A
mountain
towers
in the
background
from which demons
(among
whom is
Louis
XIII
play-
ing
a Fire
Demon)
overlook the
stage (plate
2).
The
mountain
later
revolves
en-
abling
the transformation f
Armide's
grotto
into a
gardendesigned
to distract
he
soldiers sent
by Godfrey
to rescue Renaud. But
apart
rom such
scenographic
n-
novations,
the
representation
of the hero
in
this situation is
itself innovative. Let
me
say
a few words about its
unusual
qualities.
Official court
ballets
had
previously
been dominated
by
cosmic
allegory.
Scenes
of emotional
quandary-particularly
of
jealous rage-were conventionally
the
purview ofhetaera such asCirce, Medea, andAlcine, as well as Armide.'6 n such
scenes,
the heroine's
jealousy
and her
desire
for
vengeance
were
expressed
n
rhe-
torical rather han
performative
erms. That
is,
they
were
conventionally
inguistic
and
histrionic rather than
choreographic. Although
not
the
king
himself
but
his
closest adviser
(the
duc de
Luynes)
played
Renaud,
a
noble male characterhad
never before been
depicted
in
a court ballet
submerged
in
personal
and
sensual
fantasies.
For
these reasons
alone,
La
Delivrance e Renaud
should
open
a
different
per-
spective
on
French court ballet
because it raises
he issue of
performance
relative
to raison
d'etat. This
is
not to
say
that court ballet was
unpolitical,
but
that
we
require
a
nuanced and
comprehensive
definition
of the
politics
of
royal
dancing:
we need a description of political performance encompassing the display-of-
absolute-power myth
along
with
the minutiae of
political
existence
that lend it
texture. Such a
textured
description
would account for
elements all too fre-
quently
ignored
in
dance
history
as well as in
political theory:
the
monarch's real
or
imagined
subjectivity,
his
physical body,
and the
erotics of
his
spectacle.
These
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Majestic
Drag
77
last
give
rise
to
what scholars of
historical
performance
often dismissas
curiosi-
ties. Such curiosities
script
the
performance
of
absolutism and are
thus funda-
mental,
not
incidental,
to the
performativity
of
political
power.
Consider
an
example
from a
respected interpretation
of
La
Delivrance
y
Mar-
garet
M.
McGowan:
The
Renaud ballet is the first
ndication
of
Louis XIII's
[...]
desire to exer-
cise his
authority
and to
reestablish he
stability
which had
been
compro-
mised since the death of
Henry
IV.
[...]
The most
striking
and
important
meaning
of the ballet is
political.
(1963:I02, io8)I7
If
it is true that
the most
important
meaning
of
the ballet
is
political,
we
have
still
to
clarify
what
political
means. The
political
meaning
of
court ballet
is
linked for McGowan to
the
topical interpretation
of its
imagery.
She callsthis bal-
let
a
spectacular
remedy
for
political instability
(Io9).
But the
relationship
of
spectacle
to ritual can
be addressed
only
to the detriment of
this
interpretation.
Forexample,not only are the king'scompanionsdemons in LaDelivrance,ut the
king
himself
plays
one. McGowan
notes this role's
peculiarity:
It
is
curious that
Durand
[the librettist]
makes the
companions
of
God on earth at the
start of the
ballet demons
of
the
mountain,
who
represent
he
illusory
delights
of
the idle life
of
love
(IIo).18
Yet curious it
is,
because
McGowan claims
they
are
overshad-
owed
by
the
spectacular
lements-decor,
music,
and
dance-whose
effect
is
un-
ambiguously
o confirm
political
ascendancy
I 13):
The
king's
grandeur,
ranslated
to
the beholder
by
the
spectacular plendor,
became
evident
(I
I
I).
Similarly,
mu-
sicologist
CharlesTownsend
Downey argues
that
Armide was read
allegoricallyby
the audience as
the
Regency
of
Marie
de
Medicis
during
the
king's minority.
Thus,
the
politics
of the ballet
have to do with
very specific
and
embodied
power
strug-
gles. That is, the ballet tself is apoliticalbattlegroundrather hana unifiedpolitical
statement.
Downey
notes:
The
man
charged
with
the
ballet's
realization,
Etienne
Durand,
was
himself
executed
in
July
of the same
year
for
allegedly
having
been involved
in
the
traitorousactivities of the
regent
and for
having
published
a
pamphlet
slan-
dering
Charles de
Luynes
who
portrayed
Renault in
the ballet.
(I998:I66)'9
Here,
it is
a
concept
less
of
the
political
function of
ballet than
its
very
status
as
politicized
action.
If
Armide
is an
allegory
for the
king's
mother
and
Regent,
Ma-
rie
de
Medicis,
the
king
affirmshis
authority by
having
Durand write
Armide
out
of the ballet's opening scene. In this way he limits the Regent's power through
the
public spectacle
in
which
she
appears
under
erasure. am
not
questioning
the
validity
of
interpretations
according
to which
the ballet
stages
ocal
power
strug-
gles,
but
I
ask how ritual-in
the
guise
of
curiosity-works
toward
the
ends of
politics,
i.e.,
toward the reiteration
of
norms at the
basis of
Butler's
definition of
performativity.
t
is
indeed the most
curious
elements
of
the
ballet that
contain the
ritual
dimension,
but for that
very
reason
they
should
not
be considered
curious.
In
order
to
develop
this
point,
let us
consider
the
stage
action and its
intertextual
relationship
o
Tasso.
The
Fire
Demon,
played by
Louis
XIII,
is
assigned
by
Armide to
guard
Re-
naud:
avec
charge
de
lui faire
passer
e
temps
en tous
les
delices
imaginables
(calledto passthe time with him in the most pleasurable ashionimaginable;La-
croix
1968,
2:103).
This
pleasurable
pastime
takes the form
of a
duet.
Fulfilling
his
charge by
dancing
with
Renaud,
the
king
is
virtually
an
agent
of
Armide's
en-
chantment. The Fire
Demon
role
constitutes a
departure
rom Tasso's
ext.
In
fact,
the
king
dances a
conflation of
textual
elements. In
the
Liberata,
when the
infidel
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78
MarkFranko
3. Renaud,
seeing
his
reflec-
tion in the shield/mirror
throws is chainson the
ground
and
prepares
o es-
cape
rom
Armide's hrall
(Durand
1617). (Courtesy
of
Cliche
Bibliotheque
a-
tionale
de
France,
Paris)
Ismen
makes the forest
surroundingJerusalem
appear
to
burn in
order
to
protect
it from the
incursions of Chris-
tian soldiers who
pillage
its
wood to construct
moving
fortresses,
a
City
of Flame is created:
The
tallest
flames have the
shape
of castles
proud
and turreted
(Tasso
[I582]
I987:13.33).
Monsters
appear
to defend
these
flaming
battlements.
Later,
when Renaud is dis-
enchanted,
having escaped
from
Armide's
thrall,
he en-
*Il;
;
0.:.:..:...
.:
0
.-
:
:
:i;:
:X
.
: 0i .
ters the
enchanted
wood and is confronted
with
her
::::;:::-::;-:-:.. i;:::: ::: :
apparition,
which
emerges
from a
myrtle.
Armide is at
i
^:A:h::;:
ner most
ambivalent: She looks
upon
him in sorrow
.
:;-;:
and mirth at
once: a thousand
passions
show
mingled
in
one
glance (18.31.389).
As
lenaud
lifts
his
sword
against
the
myrtle,
however,
she
is
transformed into a
demon.
Tasso links fire and demonic
possession
with
Armide.
The librettist transforms these
images
of
fire
and demonic
possession belonging
to Armide into the
,
i
l
:
visual and
dramatic
attributes of the
king.
j:::
::::::
:;iit;
tI
The
royal
connotations
of fire and
possession
are
ex-
tended
scenographically through particular
uses of
re-
flected
light
to which
I
shall turn
shortly.
Let
me
note
here that the
spectacular modality
of reflection is central
to the dramatic
turning point
of the
story,
both
in
the
:
poem
and
in
the ballet. Renaud's scene of
deliverance
~
:::*
-corresponds closely
to
its
literary
source. Two
knights
armed in classical
style
( armez
a
l'antique ),
unde-
terred
by
the blandishments of the
place,
hold
up
a
crys-
tal shield to Renaud's face:
Et faisant voir
Renault a
luy-mesme
dans l'escu de cristal
qu'ils avoyent ap-
port&,
l'emmenerent hors
de ce
lieu
enchante,
jusques
au milieu de la
salle,
ou ce
guerrier
eut telle honte de sa
jeunesse
ainsi
passee, que
ses
carquans
luy
furent des
meurtres
reprochables,
ses dorures des taches
inffames,
et sa
demeure
voluptueuse
une
funeste
prison. (Lacroix
I968:1
I2)
(And
having
Renaud look at his own
image
in
the
crystal
shield that
they
carried,
they
led him
away
from this enchanted
place
to
the middle of the
hall where this warrior
conceived such shame of his
youth squandered
in
this
way
that his chains were as
murders,
his
gildedness
infamous
stains,
and
his
voluptuous
home a disastrous
prison.)
Confronted
with his effeminized
image,
Renaud
is shamed back to his virile
self,
and deserts the
garden
to
rejoin
Godfrey's
ranks
(plate
3).
This
peripeteia
at
the
work's center turns on
Renaud's
perception
of his own
image,
which
is more
precisely
an
image
reflected in the
shield-as-mirror.
Armide,
betrayed by
Renaud,
is then
besieged by
demons transformed into hideous
creatures
seeming
to mock
her lament
(plate
4).
This
scene offsets the
psychological significance
of Renaud's
altered
subjectivity
with a
burlesque
tableau of uncontrolled
passion
and
spite.
The
moving platform again
revolves,
revealing
the
king
as
Godfrey
and his closest
associates
(the
former
demons) (plate 5).
Louis
XIII
congratulates
Renaud on
his
liberation and all
dance an
elegant
ballet in the
form of
a male
geometrical
dance
(plate
6).2
In
this
brief
synopsis,
I
have
neglected
some
impressive
scenic effects and
many
of the
linguistic
inflections
to which
I
shall return
shortly.
I
wish
to underline a
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MajesticDrag
79
methodological point:
all
the
king's
danced
appearances
hould
be taken into
ac-
count when
interpreting
the
ballet's
political significance.
No one
role
should be
relegated
to the
status
of
curiosity.
The
king
as a
figure
of enchantment
and
as an
enchanted
figure
is,
like the character
Armide,
highly
seductive
and
ambivalent.
Tasso
depicted
Armide to
be,
not unlike the
French
monarch,
a
theatre of attrac-
tions. Her charmswere the arts
by
which she was able
secretly
to
capture
thou-
sands
and thousands
of souls
(Tasso
[1582]
I987:4.96.89).
The final
song
of the
ballet characterizes
Armide as
nothing
less than a sun
in
her
light
( rien
moins
qu'un
soleil
en
clairte ),
thus
giving royal
attributes o
her
magic power
(Durand
I617:23).21
Either
directly
or
by
association,
he
king
bodifies
a
sequence
of
un-
reconciled
subject
positions
that mirror Renaud's
inversion and
evoke Armide's
power.
What
politics
are
here
worked out
in ritual
and aesthetic
terms?
Louis XIII
personally
chose
the
story
of
Renaud,
according
to
the librettistDu-
rand,
for
production
as a
court ballet.
Your
Majesty,
writes Durand
in
the
ded-
icatory
letter,
chose
the deliverance
of
Renaud
from
among
many
other
subjects
presented
to
him
(Lacroix
1968:99).
But the
libretto also
contains a disclaimer
about the king'sinterest n the storyof Renaud who was distracted romthe siege
of
Jerusalem
and
drowned
in
the lascivious concerns of
love
(Tasso
[1582]
I987:4.17.72):
the
King
himself who can
(it
seems)
give
more licence
to
appe-
tites,
let
everyone
know
that
the
only
voluptuousness
he cherished was
that born
of virtue
(Lacroix i968:ioi).22
Durand
represents
he
king moralizing
on
Re-
naud's conflict between
honor and love even
as
the
libretto itself attests
to
the
king's
commission
of
a
court
entertainment-a
plaisir-whose
spectacular
en-
ticements
yield
a
night
more delicious
than
the
most beautiful
spring day
(II9).23
Starting
at
2:00 A.M.
and
lasting
until
5:00
A.M.,
LaDelivrance
s
the oc-
casion
for
a
night
of
pleasure
at
its
most
hyperbolic
and
unforgettable.
Is this
the
time
and
place
to
rectify
political instability,
as
McGowan
and
Downey
suggest?
f
it is, the ballet'smeansof doing so is to combine, asthe librettosays,frivolitywith
gravity
(I II).24
Although
La
Delivrance
oncludes with
victory
for
the
West Renaud's
as well
as
the
nation's-I
wish to
A
concentrate on
the
king's
ambiguous
and even contra-
:
i--
---
dictory
attributes
n
the ballet.
The
libretto lavishes
at-
tention on
the
Fire
Demon
role,
detailing
not
only
the
king's
costume
but
listing
the
role's diverse
allegorical
interpretations.
The costume dazzles the
eye
like
a bed
of
fragmented
mirrors:
gold
and
silverthreadand
gilded
braid on the flame costume reflect
the
candlelight
em-
anatingfrom the hall:
Ses flammes
estoyent
esmaillees
et
faites
avec
un
tel
artifice,
que
le feu mesme
se
rendoit
plus
es-
clatant
par
elles,
lorsque
les
rayons
des
flambeaux
..j|_
innombrables
de la
salle
estoyent
adressez
dessus,
et
que
ceux
qui
regardoient
en
recevoyent
a re-
flexion.
(I05)
(His
flameswere enameled and fashioned
with
such
artifice that
they
made the
fire
itself
more
i
brilliantwhen
the
rays
of
the
innumerable
orches
fromthe hallwere reflectedupon them, andthen
in turn
reflected
at the
audience.)
This costume intensifies
firelight
by refracting
t
back
i?
at the
audience.
The
king's body
irradiates
he bedaz-
:
4.
Armide,
urious
at
Re-
naud's
departure,
ummons
demons
hat
have
metamor-
phosed
nto
tortoises, rabs,
and snails
(Durand
1617).
(Courtesy f
Cliche
Biblio-
thequeNationaledeFrance,
Paris)
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80 MarkFranko
5.
The
platform
evolveso
reveal
he
king
as
God
ey
and his
12
warriors
n
their
pavilion
Durand1617).
(Courtesy
f
Cliche
Biblio-
theque
Nationale
de
France,
Paris)
zling light
of
which
it
appears
onstituted. Durand
relates he
allegorical
meanings
of
flame,
which
include the
king's passion
for
his
wife,
his
good
intentions
toward
his
subjects,
and his
majesty
to
foreigners,
but
also
his
power
to
destroy
his
ene-
mies. Durand
also
points
out the
likeness
of this demon
to
seraphim
(Io5).
Kan-
torowicz's remarksare
relevant here
when
he
links the
immortality
and sexless
quality
of the
Phoenix as
metaphor
for the
corporate
body
with the similar
qual-
ities of
angels
in
both
Catholic and
Rabbinic
traditions
1957:394-95).
The
fiery
spirit
projects
a divine
aureole,
and
thus
the Fire Demon
himself,
although
rep-
resenting
Armide's
powers,
also
comes to
suggest
the
corporate
body
of the
king.
Even
in
the
iconography's
religious
connotations,
the
king's
intermediate
being
is
stressed
n this likeness to
angels.
But the
menacing quality
of the Fire
Demon
would
tend
to overshadow
the
role's beatific
connotations. It is
perhaps
as an af-
terthought
but also as
a
sign
of
what
actually
ranspired
n the
king's
interpretation
that
Durand
qualifies
the more
aggressive
connotations
of
the Fire Demon cos-
tume
with
the
king's
contrary
movement
quality:
extreme
gentleness.
One
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82 Mark Franko
effect on
monarchical
representation
n court
ballet, or,
rather,
ballet
is the
privi-
leged place
of
this de-localization and
dis-location. Such
is the
Baroque
trait,
notes Gilles
Deleuze,
an exterior
always
on the
outside,
an interior
always
on
the
inside
(I993:35).
This
baroque trope
stands
the
figure
of
embodiment
on
its
head. The
spectacle
neither
assertsabsolutism
n
a
juridical
sense
nor
undermines
it in an aestheticsense. If the king's subject position is to stand both within and
without,
then
it should
be understood
in
a
ritual sense.
It is the
very
aesthetics
of
ritual
that
calls
performativity
nto
question
as
citational
practice
by rendering
ts
instablilityperceptible.
This is neither
performance
nor
performativity
as contem-
porary
theory
defines
them.
We
know that
with
the
critical
analysis
of
performativity
comes the
realization
that
every performative
is unstable.
But that
instability
is remedied
by repeated
acts.
The contradictions
engendered
by
the
king's
roles
and the
uses
of
light
as I
have
examined
them
raise the
issue
of
theatricality
n relation
to
performativity.
Theatricality
avows
ts
instability.
Theatricality operates
on the
basis
of semiotic
6.
The
knights
dance
geo-
metricalance o close he
ballet
Durand
1617).
(Courtesy
f
Cliche
Biblio-
theque
Nationale
de
France,
Paris)
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Majestic
Drag
83
polarization
within one
term,
and thus an indifferentiationof
opposites
(as
be-
tween the inside and the
outside);
in
performance
this
engenders
a
perceptual
os-
cillation.27
These
qualities
are
signaled
in La Delivrance
by
the effects of
double
casting
and the visual
phenomena
whereby
sources of
power
are
placed
in
ques-
tion.
For
Butler, however, performativityconcealsts theatricality.The performative
act,
she
specifies:
is not
primarily
theatrical;
ndeed its
apparent heatricality
s
produced
to
the
extent that its
historicity
remains
dissimulated
and
conversely,
ts theat-
ricality
gains
a
certain
inevitability
given
the
impossibility
of a
full
disclo-
sure
of its
historicity).
(1993:12-I3)
This is
to
say
that,
if
disclosed,
the historical basis of its
citationality
would
both
reveal ts theatrical
(that
s
false)
nature,
and
conversely,
hat its
theatricality
as
ap-
parent
truthfulness)
derives from the lack
of
any
such disclosure.
In
the
historical
examples
I
have focused
on, theatricality
shuns the claims
to
the
relativestability
in
either
apparent
ruth or
outright
deception.
t
exposes
its own
performativity.
Thus,
theatricality
s no
longer
a
liability
to
power.
The
founding gesture
of
sovereignty
is the
erasure of a
historicity
in
which
power
derives its
strength
from an
arbitrary
vent.
This
historicity,
as
Butler re-
marks,
is vowed to the
impossibility
of
a full disclosure and constitutes what
Agamben
identifies as the
state of
exception.
It is
not
simply privileged;
it
is
category-less.
This lack of
category
is
connoted
in
many
court
ballets
of
the
early
17th
century by
the
dispersion
of
the monarch's
autonomous
identity
in
a
series
of
roles
and
mirroring
effects that are in
excess with
respect
to
his
personal
affec-
tive self-control.
Yet,
when
Renaud
perceives
his own
reflection
in
the
shield,
the
figure
of reflection is
deployed
in
the
name
of
self-control.
It
is productiveof Re-
naud's shame
at
his
own reflection and
thus leads to a
mastery
of
his
fantasies.28
Yet,
this
dramatic
progress
mplied by
the
protagonist's
ransformation s not iter-
ated
by
the
ballet's
most
performative
aspects.
In
this
way,
the
king
stands
outside
the
dramaticstructure. It
thus
becomes evident
why
the
king
does not
play
Re-
naud.
In
closing,
let me return
to Louis
XIII's
personal
performance style
with two
remarkson
the
grand
ballet-the final
group
choreography
of
court ballets that
celebratesthe turn of
events
in
the
plot-where
antistructure hould
presumably
have
resolved back into
structure. The
majesty,
which seems
contrary
to
such
actions,
we
read,
was
always
n
his
steps,
and the
grace
would have been for him
alone
if
those who
accompanied
him had not
stolen it to
make what
theyimitated
admirable
(Lacroix
1968:I119).29
These words
indicate to me that the
qualities
of
gentleness,
sweetness,
and
kindness that had
been those of the
king
as Fire
Demon
are also those
of the
king
as
Godfrey
in
the
grand
ballet.
The
roles as
they
are ac-
tually
danced
are,
in this
respect,
not
contradictory.
The
docility
of the
king's per-
formance contrasts
with the
majesty
encoded in his movement
vocabulary.
That
majesty
is
recuperated
almost
by
anticipation,
because it
moves ahead
of
his
steps
( au
devant de ses
pas
[I
I9]).
And
finally,
grace
belonged uniquely
to the
monarch unless stolen
by
others
and
mimetically
reflected
back
at
him. We have
in
these final
comments
a
strikingly
articulated
confirmation of
the
dispersion
and
mirroring
I
analyzed
in the
king's
various
appearances.
Here,
performativity
acts
to
iterate
dis-location
by dispersing
its
semiotic
gesture
across members
of the
king's
own
body
or
between
himself and
members of his
court.
In
this
sense,
what
is
disclosed is
not
historicity
in
Butler's
terms,
but the
impossibility
of
historical
disclosure
tself.
The
theatricalization
of
this
disclosureof the
impossibility
of
dis-
closure is
spatialization.
I think
we
have here a
subversive
reading
of the cor-
porate body
which,
as
Kantorowicz
stresses,
s
collective
only
and
exclusively
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84
Mark
Franko
with
regard
to Time since the
plurality
of its members was
made
up only
and
exclusively by
succession
(1957:3
I2).
Spatialization
of the
performance
of/for succession
goes
hand in handwith
dis-
ruption
of the closure of the
royal subject. Despite
the
literary
source and its
dra-
matic
peripeteia,
the
ballet delivers
the stasis of
instability,
one
might
almost
say
the antidramaturgical erpetuity of its subversion.Dance and music, ratherthan
belonging
with those
spectacular
effects that reinforce
in
their
blatant
magnifi-
cence the
political
message
of
power's presence,
are
actually
the
formally
subver-
sive
means
through
which the
performance
sustains the
ambiguity
and
contradiction
of
personal
sovereignty,
and
leaves
it with the
audience to
carry
away
and
contemplate
or resolve.30
Notes
i.
A versionof this
article
was
presented
s a
keynote
address
o the Annual
Symposium
n Me-
dieval,
Renaissanceand
Baroque
Studies,
Performance nd
Performativity,
t
the Univer-
sityof Miami n
2002.
2.
Butler calls
his
relationship
etween
the sexed
body
and its
assignedgender
expressive,
term whose
importance
n
dance
theory
cannotbe
overestimated,
ut which
Butler
deploys
in a
strictly
philosophical
ense. In
Bodies
That
Matter
1993)
she
replaces
expression
with
performativity.
3.
CatherineSoussloff irst
suggested
he visual
aspects
of
performativity
n her
essay
Like
a
Performance:
Performativity
nd
the
Historicized
Body,
from
Bellori to
Mapplethorpe
(2000:69-98).
4.
See
Giorgio Agamben'scritique
of
Kantorowicz's
mphasis
on
this
aspect
of
the
theory
in
his
Homo
Sacer:
Sovereign
ower
ndBare
Life
I998:9I-I03).
5.
This
is,
of
course,
where
Butler's
critique
of
Austinalso
begins.
See alsoAndrew
Parker nd
Eve
KosofskySedgwick
(I995).
6. Forbackgroundn raison 'etat n theearly 7thcentury,ee Thuau I966). Raisond'etat
was
the
17th-century
erm
for
sovereignauthority.
Thuau
writes:
This
monarchical
deology [...]
is at the
junction
of two
currents: n the one
hand,
a
philosophy
f
the
monarchy,
he work
ofjurists
and
theorists
n
the
King's
ervice,
and,
on the
other
hand,
a
religion
of
the
monarchy,
which
through
ts fetes
and cere-
monies
imposes
tself
on
imaginations
nd
sensibilities.
I966:14)
7.
Louis
Marin:
The
fete,
by
its
magic
nd n that
register,
epresents
more
clearly
han
any
other
domain he
phantasms
hat
animate
he
reasonof state n
its
principle
and
project
I988:I93-
94).
8. This
point
is
not contra
Kantorowicz,
but
may
actually
low
from his
positioning
of
French
monarchy
with
respect
o the
two-body theory.
He
noted:
France hough fullyawareof the differentmanifestations f individualkingand m-
mortal
Dignity, eventually
nterpreted
he
absolutist
rulership
n
such
a
fashion hat
the
distinctions
between
personal
and
supra-personal spects
were
blurredor even
eliminated.
1957:446)
9.
Thus
we cannot
agree
with
Canova-Green's
osition
that:
The
only
true
meaning
of
court
divertissements
given
it,
not in its
aesthetic
valuebut
by
its
value at
once
as
effect
and
rep-
resentation
f
political
power
(1993:58).
Io.
For Butler
there s no
body
prior
to
its
construction,
although
his
absence
poses
a
potential
problem
or
thinking
he
operations
of
performativity
n
appropriate
heatrical erms.
1
I.
The
distinction
Butler
develops
between
performance
nd
performativity
n
BodiesThat
Matter
is articulatedn
GenderTroublen
terms of
performativeness
nd
expression :
The dis-
tinction
between
expression
nd
performativeness
s
crucial
1990:14I).
I2.
For
an
earlier
ersionof this
essay,
ee
Double Bodies:
Androgyny
nd Power n
the
Perfor-
mances
of LouisXIV in
TDR
(1994:71-82).
13.
I
understandCareri o mean
by
this
that the control
of
affect,
part
of
the
civilizing
process
Elias
describes,
s
staged
on the
male
body.
14.
I
thank
Richard
Kroll
or
bringing
this
article o
my
attention.
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Majestic
Drag
85
5.
This
scene
occurs
n book I6 of
Tasso.
I6.
The
character
f the
mage
Alcine and her
bewitchment
f
Roger
in Ariosto'sRolando urioso
(1532)
parallels
n
many ways
Tasso'snarrative f Renaud and Armide. The
story
also in-
spired
a number
of
important
balletsand
comedies-ballets,
he most
noteworthy
of which in
Franceare
Le Balletde
Monseigneur
e ducde Vandosme
I610)
and
Moliere'sLes
Plaisirs
e 'ile
enchantee
1664).
I7.
McGowansituates
he melodramatic
enre
of
court
ballet,
of which La Delivrances
a
prime
example,
between
I610
and 1620
(I963:72).
18. The
king's
role as one of the demons is what associates
im the most
closely
with
Armide,
who is surrounded
y
a
number
of other demonic charactersn
the
ballet.The
demons are
an extension of Armide's
magic power
and an
expression
of her
energy
and will rather han
representations
f
evil.
19.
I thankKate VanOrden for
bringing
this research o
my
attention.
20.
On
geometrical
dance,
see Franko
1993:15-3 I).
2I. The
originalpublication
of the libretto
by
Ballard ontains he
music,
plates,
and
song
lyrics.
It
is
at the Cliche
Bibliotheque
Nationale
de
France,
Paris:
BN
Res Vm.
7.683
(2).
22. Le
Roy
mesme,
qui peut
(ce semble)
donner
plus
de
licence
aux
appetits,
a fait connoistre
i tout le monde
qu'il
n'estimoitaucune
volupte
oiiable
que
celle
qui
naissoit
de la
vertu.
23.
Une
nuit
plus
delicieuse
que
la
plus
belle
ournee
du
printemps.
24.
Un Balletde
bouffonnerie
et de
gravite
entremeslee.
25.
N'eust
este la douceurextresme
de
ses
actions,
on eust creu
que
des
lors sa
Majeste
'estoit
couverte
de feu
pour
consumer es ennemis.
26. Mitchell
Greenberg
I994)
makesa
strong
case
for
the
coincidence
of
patriarchy
nd
sover-
eignty
n court theatreof the
I7th
century.
27.
For a
theory
of
theatricality
s
ndifferentiation,
ee Marco
Baschera's
Thedtraliteans 'oeuvre
de Moliere
1998).
28. On the relationof shame
to
performativity,
ee
Eve
Kosofsky
Sedgwick's
Queer
Perfor-
mativity:HenryJames's
The
Art
of
the
Novel
I993).
29.
La
majestequi
semble contrairea
telles
actions
estoit
toujours
au
devantde ses
pas,
et la
grace
n'eust este
pour luy
seul,
si
ceux
qui l'accompagnoyent
e
l'eussent
par
fois
derobee
pour
faireadmirer e
qu'ils aisoyent
n l'imitant.
30.
I am
grateful
or the
Collegium
Musicum
performance
ed
by
KateVanOrden
of La
Delivr-
ancede Renaud t Hertz
Hall,
University
of
California
t
Berkeley,
7
February
002.
It
con-
firmed for me that the music
supports
he
effects
I
am
ascribing
o the dance.
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Homo
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overeign
ower nd Bare
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TheFold:
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8/11/2019 1147011
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/1147011 18/18
Majestic
Drag 87
tury,
edited
by
Michael S. Roth and
Chalres
G.
Salas.
Los
Angeles:
Getty
Re-
search
nstitute
Publications:
78-206.
Soussloff,
Catherine
2000 Likea
Performance:
erformativity
nd the
Historicized
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n
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n the
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eformancecrosshe
Disciplines,
d-
itedby MarkFranko nd AnnetteRichards,69-98. Middletown:
Wesleyan
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versity
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Torquato
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[I58I]
Jerusalem elivered.
ranslated
y
Ralph
Nash. Detroit:
Wayne
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Press.
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Etienne
I966
Raisond'etat t
pensee
olitique l'epoque
e Richelieu.
aris:ArmandColin.
La
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e Laict u Le
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agloire
623
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MarkFranko is theauthorofThe Work of Dance: Labor,Movement, andIdentity
in the
I930S
(WesleyanUniversity
Press,
2002),
Dancing
Modernism/Performing
Politics
(Indiana
University
ress,
1995),
Dance as Text:
Ideologies
of the
Baroque
Body
(Cambridge
niversity
ress,
1993),
The
Dancing Body
in
Renaissance Cho-
reography
(Summa
Publications,
986),
and
coeditor,
ith
Annette
Richards,
f
Acting
on
the Past: Historical
Performance
Across the
Disciplines (Wesleyan
University
Press,
2000).
He has
published
umerous
rticlesn
anthologies
nd
journals
uchas
Res,
TDR,
Theatre
Journal,
Annals
of
Scholarship,
Discourse,
Social
Text,
and Per-
formance Research.
His
researchasbeen
supported y
The
Getty
Research
enter,
The
American
Philosophical ociety,
he
AmericanCouncil
of
Learned
Societies,
and
the
France/Berkeley
und.
A
dancer nd
choreographer,
ranko
has
presented
is work
nter-
nationallyince1985,and is ProfessorfDanceandPerformancetudiesattheUniversity
of California,
anta
Cruz.
Recommended