Qualitative Research

PENELITIAN KUALITATIF

A. Wahyudi Atmoko

Jakarta, Desember 2011

1. Mengapa Penelitian QUAL

2. Pengertian & Asumsi

3. Pendekatan2 Utama Penelitian QUAL

4. Tujuan dan Pertanyaan Penelitian

5. Review Literatur

6. Koleksi Data & Analisis

7. Keabsahan Penelitian

Topik

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MENGAPA PENELITIAN QUAL

Because of QUAN:Context StrippingExclusion of Meaning and PurposeDisjunction of Grand Theories with Local

ContextExclusion of the Discovery Dimension in

Inquiry

PENGERTIAN

Qualitative research is situated activity that locates the observers in the world. It consist of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible. These practice transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including filed notes, interviews, conversations, photograph, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world… studying in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them (Denzim & Lincoln 2005, p. 4).

PENGERTIAN

An umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain naturally occurring phenomena in the social world (Maanem 1979, p. 520).

PENGERTIAN

ASUMSI PARADIGMA:QUAN vs QUALAssumption Question QUAN QUAL

Ontological Assumption

What is the nature of reality

Reality is objective & singular, apart fron the reseacher

Reality is subjective & multiple as seen by participants in a study

Epistemological Assumption

What is the relationship of the reseacher to that researched

Researcher is independent from that being researched

Researcher interacts with that being researched

Axiological assumption

What is the role of values

Value-free & unbiased Value-laden & biased

Rhetorical assumption

What is the languange of research

FormalBased on set definitionImpersonal voiceUse of accepted quantitative words

InformalEvolving decisionPersonal voiceAccepted qualitative words

Methodolical Assumption

What is the process of research

Deductive processCause & effectStatic design – categories isolated before studyContext freeGeneralizations leading to prediction, explanation, & understandingAccurate & reliable through validity & reliability

Inductive processMutual simultaneous shaping of factorsEmerging design – categories identified during research processContext boundPattern, theories developed for understandingAccurate & reliable through verification

Kapan Menggunakan QUAL

“Quality” versus “quantity”.For problems that need explorationFor problems that need a complex detailed

understandingTo empower individual and collective voicesTo write in styles that push the limits of

formal academic narrativesTo understand contexts

Perbedaan QUAN-QUAL dalam Tahap Penelitian

PENDEKATAN2 UTAMA PENELITIAN QUAL

PENDEKATAN2 UTAMA PENELITIAN QUAL

TUJUAN & PERTANYAAN PENELITIAN

TUJUAN & PERTANYAAN PENELITIAN

TUJUAN & PERTANYAAN PENELITIAN

Tipe Pertanyaan QUAL

Pengguanaan Kata dalam QUAL

Fokus studi ini adalah untuk mengeksplorasi penderitaan & perawatan dalam pertemuan pasien dengan perawat dan memasikan makna-makna yang ditimblkan oleh pertemuan tsb. Studi dilakukan di unit bedah dan obstetri/ginekologi (Drew, 1986, p. 40 dlm Creswell, 1994, p60).

Contoh Tujuan Penelitian: Studi Fenomenologi

Tujuan studi ini adalah untuk mengeksplorasi faktor2 afeksi, sosial, dan pendidikan yang mungkin memberi kontribusi pengembangan ketidakmampuan membaca dari empat remaja. Studi ini mencari penjelasan mengapa ketidakmampuan membaca tsb tetap ada meskipun bertahun-tahun diberikan pelajaran (Kos, 1991, p. 876 dlm Creswell, 1994, p. 61).

Contoh Tujuan Penelitian: Studi Studi Kasus

The purpose of this study was to take a look into education through the eyes of three teachers who are facing their final year as professional educators. The overarching goal was to determine how they have seen children, teachers, administration, policy, and testing change across the thirty year span of their work as teachers in Texas’ public schools. Through their comments they give a considerable amount of insight into the transformation education has experienced in the last three decades. But unexpectedly, they reveal as much about our changing society than they do education itself.

Project submitted in EDCI 690, Summer 2005, Texas A&M University.

Contoh Tujuan Penelitian: Studi Studi Kasus

Analisis berikut mendeskripsikan beberapa kateristik situasional, nilai-nilai umum yg berlaku, dan identitas sosial dan personal yang memberi karakteristik dan mempengaruhi permainan informan di bagian kepolisian (Creswell, 1994, p. 61).

Contoh Tujuan Penelitian: Studi Etnografi

Tujuan utama penelitian ini adalah menghadirkan grounded theory yang didasarkan pada dua pertanyaan: Apa sumber-sumber utama perubahan akademik? Apa proses utama dalam perubahan akademik tersebut? Grounded theory didefinisikan sebagai teori yang disimpulkan dari data yang diperoleh secara sistematis dan dianalisis melalui metode comparatif konstan (Conrad, 1978, p. 334 dlm Creswell, 1994, p60).

Contoh Pertanyaan: Studi Grounded Theory

In my research, which has involved collecting women’s accounts of becoming mothers, I am seeking to understand how women make sense of events throughout the process of child bearing, constructing these events into episodes, and thereby (apparently) maintaining unity within their lives (Miller, 2000, p. 309).

Contoh Pertanyaan: Studi Naratif

Justifikasi Masalah Penelitian

Explain what is not known about the problem.

Why does the problem matter?

Provide documentation that this is actually a problem. Available statistics? Available literature that shows that this is a needed area

of inquiry?

What are the ways that the study will add to the scholarly research/literature in the field?

How does the study improve practice?

How might the study improve policy?

Justifikasi Masalah Penelitian

REVIEW LITERATUR

Using preliminary sources, construct a bibliography of related literature.

When searching for relevant literature, keep, at least, the following five selection criteria in mind: The recency of the articles The reputation of the source and author Inclusion of both primary and secondary sources Coverage for all areas your proposal has indicated

in Inclusion of topics relevant to, but not directly on,

your topic.

REVIEW LITERATUR

Sensemaking

Organizing Process Meliputi 6N:

Nggumuni, Nitèni, Ngirani, Ngomongi, Ngembangké, danNgemongi.

: Organizing Process

RetentionEnactment SelectionEcological

Change+ + +

+ (+, - ) (+, - )

Sumber: Weick (1979: 132)

REVIEW LITERATUR

Weik’s Seven PrinciplesWeick, K. E.(1995). Sensemaking in organizations.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. P. 61-61

• Identities• Retrospective• Enactment• Social• Ongoing• Extracted Cues• Plausability

KOLEKSI DATA & ANALISIS

Kinds of interviews: Informal. Not a major source of data but not without

purpose. Can have some questions ready. Informants must know that these too are “data”

Formal/semistructured: Planned ahead. Researcher in charge. Combination of structure and flexibility. Expect the unexpected.

Standardized interviews: limited use in qualitative studies. Answers transcribed by researchers.

Getting prepared: Thinking through what interviews can be done and with

whom.

Steps in Data Collection and Analysis

Collect the Data

Prepare the Data

Read through the Data

Code the Data

For description For themes

SimultaneousIterative

Diadaptasi dari Cresswell, J. W. 2002, h. 264

ResearchReport

Connect Themes

Seleksi Partisipan

Extreme or deviant case samples (Teacher of the Year) Maximum variation samples (different perspectives on

same phenomena) Homogenous samples (individuals with similar

characteristics) Typical samples (considered typical) Stratified purposeful samples (representing samples of

interest) Snowball samples (one person identifies another) Criterion samples (individuals who fit certain criteria) Theory based samples Confirming and disconfirming samples Convenience samples In all cases, participants should know/negotiate the

ground rules for the interviews.

Kualitas Interview Yg Baik

Begin with small talkListening:

Follow up on of course statements Listen for key words Probing questions Use of why questions (Don’t ask for meaning, ask for

use) Self disclosure

Qualitative data may be analyzed by a 3-part strategy:

reducing the data coding the data synthesizing the data

Analisis Data

Coding

Caning

Essay

Suspension

Telling Parents

Smoking

“Cheeking Teacher”

“Messing about”

Absenteeism

Bagaimana Melakukan Pengkodean?

Pertanyaan-pertanyaan untuk untuk ditanyakan:

Apa yang terjadi?

Apa yang dilakukan orang?

Apa yang dikatakan?

Apakah tindakan-tindakan dan pernyataan-pernyataan ini taken for granted?

Bagaimana struktur & konteks yang mendukung, mempertahankan, menghalangi atau merubah tindakan dan pernyataan-pernyataan ini?

Pengkodean terhadap apa saja?

1. Tindakan – biasanya kejadian-kejadian singkat

2. Aktivitas – cukup lama dalam suatu setting, orang-orang terlibat

3. Makna – yang menyebabkan tindakan informan• Apa konsep yg mereka gunakan untuk memahami

dunia mereka?• Apa makna atau signifikansi yg dimiliki bagi

mereka?

4. Partisipasi – keterlibatan atau adaptasi orang-orang terhadap suatu setting

5. Hubungan – antara orang-orang, secara simultan dipertimbangkan

6. Setting – seluruh konteks dari kejadian-kejadian yang sedang dikaji.

Pengkodean terhadap apa saja?

Mason menyarankan:

• Harafiah (Literal) – kata-kata, dialog yang digunakan, tindakan, setting, systems, dll

• Interpretasi – norma-norma implicit, nilai-nilai, aturan-aturan, adat istiadat, bagaimana orang melakukan pembenaran (make sense) terhadap kejadian

• Refleksif – peran peneliti dalam proses, yaitu bagaimana intervensi terhadap pengumpulan data

Categorizing

Caning

Essay

Suspension

Telling ParentsSmoking

“Cheeking Teacher”

“Messing about”

Absenteeism

CRIMES PUNISHMENTS

Cara-cara untuk mengidentifikasi tema

Ryan & Bernard (2003) :

• Repetitions

• Indigenously typologies (in vivo)

• Metaphors and analogies

• Transitions (pauses, sections)

• Similarities and differences

• Constant comparison

• Liquistic connectors

• Because, before, after, next, closeness, examples

• Missing data (what is omitted)

Clustering

CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS

Caning

Essay

Suspension

Telling Parents

Mr Lloyd

Mr Pennington

Mr “Wilkinson”

Mr Goddard

TEACHERS

Lancaster

Southwark

Clifton

HOUSES

Smoking

“Cheeking Teacher”

“Messing about”

Absenteeism

Smoking

“Cheeking Teacher”

“Messing about”

Absenteeism

CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS

Caning

Essay

Suspension

Telling Parents

Theorising

Is there a hierarchy of punishment?

Is there a hierarchy of crimes?

Is there a relationship between these hierarchies?

KEABSAHAN

Truth value = adequate representation of multiple constructions of reality (recognizing that these are reconstructions based on researcher)

Applicability = fittingness or transferability Consistency = dependability; ability of

other researchers to follow the method usedNeutrality = auditability

Lincoln & Guba (1985)

Strategi Mendapatkan Keabsahan (Trustworthiness/Credibility)

Prolonged engagement with and observation of informants

Triangulation (multiple sources of data)Peer debriefing (colleagues)Negative case analysis (to include commonalities as

well as variabilities)Referential adequacy (theoretical sampling)Member checks (research participants/informants)Employing an auditorThick description (to reflect complexities in the

data)Prevention of premature foreclosure on the dataMaintaining a journal to enhance self-reflection