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Majestic Drag: Monarchical Performativity and the King's Body TheatricalAuthor(s): Mark FrankoSource: TDR (1988-), Vol. 47, No. 2 (Summer, 2003), pp. 71-87Published by: The MIT Press

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a j e s t i c

r a g

Monarchical

Performativity

and

the

King's

Body

Theatrical

MarkFranko

Cet

oeil

courtois,

mbitieux,

n,

simple,

doux,

hagard, spre,

delicieux

(This eye-courtly,

ambitious, efined,

imple,

weet,

hagard, arsh,

delicious).

-La

Voye

de

Laict

ou

Le Chemin

desHeros

au Palaisde

lagloire

1623)

I

want

to

think the critical

theory

of

performance

and

performativity

hrough

the historical ens of

kingship

in

I7th-century

French

spectacle.'

In

doing

so,

I will

posit

a link

between the

king's

two bodies

and the

performance/performativity

dualism

as theorized

byJudith

Butler.

Ernst

Kantorowicz has chartedthe doctrine

of the

king's

two bodies-one naturaland

mortal,

the other

politic

and immate-

rial-from the late middle

ages

until

early modernity

(I957).

For

Kantorowicz,

the

phenomenal body

of

the

king publicly

demonstrated

and

guaranteed

sover-

eignty

and stable

political

identity

by

virtue of

embodiment,

which

thereby

ob-

tained a

theological

dimension.

The term

embodiment,

notesJudith

Butler:

drawn

as it is from

theological

contexts

[...]

tends to

figure

the

body

as a

mode of incarnation

and, hence,

to

preserve

the external and dualisticrela-

tionship

between

a

signifying immateriality

and the

materiality

of the

body

itself.

(I990:I

52,

nI5)2

This material and

symbolic figuration

of

the

body

to which Butler refers

s

that

of

performativity.

Yet,

although

kingship

is

generally

understood to

exemplify

patriarchalpower through hypermasculine dentity,

this does

not

alwaysprove

to

be true

in

early 17th-century

ballet. And this fact is

significant

in

the

context

of

ballet's

political

entailments.

Confronting

Kantorowicz with ballet on the one

hand,

and Butler with Kantorowicz on

the

other,

enables us

at once to

question

an

allegory

of

the modern

power

of sex

in

the

early

modern sex of

power.

In

other

terms,

I

wish to

compare

the

sex/gender/power

matrix that

emerged

from

The Drama

Review

47,

2

(T178),

Summer

2003.

Copyright

)

2003

New York

University

ndthe

Massachusetts

nstitute

f Technology

71





8/11/2019 1147011


72

Mark Franko

speech

act

theory

to

historical

performance

materials.These

materials

enable

us

to

rethink

the issue

ofperformativity

in a

dimension

not

necessarily

commanded

by discursivity

alone.3The

question

that

emerges

from the encounter

between

Kantorowicz

and

Butler

mediatedvis-a-vis

court

ballet

is: Does

I7th-century

Eu-

ropean

monarchical

performativity

take

a

symbolic

claimto the

unified

sovereign

subject?

Kantorowicz

interprets

the historical

dualism that

lurks within

royal

embodi-

ment asan affirmation

of the

juridicopolitical

status

of

kingship through

its

power

to

safeguard

against despotism

and

justify monarchy

as a

system

of

governance.

But his

two-body theory guarantees

more than

anything

else the

perpetual

nature

of

sovereignty.4

The

body

natural

is

mortal,

but the

body politic-and

hence

monarchy

itself-is

eternal.

The

two-body

theory presents

an

interesting

case

of

performativity,

which

Butler understands

asa

process

of reiteration

or

citationality.

There is no

power

that

acts,

she

specifies,

but

only

a

reiterated

acting

that

is

power

in its

persistence

and

instability

(I993:9).

Performativity

underscores

the

active exercise

of

continuity

through persistent

yet

unstable

actions of the

body

natural.This body is fundamentallytemporal (mortal)

although

the

identity

it

confirms

through continuity

appears

a-temporal.

Performativity

has

implications

for the

historic

body

politic

and

draws us

into

that areawhere

repeated

acts

have

been

cultivated

n

the

interestsof

power:

court

theatre.

If

ritualsof

state can be seen

to

promote

symbolic continuity,

court

ballets

are

generally

considered

political

in

a

very

local and

temporal

sense:

they

are

often

interpreted

through

the

circumstances

specific

to

diplomacy

(see

Canova-

Green

1993).

Court

ballet is to be

distinguished

from the

ceremonial,

although

not,

as we

shall

see,

from

ritual. The

instability

Butler

pinpoints

in

performative

identity

by

virtue of its

necessity

to

repeat

itself is evident in

the

king's body

the-

atrical: hat

is,

in

his

reiterated

performances.

Two Bourbon kingswere dancers n ballets,which were

major

vehiclesof their

representative

ublicness

(see

Habermas

1991:1

).

Moreover,

theatre s

conven-

tionally

repetitive

and thus

not

foreign

to the

iterative

conditions

requiredby

per-

formativity.

Austin,

of

course,

disqualifies

ceremony,

ritual,

and

theatre from

the

performative

function

by

calling

them

nonserious or

parasitic,

in

a

peculiar

way

hollow

or void

(I975:I8-19,

25).

He is

thinking

of the

modern

stage,

however,

where

performance

is

no

longer

the life of

power.5

Etienne

Thuau

envisaged

17th-century spectacle

as

transcending

ts

immedi-

ately

aesthetic

dimension

to

become a form

of

public

persuasion.

He

argued

that

royal performances

enabled the

public

to

visualize

the

religious

aspect

of

monar-

chy,

whereas

the

philosophical

and

theoretical

underpinnings

of

raison

d'etatoc-

curredonly in writing.6I shallargue that court balletsfulfilled a more

complex

function

related

to

what Louis

Marin

([198I] I988)

has

called

the

phantasms

f

raison

d'etat.7

This is

to

say

that the

body

naturalas

perceived

in

dance is

a

complex

(rather

han

hollow

or

void)

body,

despite

the

fact

that

Kantorowicz

grants

com-

plexity

solely

to

the

crown or

the

corpus

mysticum

I957:382).8

The

complexity

of

the

body

natural

resides n

its

performative

rather han

juridical

status.It

is,

in

fact,

not a

body

natural

but a

body

heatrical.

his

body

calls

us to a

considerationof

the

combined

aesthetic,

political,

and

ritual

functions of

court

ballet.9

By

ritual

I

do

not

intend

a

synonym

for

ceremonial or

for

repeated

action.

Rather,

I

adopt

an-

thropologist

Carlo

Severi's

apprehension

of

the

ritual

image,

which

contains con-

tradictory

visual

and

narrative

onnotations

200I).

The

contradictory

onnotations

of the image emerge through aesthetic form. When Louis XIII or Louis XIV

danced

in

officially

sanctioned

ballets,

the

person

of the

monarch

took

up

an ar-

tistic

medium.

His

aesthetic

choices

became

discerniblefrom

within

an

organized

movement

system

by

virtue

of his

particular

execution

and

phrasing,by

virtue,

in

sum,

of

his

theatricality,

understood as

the

heightening

of

physical

presence,

its





8/11/2019 1147011


Majestic

Drag

73

1.

The

demons'mount

rom

La Delivrance de Re-

^ ̂ -^^ -̂^ X-- -t- 0-i-

-

|-vinaud.

The

king

is

presum-

. .

ably

seated

on

the

ground

o

that

he

can

arise

and

dance

with

Renaud

(Durand

*

r:'S~~3:~~~~~

J

^

^

1617).

(Courtesy

f

Cliche

,i'Uiifi

fB

BibliothBque

ationale

de

France,

Paris)

expressiveness

see

Franko

I986:5).

I

use the

term

expressive

here

without call-

ing upon the relationshipof embodiment between performanceand immaterial

meaning.

It

is

important

not to lose the theatrical ense of

this

term. The

king

was

on

view as a finite

physical

and

temperamental

character-an artistat work-and

evaluated

by

his

subjects

as

such without direct reference o

legal

and

uridical

the-

ory. Finally,

we

must

avoid

the

fallacy

implicit

in

artistry

hat

the

king's

artistic

agency

was

wholly

autonomous;

it

was

modified

by

the collective

enterprise

of

theatre.

I

am

arguing

that the act of

dancing

itself

personalized

the

royalpersona.

Usu-

ally,

the

opposite

is

argued:

the direct

trajectory

rom

the

king's

phenomenal ap-

pearance

to

his

body

politic

is

taken for

granted.

Although

the

fiction of a

sempiternal

body

politic

may

have

intruded

upon spectator

awareness,

what

the

spectator

beheld

was

the mobilized

body

natural

even

when its

regalquality,

ts

dignitas,

was

theorized

as

undying

(see

Franko

2000:35-SI).

Were

this not

so,

we

would not be

talking

about

spectacle.

Furthermore,

even

the construction

of

a

mobilized

body

politic

took

place

in

and

through

theatricalnorms that mediate

between

the

material

body

and its construction as a

spectacular ntity.1?

Live

per-





8/11/2019 1147011


74

MarkFranko

formance,

where

attention is riveted on

moment-by-moment

production, rarely

has such

direct accessto

the

theological

dimension. Theatre does

not

work

through

embodiment

but

through

bodification.

It is

thus

difficult to

imagine

the

king's

dance

attaining

a

religious

function for its audience.

His

ballet roles

did not

furnish

fables hat

fed his

royal

mythology

such

as,

for

example,

the

mythology

that

pertains

to the king'scurativepower. One possibleexception was the Apollo role filly un-

dertaken

only

by

Louis XIV.

I

shall

not

be

discussing

this role

per

se but instead the more

frequently

encoun-

tered

Apollo

function :

spectacular

nstanceswhere

the

interaction of

light

with

refracting

materialssuch

as

mirrors

sewn into costume fabric

visually

multiplied

and/or

fragmented

royal dentity.

Where

the

performance

of

royal

myth

becomes

power

itself

(the

sun),

power

is realized

through

a

visual

splintering

of

the

body

image.

The effect of

light

on

the

perception

of

the

body,

attested to in

period

ac-

counts,

enhanced the

ambiguities

inherent in the

king's

double

casting

in

certain

ballets.

I contend this

aggregation

of

effects

promoted

the

dispersion

of

[his]

sub-

jective

autonomy

(Hare

I993:I44).

Thus,

the

question

of his

personalization

be-

comes detachedfrom thatof his subjectivity.

When it comes to the

body,

Butler

argues,

sex and

gender

are

politicalcatego-

ries of

description

I990:I13).

It

is

difficultto

assess he

politics

of

the

king's

sex/

gender

in

ballets.

The

relationship

of

his

biologically

male

body

to

the

ideologically

overdetermined level

of

symbolic representationpresupposed by kingship

effec-

tively

severs the

king's

body

natural rom its

singular

and

particular

xistence even

as

it

weds

his

embodied

(theologically

invested)

political

identity

to

the most

visible and visceralforms of

power.

These are the two traditionsof

the

analytics

of

power

in

relation

to

sex that

Foucault

warns us

away

from in The

History

of

Sexu-

ality

(I990:88-9I).

I

want

to

suggest

that the

king's

ballet

performances

standout

as

excessively

lacking (lacking

in

the mode of

excess)

with

respect

to

the

patriar-

chal, phallocentric model of sex, gender, and power, whose political categories

these

performances

are assumedto consolidate in each

performance.

Just

as sexual

identity

for Butler is

performatively

constituted

by

the

very

'expressions'

hat are

said to be

its

results

I990:25),

so the

king's body

theatricalmaintains

a

question-

able

relationship

o sexual and

political

performativity.

That is to

say,

far

from act-

ing

as a

prop

or

support,

the

king's body

theatrical s

potentially

as

suppressed

as

Butler's

drag

because its

meaning

is a dramatic

and

contingent

construction

(139).I

Yet,

in

the

instance

I

shall

describe,

which

has

no

cross-dressing,

I

shall

theorize

this

dramatic

and

contingent

construction

as

majestic

drag.

Al-

though

it is

a

performative

phenomenon,

it does

leave textual traces.

The

theoretical

questions

are

as follows: Can

the monarch's

stage

appearances

fulfill the function of a.reiterativeand citationalact that sustainshispoliticaliden-

tity?

This

would be the

principle

of

performativity

according

to

Butler. It is

a

ritual

process,

she

specifies,

taking place

in

time

through

the

reiterationof

norms

(I993:IO).

If

performance,

in

Butler's

terms,

grants agency

to the

actor,

whereas

performativitygrants

agency

to the

action

performed,

how

is

the

king's

dancing-which

is as

assuredly

political

as

it

assuredlyprojects

his sex

and

gen-

der-how is this

dancing,

then,

an

instance of his

performativity?

How,

finally

can

performativity

square

with

Severi's sense of

ritual as a

paradoxical

represen-

tation of

positive

and

negative

values

(200o:189)?

I

shall

approach

this

question

initially

by

pointing

out:

(i)

that there is a

mediating theatricality

n

monarchical

performativity,

and

(2)

that

the

construction of

the unified

sovereign

subject

s

not

alwaysthe inevitableresult of theatricalperformativity. t is a calculatedeffect of

court

ballets,

in

other

terms,

to fail

to deliver

the

body

politic.

Elsewhere,

I

have situated the

king's body

natural n the

context of

his cross-

dressed roles in

burlesque

ballets,

a

phenomenon

very suggestive

of

drag,

but

linked

historically

to

political

tensions over

absolutism

(see

Franko

1998:64-84). I





8/11/2019 1147011


MajesticDrag

75

Here

my goal

is

to reconsider the

king's

sexed and

gendered

identity

in the con-

text

of narrativeballets

engineered

to

support

absolutism.

This subversion

has

no

evidently

subversive

political

context.

The

source of the

work

we

shall

examine

here is

Torquato

Tasso's

epic

poem

Jerusalem

Delivered

I58I).

This

ballet,

like

the

poem

it is based

on,

is set

during

the crusadeto the

Holy

Land n

o099. Renaud,

the irascibleChristian

warrior

of this

campaign,

is

abducted

by

the

Muslim

ma-

gician

Armide. Rather than

kill

him,

however,

Armide

falls

n love with

Renaud,

and he with her.

In one

court ballet based on the

epic

poem,

La Delivrance e

Re-

naud

(I617),

we have the

ambiguities

of

cross-dressing

with

respect

to the

king's

identity

without

his

actual

cross-dressed

ppearance.

nstead,

his

gender

instability

arises

through

association

with the

relationship

between

Armide and

Renaud.

The

visual

impact

of travesti

s

substituted for

by

other

theatrical,

scenographic,

and

choreographic

strategies.

Through

the roles

he

plays,

the

king

mirrors Re-

naud

in

his weaknessand

Armide in her

strength.

This

procedure

s faithful

to

its

literary

source.

Giovanni

Careri

(1999)

analyzes

2. The

fire

demon costume

worn

by

Louis

XIII

(lower

center)

n

La

Delivrance

de

Renaud

(Durand

1617).

(Courtesy

f

Cliche

Bibliotheque

ationale

de

France,

Paris)





8/11/2019 1147011


76

Mark

Franko

the inversion

of sexual

roles that occurs

between

Renaud and

Armide

in

Tasso's

epic

poem

as an

important stage

in what Norbert

Eliasreferred

o as the civiliz-

ing

process

(I982).

For

Careri,

Renaud's

excessive sexual

desire must be

con-

verted

into

exceptional aggressive power

in

order

for traditional

masculine

identity

to become

consolidated.

Indeed,

for

Careri,Jersusalem

elivered

s one of

the

founding

texts of'modern' Europeanaffectivity I999:43).I3Most important

for

my

discussion,

Careri

points

out that

Tasso nsists on this

civilizing process

in

order

to

achieve

perfect political

form, i.e.,

the absolute

power

of

the Chris-

tian

king

(44).

Thus,

the

king's

reenactment of

this

founding

text

brings

the

question

of sexual and affective

identity (royalsubjectivity) together

with

that

of

political

and

ideological

power

(royalrepresentation).

In La

Delivrance

e

Renaud,

Louis

XIII

played

ideologically incompatible

roles:

a

Fire Demon

in

the

service of Armide and then

Godfrey

of

Bouillon,

leader

of

the victorious Francs

n the

siege

ofJerusalem.

Somewhat

paradoxically,

he

Fire

Demon

may

be an

early attempt

to

stage

Sun

King iconography

(plate

I).

Kan-

torowicz traces this

image

to Sol

Oriens,

a

god

of

sunrise: He is not identified

with Aurora, he specifies, the roseate Dawn who precedesSunrise.He is Sun-

rise

itself,

the Rise

in

timeless

perpetuity

(I963:II9).I4

To

return

from

the

east,

as

Renaud and

Godfrey

do at

the end ofJerusalem

Delivered,

s a

politicohistorical

requirement

of solar

iconography.

Kantorowicz tracesthe

genealogy

of the

politi-

cal sun

god

back to

Trajan,

noting

that

oriens

(east)

signifies

Orient and sun-

rise

at

the same time

(126).

If

Renaud is to return from the east he must

vanquish

his

passionate

engagement

with

magic, femininity,

and

fire-Armide's

allegorical

attributes.

The ballet

begins

with the

very

scene fromJerusalem elivered n which

Careri

focuses his

analysis

of

the inversion of sexual

roles

that occurs

through passionate

gazing

into the beloved's

eyes.Is

Armide,

however,

is

absentfrom this scene

in

the

ballet.Exultantin his voluptuous passionfor the absentenchantress,Renaud re-

clines

in

Armide's

grotto.

The famous

warrior,

having

betrayed

Godfrey,

s

now

a

victim of

love,

which means above all that he is the

prey

of

emotions.

A

mountain

towers

in the

background

from which demons

(among

whom is

Louis

XIII

play-

ing

a Fire

Demon)

overlook the

stage (plate

2).

The

mountain

later

revolves

en-

abling

the transformation f

Armide's

grotto

into a

gardendesigned

to distract

he

soldiers sent

by Godfrey

to rescue Renaud. But

apart

rom such

scenographic

n-

novations,

the

representation

of the hero

in

this situation is

itself innovative. Let

me

say

a few words about its

unusual

qualities.

Official court

ballets

had

previously

been dominated

by

cosmic

allegory.

Scenes

of emotional

quandary-particularly

of

jealous rage-were conventionally

the

purview ofhetaera such asCirce, Medea, andAlcine, as well as Armide.'6 n such

scenes,

the heroine's

jealousy

and her

desire

for

vengeance

were

expressed

n

rhe-

torical rather han

performative

erms. That

is,

they

were

conventionally

inguistic

and

histrionic rather than

choreographic. Although

not

the

king

himself

but

his

closest adviser

(the

duc de

Luynes)

played

Renaud,

a

noble male characterhad

never before been

depicted

in

a court ballet

submerged

in

personal

and

sensual

fantasies.

For

these reasons

alone,

La

Delivrance e Renaud

should

open

a

different

per-

spective

on

French court ballet

because it raises

he issue of

performance

relative

to raison

d'etat. This

is

not to

say

that court ballet was

unpolitical,

but

that

we

require

a

nuanced and

comprehensive

definition

of the

politics

of

royal

dancing:

we need a description of political performance encompassing the display-of-

absolute-power myth

along

with

the minutiae of

political

existence

that lend it

texture. Such a

textured

description

would account for

elements all too fre-

quently

ignored

in

dance

history

as well as in

political theory:

the

monarch's real

or

imagined

subjectivity,

his

physical body,

and the

erotics of

his

spectacle.

These





8/11/2019 1147011


Majestic

Drag

77

last

give

rise

to

what scholars of

historical

performance

often dismissas

curiosi-

ties. Such curiosities

script

the

performance

of

absolutism and are

thus funda-

mental,

not

incidental,

to the

performativity

of

political

power.

Consider

an

example

from a

respected interpretation

of

La

Delivrance

y

Mar-

garet

M.

McGowan:

The

Renaud ballet is the first

ndication

of

Louis XIII's

[...]

desire to exer-

cise his

authority

and to

reestablish he

stability

which had

been

compro-

mised since the death of

Henry

IV.

[...]

The most

striking

and

important

meaning

of the ballet is

political.

(1963:I02, io8)I7

If

it is true that

the most

important

meaning

of

the ballet

is

political,

we

have

still

to

clarify

what

political

means. The

political

meaning

of

court ballet

is

linked for McGowan to

the

topical interpretation

of its

imagery.

She callsthis bal-

let

a

spectacular

remedy

for

political instability

(Io9).

But the

relationship

of

spectacle

to ritual can

be addressed

only

to the detriment of

this

interpretation.

Forexample,not only are the king'scompanionsdemons in LaDelivrance,ut the

king

himself

plays

one. McGowan

notes this role's

peculiarity:

It

is

curious that

Durand

[the librettist]

makes the

companions

of

God on earth at the

start of the

ballet demons

of

the

mountain,

who

represent

he

illusory

delights

of

the idle life

of

love

(IIo).18

Yet curious it

is,

because

McGowan claims

they

are

overshad-

owed

by

the

spectacular

lements-decor,

music,

and

dance-whose

effect

is

un-

ambiguously

o confirm

political

ascendancy

I 13):

The

king's

grandeur,

ranslated

to

the beholder

by

the

spectacular plendor,

became

evident

(I

I

I).

Similarly,

mu-

sicologist

CharlesTownsend

Downey argues

that

Armide was read

allegoricallyby

the audience as

the

Regency

of

Marie

de

Medicis

during

the

king's minority.

Thus,

the

politics

of the ballet

have to do with

very specific

and

embodied

power

strug-

gles. That is, the ballet tself is apoliticalbattlegroundrather hana unifiedpolitical

statement.

Downey

notes:

The

man

charged

with

the

ballet's

realization,

Etienne

Durand,

was

himself

executed

in

July

of the same

year

for

allegedly

having

been involved

in

the

traitorousactivities of the

regent

and for

having

published

a

pamphlet

slan-

dering

Charles de

Luynes

who

portrayed

Renault in

the ballet.

(I998:I66)'9

Here,

it is

a

concept

less

of

the

political

function of

ballet than

its

very

status

as

politicized

action.

If

Armide

is an

allegory

for the

king's

mother

and

Regent,

Ma-

rie

de

Medicis,

the

king

affirmshis

authority by

having

Durand write

Armide

out

of the ballet's opening scene. In this way he limits the Regent's power through

the

public spectacle

in

which

she

appears

under

erasure. am

not

questioning

the

validity

of

interpretations

according

to which

the ballet

stages

ocal

power

strug-

gles,

but

I

ask how ritual-in

the

guise

of

curiosity-works

toward

the

ends of

politics,

i.e.,

toward the reiteration

of

norms at the

basis of

Butler's

definition of

performativity.

t

is

indeed the most

curious

elements

of

the

ballet that

contain the

ritual

dimension,

but for that

very

reason

they

should

not

be considered

curious.

In

order

to

develop

this

point,

let us

consider

the

stage

action and its

intertextual

relationship

o

Tasso.

The

Fire

Demon,

played by

Louis

XIII,

is

assigned

by

Armide to

guard

Re-

naud:

avec

charge

de

lui faire

passer

e

temps

en tous

les

delices

imaginables

(calledto passthe time with him in the most pleasurable ashionimaginable;La-

croix

1968,

2:103).

This

pleasurable

pastime

takes the form

of a

duet.

Fulfilling

his

charge by

dancing

with

Renaud,

the

king

is

virtually

an

agent

of

Armide's

en-

chantment. The Fire

Demon

role

constitutes a

departure

rom Tasso's

ext.

In

fact,

the

king

dances a

conflation of

textual

elements. In

the

Liberata,

when the

infidel





8/11/2019 1147011


78

MarkFranko

3. Renaud,

seeing

his

reflec-

tion in the shield/mirror

throws is chainson the

ground

and

prepares

o es-

cape

rom

Armide's hrall

(Durand

1617). (Courtesy

of

Cliche

Bibliotheque

a-

tionale

de

France,

Paris)

Ismen

makes the forest

surroundingJerusalem

appear

to

burn in

order

to

protect

it from the

incursions of Chris-

tian soldiers who

pillage

its

wood to construct

moving

fortresses,

a

City

of Flame is created:

The

tallest

flames have the

shape

of castles

proud

and turreted

(Tasso

[I582]

I987:13.33).

Monsters

appear

to defend

these

flaming

battlements.

Later,

when Renaud is dis-

enchanted,

having escaped

from

Armide's

thrall,

he en-

*Il;

;

0.:.:..:...

.:

0

.-

:

:

:i;:

:X

.

: 0i .

ters the

enchanted

wood and is confronted

with

her

::::;:::-::;-:-:.. i;:::: ::: :

apparition,

which

emerges

from a

myrtle.

Armide is at

i

^:A:h::;:

ner most

ambivalent: She looks

upon

him in sorrow

.

:;-;:

and mirth at

once: a thousand

passions

show

mingled

in

one

glance (18.31.389).

As

lenaud

lifts

his

sword

against

the

myrtle,

however,

she

is

transformed into a

demon.

Tasso links fire and demonic

possession

with

Armide.

The librettist transforms these

images

of

fire

and demonic

possession belonging

to Armide into the

,

i

l

:

visual and

dramatic

attributes of the

king.

j:::

::::::

:;iit;

tI

The

royal

connotations

of fire and

possession

are

ex-

tended

scenographically through particular

uses of

re-

flected

light

to which

I

shall turn

shortly.

Let

me

note

here that the

spectacular modality

of reflection is central

to the dramatic

turning point

of the

story,

both

in

the

:

poem

and

in

the ballet. Renaud's scene of

deliverance

~

:::*

-corresponds closely

to

its

literary

source. Two

knights

armed in classical

style

( armez

a

l'antique ),

unde-

terred

by

the blandishments of the

place,

hold

up

a

crys-

tal shield to Renaud's face:

Et faisant voir

Renault a

luy-mesme

dans l'escu de cristal

qu'ils avoyent ap-

port&,

l'emmenerent hors

de ce

lieu

enchante,

jusques

au milieu de la

salle,

ou ce

guerrier

eut telle honte de sa

jeunesse

ainsi

passee, que

ses

carquans

luy

furent des

meurtres

reprochables,

ses dorures des taches

inffames,

et sa

demeure

voluptueuse

une

funeste

prison. (Lacroix

I968:1

I2)

(And

having

Renaud look at his own

image

in

the

crystal

shield that

they

carried,

they

led him

away

from this enchanted

place

to

the middle of the

hall where this warrior

conceived such shame of his

youth squandered

in

this

way

that his chains were as

murders,

his

gildedness

infamous

stains,

and

his

voluptuous

home a disastrous

prison.)

Confronted

with his effeminized

image,

Renaud

is shamed back to his virile

self,

and deserts the

garden

to

rejoin

Godfrey's

ranks

(plate

3).

This

peripeteia

at

the

work's center turns on

Renaud's

perception

of his own

image,

which

is more

precisely

an

image

reflected in the

shield-as-mirror.

Armide,

betrayed by

Renaud,

is then

besieged by

demons transformed into hideous

creatures

seeming

to mock

her lament

(plate

4).

This

scene offsets the

psychological significance

of Renaud's

altered

subjectivity

with a

burlesque

tableau of uncontrolled

passion

and

spite.

The

moving platform again

revolves,

revealing

the

king

as

Godfrey

and his closest

associates

(the

former

demons) (plate 5).

Louis

XIII

congratulates

Renaud on

his

liberation and all

dance an

elegant

ballet in the

form of

a male

geometrical

dance

(plate

6).2

In

this

brief

synopsis,

I

have

neglected

some

impressive

scenic effects and

many

of the

linguistic

inflections

to which

I

shall return

shortly.

I

wish

to underline a





8/11/2019 1147011


MajesticDrag

79

methodological point:

all

the

king's

danced

appearances

hould

be taken into

ac-

count when

interpreting

the

ballet's

political significance.

No one

role

should be

relegated

to the

status

of

curiosity.

The

king

as a

figure

of enchantment

and

as an

enchanted

figure

is,

like the character

Armide,

highly

seductive

and

ambivalent.

Tasso

depicted

Armide to

be,

not unlike the

French

monarch,

a

theatre of attrac-

tions. Her charmswere the arts

by

which she was able

secretly

to

capture

thou-

sands

and thousands

of souls

(Tasso

[1582]

I987:4.96.89).

The final

song

of the

ballet characterizes

Armide as

nothing

less than a sun

in

her

light

( rien

moins

qu'un

soleil

en

clairte ),

thus

giving royal

attributes o

her

magic power

(Durand

I617:23).21

Either

directly

or

by

association,

he

king

bodifies

a

sequence

of

un-

reconciled

subject

positions

that mirror Renaud's

inversion and

evoke Armide's

power.

What

politics

are

here

worked out

in ritual

and aesthetic

terms?

Louis XIII

personally

chose

the

story

of

Renaud,

according

to

the librettistDu-

rand,

for

production

as a

court ballet.

Your

Majesty,

writes Durand

in

the

ded-

icatory

letter,

chose

the deliverance

of

Renaud

from

among

many

other

subjects

presented

to

him

(Lacroix

1968:99).

But the

libretto also

contains a disclaimer

about the king'sinterest n the storyof Renaud who was distracted romthe siege

of

Jerusalem

and

drowned

in

the lascivious concerns of

love

(Tasso

[1582]

I987:4.17.72):

the

King

himself who can

(it

seems)

give

more licence

to

appe-

tites,

let

everyone

know

that

the

only

voluptuousness

he cherished was

that born

of virtue

(Lacroix i968:ioi).22

Durand

represents

he

king moralizing

on

Re-

naud's conflict between

honor and love even

as

the

libretto itself attests

to

the

king's

commission

of

a

court

entertainment-a

plaisir-whose

spectacular

en-

ticements

yield

a

night

more delicious

than

the

most beautiful

spring day

(II9).23

Starting

at

2:00 A.M.

and

lasting

until

5:00

A.M.,

LaDelivrance

s

the oc-

casion

for

a

night

of

pleasure

at

its

most

hyperbolic

and

unforgettable.

Is this

the

time

and

place

to

rectify

political instability,

as

McGowan

and

Downey

suggest?

f

it is, the ballet'smeansof doing so is to combine, asthe librettosays,frivolitywith

gravity

(I II).24

Although

La

Delivrance

oncludes with

victory

for

the

West Renaud's

as well

as

the

nation's-I

wish to

A

concentrate on

the

king's

ambiguous

and even contra-

:

i--

---

dictory

attributes

n

the ballet.

The

libretto lavishes

at-

tention on

the

Fire

Demon

role,

detailing

not

only

the

king's

costume

but

listing

the

role's diverse

allegorical

interpretations.

The costume dazzles the

eye

like

a bed

of

fragmented

mirrors:

gold

and

silverthreadand

gilded

braid on the flame costume reflect

the

candlelight

em-

anatingfrom the hall:

Ses flammes

estoyent

esmaillees

et

faites

avec

un

tel

artifice,

que

le feu mesme

se

rendoit

plus

es-

clatant

par

elles,

lorsque

les

rayons

des

flambeaux

..j|_

innombrables

de la

salle

estoyent

adressez

dessus,

et

que

ceux

qui

regardoient

en

recevoyent

a re-

flexion.

(I05)

(His

flameswere enameled and fashioned

with

such

artifice that

they

made the

fire

itself

more

i

brilliantwhen

the

rays

of

the

innumerable

orches

fromthe hallwere reflectedupon them, andthen

in turn

reflected

at the

audience.)

This costume intensifies

firelight

by refracting

t

back

i?

at the

audience.

The

king's body

irradiates

he bedaz-

:

4.

Armide,

urious

at

Re-

naud's

departure,

ummons

demons

hat

have

metamor-

phosed

nto

tortoises, rabs,

and snails

(Durand

1617).

(Courtesy f

Cliche

Biblio-

thequeNationaledeFrance,

Paris)





8/11/2019 1147011


80 MarkFranko

5.

The

platform

evolveso

reveal

he

king

as

God

ey

and his

12

warriors

n

their

pavilion

Durand1617).

(Courtesy

f

Cliche

Biblio-

theque

Nationale

de

France,

Paris)

zling light

of

which

it

appears

onstituted. Durand

relates he

allegorical

meanings

of

flame,

which

include the

king's passion

for

his

wife,

his

good

intentions

toward

his

subjects,

and his

majesty

to

foreigners,

but

also

his

power

to

destroy

his

ene-

mies. Durand

also

points

out the

likeness

of this demon

to

seraphim

(Io5).

Kan-

torowicz's remarksare

relevant here

when

he

links the

immortality

and sexless

quality

of the

Phoenix as

metaphor

for the

corporate

body

with the similar

qual-

ities of

angels

in

both

Catholic and

Rabbinic

traditions

1957:394-95).

The

fiery

spirit

projects

a divine

aureole,

and

thus

the Fire Demon

himself,

although

rep-

resenting

Armide's

powers,

also

comes to

suggest

the

corporate

body

of the

king.

Even

in

the

iconography's

religious

connotations,

the

king's

intermediate

being

is

stressed

n this likeness to

angels.

But the

menacing quality

of the Fire

Demon

would

tend

to overshadow

the

role's beatific

connotations. It is

perhaps

as an af-

terthought

but also as

a

sign

of

what

actually

ranspired

n the

king's

interpretation

that

Durand

qualifies

the more

aggressive

connotations

of

the Fire Demon cos-

tume

with

the

king's

contrary

movement

quality:

extreme

gentleness.

One





8/11/2019 1147011


8/11/2019 1147011


82 Mark Franko

effect on

monarchical

representation

n court

ballet, or,

rather,

ballet

is the

privi-

leged place

of

this de-localization and

dis-location. Such

is the

Baroque

trait,

notes Gilles

Deleuze,

an exterior

always

on the

outside,

an interior

always

on

the

inside

(I993:35).

This

baroque trope

stands

the

figure

of

embodiment

on

its

head. The

spectacle

neither

assertsabsolutism

n

a

juridical

sense

nor

undermines

it in an aestheticsense. If the king's subject position is to stand both within and

without,

then

it should

be understood

in

a

ritual sense.

It is the

very

aesthetics

of

ritual

that

calls

performativity

nto

question

as

citational

practice

by rendering

ts

instablilityperceptible.

This is neither

performance

nor

performativity

as contem-

porary

theory

defines

them.

We

know that

with

the

critical

analysis

of

performativity

comes the

realization

that

every performative

is unstable.

But that

instability

is remedied

by repeated

acts.

The contradictions

engendered

by

the

king's

roles

and the

uses

of

light

as I

have

examined

them

raise the

issue

of

theatricality

n relation

to

performativity.

Theatricality

avows

ts

instability.

Theatricality operates

on the

basis

of semiotic

6.

The

knights

dance

geo-

metricalance o close he

ballet

Durand

1617).

(Courtesy

f

Cliche

Biblio-

theque

Nationale

de

France,

Paris)





8/11/2019 1147011


Majestic

Drag

83

polarization

within one

term,

and thus an indifferentiationof

opposites

(as

be-

tween the inside and the

outside);

in

performance

this

engenders

a

perceptual

os-

cillation.27

These

qualities

are

signaled

in La Delivrance

by

the effects of

double

casting

and the visual

phenomena

whereby

sources of

power

are

placed

in

ques-

tion.

For

Butler, however, performativityconcealsts theatricality.The performative

act,

she

specifies:

is not

primarily

theatrical;

ndeed its

apparent heatricality

s

produced

to

the

extent that its

historicity

remains

dissimulated

and

conversely,

ts theat-

ricality

gains

a

certain

inevitability

given

the

impossibility

of a

full

disclo-

sure

of its

historicity).

(1993:12-I3)

This is

to

say

that,

if

disclosed,

the historical basis of its

citationality

would

both

reveal ts theatrical

(that

s

false)

nature,

and

conversely,

hat its

theatricality

as

ap-

parent

truthfulness)

derives from the lack

of

any

such disclosure.

In

the

historical

examples

I

have focused

on, theatricality

shuns the claims

to

the

relativestability

in

either

apparent

ruth or

outright

deception.

t

exposes

its own

performativity.

Thus,

theatricality

s no

longer

a

liability

to

power.

The

founding gesture

of

sovereignty

is the

erasure of a

historicity

in

which

power

derives its

strength

from an

arbitrary

vent.

This

historicity,

as

Butler re-

marks,

is vowed to the

impossibility

of

a full disclosure and constitutes what

Agamben

identifies as the

state of

exception.

It is

not

simply privileged;

it

is

category-less.

This lack of

category

is

connoted

in

many

court

ballets

of

the

early

17th

century by

the

dispersion

of

the monarch's

autonomous

identity

in

a

series

of

roles

and

mirroring

effects that are in

excess with

respect

to

his

personal

affec-

tive self-control.

Yet,

when

Renaud

perceives

his own

reflection

in

the

shield,

the

figure

of reflection is

deployed

in

the

name

of

self-control.

It

is productiveof Re-

naud's shame

at

his

own reflection and

thus leads to a

mastery

of

his

fantasies.28

Yet,

this

dramatic

progress

mplied by

the

protagonist's

ransformation s not iter-

ated

by

the

ballet's

most

performative

aspects.

In

this

way,

the

king

stands

outside

the

dramaticstructure. It

thus

becomes evident

why

the

king

does not

play

Re-

naud.

In

closing,

let me return

to Louis

XIII's

personal

performance style

with two

remarkson

the

grand

ballet-the final

group

choreography

of

court ballets that

celebratesthe turn of

events

in

the

plot-where

antistructure hould

presumably

have

resolved back into

structure. The

majesty,

which seems

contrary

to

such

actions,

we

read,

was

always

n

his

steps,

and the

grace

would have been for him

alone

if

those who

accompanied

him had not

stolen it to

make what

theyimitated

admirable

(Lacroix

1968:I119).29

These words

indicate to me that the

qualities

of

gentleness,

sweetness,

and

kindness that had

been those of the

king

as Fire

Demon

are also those

of the

king

as

Godfrey

in

the

grand

ballet.

The

roles as

they

are ac-

tually

danced

are,

in this

respect,

not

contradictory.

The

docility

of the

king's per-

formance contrasts

with the

majesty

encoded in his movement

vocabulary.

That

majesty

is

recuperated

almost

by

anticipation,

because it

moves ahead

of

his

steps

( au

devant de ses

pas

[I

I9]).

And

finally,

grace

belonged uniquely

to the

monarch unless stolen

by

others

and

mimetically

reflected

back

at

him. We have

in

these final

comments

a

strikingly

articulated

confirmation of

the

dispersion

and

mirroring

I

analyzed

in the

king's

various

appearances.

Here,

performativity

acts

to

iterate

dis-location

by dispersing

its

semiotic

gesture

across members

of the

king's

own

body

or

between

himself and

members of his

court.

In

this

sense,

what

is

disclosed is

not

historicity

in

Butler's

terms,

but the

impossibility

of

historical

disclosure

tself.

The

theatricalization

of

this

disclosureof the

impossibility

of

dis-

closure is

spatialization.

I think

we

have here a

subversive

reading

of the cor-

porate body

which,

as

Kantorowicz

stresses,

s

collective

only

and

exclusively





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84

Mark

Franko

with

regard

to Time since the

plurality

of its members was

made

up only

and

exclusively by

succession

(1957:3

I2).

Spatialization

of the

performance

of/for succession

goes

hand in handwith

dis-

ruption

of the closure of the

royal subject. Despite

the

literary

source and its

dra-

matic

peripeteia,

the

ballet delivers

the stasis of

instability,

one

might

almost

say

the antidramaturgical erpetuity of its subversion.Dance and music, ratherthan

belonging

with those

spectacular

effects that reinforce

in

their

blatant

magnifi-

cence the

political

message

of

power's presence,

are

actually

the

formally

subver-

sive

means

through

which the

performance

sustains the

ambiguity

and

contradiction

of

personal

sovereignty,

and

leaves

it with the

audience to

carry

away

and

contemplate

or resolve.30

Notes

i.

A versionof this

article

was

presented

s a

keynote

address

o the Annual

Symposium

n Me-

dieval,

Renaissanceand

Baroque

Studies,

Performance nd

Performativity,

t

the Univer-

sityof Miami n

2002.

2.

Butler calls

his

relationship

etween

the sexed

body

and its

assignedgender

expressive,

term whose

importance

n

dance

theory

cannotbe

overestimated,

ut which

Butler

deploys

in a

strictly

philosophical

ense. In

Bodies

That

Matter

1993)

she

replaces

expression

with

performativity.

3.

CatherineSoussloff irst

suggested

he visual

aspects

of

performativity

n her

essay

Like

a

Performance:

Performativity

nd

the

Historicized

Body,

from

Bellori to

Mapplethorpe

(2000:69-98).

4.

See

Giorgio Agamben'scritique

of

Kantorowicz's

mphasis

on

this

aspect

of

the

theory

in

his

Homo

Sacer:

Sovereign

ower

ndBare

Life

I998:9I-I03).

5.

This

is,

of

course,

where

Butler's

critique

of

Austinalso

begins.

See alsoAndrew

Parker nd

Eve

KosofskySedgwick

(I995).

6. Forbackgroundn raison 'etat n theearly 7thcentury,ee Thuau I966). Raisond'etat

was

the

17th-century

erm

for

sovereignauthority.

Thuau

writes:

This

monarchical

deology [...]

is at the

junction

of two

currents: n the one

hand,

a

philosophy

f

the

monarchy,

he work

ofjurists

and

theorists

n

the

King's

ervice,

and,

on the

other

hand,

a

religion

of

the

monarchy,

which

through

ts fetes

and cere-

monies

imposes

tself

on

imaginations

nd

sensibilities.

I966:14)

7.

Louis

Marin:

The

fete,

by

its

magic

nd n that

register,

epresents

more

clearly

han

any

other

domain he

phantasms

hat

animate

he

reasonof state n

its

principle

and

project

I988:I93-

94).

8. This

point

is

not contra

Kantorowicz,

but

may

actually

low

from his

positioning

of

French

monarchy

with

respect

o the

two-body theory.

He

noted:

France hough fullyawareof the differentmanifestations f individualkingand m-

mortal

Dignity, eventually

nterpreted

he

absolutist

rulership

n

such

a

fashion hat

the

distinctions

between

personal

and

supra-personal spects

were

blurredor even

eliminated.

1957:446)

9.

Thus

we cannot

agree

with

Canova-Green's

osition

that:

The

only

true

meaning

of

court

divertissements

given

it,

not in its

aesthetic

valuebut

by

its

value at

once

as

effect

and

rep-

resentation

f

political

power

(1993:58).

Io.

For Butler

there s no

body

prior

to

its

construction,

although

his

absence

poses

a

potential

problem

or

thinking

he

operations

of

performativity

n

appropriate

heatrical erms.

1

I.

The

distinction

Butler

develops

between

performance

nd

performativity

n

BodiesThat

Matter

is articulatedn

GenderTroublen

terms of

performativeness

nd

expression :

The dis-

tinction

between

expression

nd

performativeness

s

crucial

1990:14I).

I2.

For

an

earlier

ersionof this

essay,

ee

Double Bodies:

Androgyny

nd Power n

the

Perfor-

mances

of LouisXIV in

TDR

(1994:71-82).

13.

I

understandCareri o mean

by

this

that the control

of

affect,

part

of

the

civilizing

process

Elias

describes,

s

staged

on the

male

body.

14.

I

thank

Richard

Kroll

or

bringing

this

article o

my

attention.





8/11/2019 1147011


Majestic

Drag

85

5.

This

scene

occurs

n book I6 of

Tasso.

I6.

The

character

f the

mage

Alcine and her

bewitchment

f

Roger

in Ariosto'sRolando urioso

(1532)

parallels

n

many ways

Tasso'snarrative f Renaud and Armide. The

story

also in-

spired

a number

of

important

balletsand

comedies-ballets,

he most

noteworthy

of which in

Franceare

Le Balletde

Monseigneur

e ducde Vandosme

I610)

and

Moliere'sLes

Plaisirs

e 'ile

enchantee

1664).

I7.

McGowansituates

he melodramatic

enre

of

court

ballet,

of which La Delivrances

a

prime

example,

between

I610

and 1620

(I963:72).

18. The

king's

role as one of the demons is what associates

im the most

closely

with

Armide,

who is surrounded

y

a

number

of other demonic charactersn

the

ballet.The

demons are

an extension of Armide's

magic power

and an

expression

of her

energy

and will rather han

representations

f

evil.

19.

I thankKate VanOrden for

bringing

this research o

my

attention.

20.

On

geometrical

dance,

see Franko

1993:15-3 I).

2I. The

originalpublication

of the libretto

by

Ballard ontains he

music,

plates,

and

song

lyrics.

It

is

at the Cliche

Bibliotheque

Nationale

de

France,

Paris:

BN

Res Vm.

7.683

(2).

22. Le

Roy

mesme,

qui peut

(ce semble)

donner

plus

de

licence

aux

appetits,

a fait connoistre

i tout le monde

qu'il

n'estimoitaucune

volupte

oiiable

que

celle

qui

naissoit

de la

vertu.

23.

Une

nuit

plus

delicieuse

que

la

plus

belle

ournee

du

printemps.

24.

Un Balletde

bouffonnerie

et de

gravite

entremeslee.

25.

N'eust

este la douceurextresme

de

ses

actions,

on eust creu

que

des

lors sa

Majeste

'estoit

couverte

de feu

pour

consumer es ennemis.

26. Mitchell

Greenberg

I994)

makesa

strong

case

for

the

coincidence

of

patriarchy

nd

sover-

eignty

n court theatreof the

I7th

century.

27.

For a

theory

of

theatricality

s

ndifferentiation,

ee Marco

Baschera's

Thedtraliteans 'oeuvre

de Moliere

1998).

28. On the relationof shame

to

performativity,

ee

Eve

Kosofsky

Sedgwick's

Queer

Perfor-

mativity:HenryJames's

The

Art

of

the

Novel

I993).

29.

La

majestequi

semble contrairea

telles

actions

estoit

toujours

au

devantde ses

pas,

et la

grace

n'eust este

pour luy

seul,

si

ceux

qui l'accompagnoyent

e

l'eussent

par

fois

derobee

pour

faireadmirer e

qu'ils aisoyent

n l'imitant.

30.

I am

grateful

or the

Collegium

Musicum

performance

ed

by

KateVanOrden

of La

Delivr-

ancede Renaud t Hertz

Hall,

University

of

California

t

Berkeley,

7

February

002.

It

con-

firmed for me that the music

supports

he

effects

I

am

ascribing

o the dance.

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Homo

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overeign

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tury,

edited

by

Michael S. Roth and

Chalres

G.

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nstitute

Publications:

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Catherine

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erformativity

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Historicized

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n

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Ralph

Nash. Detroit:

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Etienne

I966

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623

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MarkFranko is theauthorofThe Work of Dance: Labor,Movement, andIdentity

in the

I930S

(WesleyanUniversity

Press,

2002),

Dancing

Modernism/Performing

Politics

(Indiana

University

ress,

1995),

Dance as Text:

Ideologies

of the

Baroque

Body

(Cambridge

niversity

ress,

1993),

The

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in

Renaissance Cho-

reography

(Summa

Publications,

986),

and

coeditor,

ith

Annette

Richards,

f

Acting

on

the Past: Historical

Performance

Across the

Disciplines (Wesleyan

University

Press,

2000).

He has

published

umerous

rticlesn

anthologies

nd

journals

uchas

Res,

TDR,

Theatre

Journal,

Annals

of

Scholarship,

Discourse,

Social

Text,

and Per-

formance Research.

His

researchasbeen

supported y

The

Getty

Research

enter,

The

American

Philosophical ociety,

he

AmericanCouncil

of

Learned

Societies,

and

the

France/Berkeley

und.

A

dancer nd

choreographer,

ranko

has

presented

is work

nter-

nationallyince1985,and is ProfessorfDanceandPerformancetudiesattheUniversity

of California,

anta

Cruz.

Documents

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