Burma’sResouRce cuRseThe case for revenue transparency

A briefing by Arakan Oil WatchMarch 2012

Burma is rich in natural resources. Exports of natural gas alone amount to approximately US$2.5 billion in annual revenues, and these are expected to increase by 60% as three additional production blocks come on line as early as next year. Yet despite this enormous wealth, Burma is one of the poorest countries in the world.

A lack of transparency around revenues from the sale of oil, gas and other natural resources, a lack of an accountable system to manage revenues, and a lack of equitable benefit sharing of resource revenues are perpetuating a resource curse in Burma.

It is a country crippled by corruption, censured for major human rights violations, and continuing to suffer from a decades-old civil war between the ruling government and ethnic peoples. The country’s major businesses are controlled by military companies and cronies. Projects which extract and export natural resources have directly led to human rights abuses such as forced labor, land confiscation, rape and displacement, as well as severe environmental degradation. The revenues from these projects have in turn helped prop up authoritarian rule and enrich top military generals. There is therefore an urgent need for Burma to manage oil and gas revenues with a greater transparency and accountability as well as to reform its military-dominated economy to ensure that the benefits of the country’s resources are shared more equitably among its people and for the country’s sustainable development.

in the oil and gas sector

PRoLoNGING coNFLIcTThe majority of lucrative resources in Burma, including oil and gas, are extracted from ethnic states and exported to neighboring countries. The revenues from the sale of these resources are not shared back with the resource owner states. These states also do not receive compensatory social or environmental funds although they bear the burden of environmental destruction and human rights abuses that accompany the extraction and export of resources. Similar to other countries in the world, decisions about the ownership and use of natural resources – i.e. the equal sharing of benefits – remains a key factor fueling conflict in Burma today.

In June 2011 a 17-year old ceasefire was broken in Kachin State; the fighting has displaced an estimated 60,000 people. Control of the state’s natural resources is at the heart of the conflict.

Newly discovered reserves

Current exports

Oil pipeline

Shwe fields

Gas pipeline

Upcoming exports

Currently under exploration

Oil and gas fields: Money in the pipeline

Global Corruption Ranking 2011

180

180

182

182

Myanmar

Afghanistan

Korea (North)

Somalia

* ranked out of 183 countries worldwide

Sales revenues from gas exports

2010 2013

US$2.5 billion

US$2.5 billion

US$1.6 billion

GAs MoNIes AND MILITARY coNTRoLGas revenues: A boon for weapons purchase and military build upAlthough Burma has no external enemies, its Army has almost doubled since 1988, and with an estimated 492,000 soldiers, it is considered the largest in the region. Human rights abuses of civilians, including killing, torture and rape, are being committed by the Burma Army until today.

Revenues from the export of gas are the country’s biggest foreign income source and keep the armed forces equipped. Military purchases since gas revenues have started to flow include armored personnel carriers, tanks, fighter aircraft, radar systems, surface-to-air missiles and short-range air-to-air missile systems.

Shortly after receiving the first payment of US$100 million for the sale of the Yadana gas to Thailand, the Than Shwe regime purchased 10 MiG-29 aircraft from Russia at a cost of about US$ 130 million. Since then, military purchases worth billions were made from China, Russia, India, Singapore, Pakistan, North Korea, Ukraine and Israel.

In 2009, while the Tripartite Core Group (UN, ASEAN, and Burma’s junta) was seeking US$693 million for urgent humanitarian assistance for the more than 100,000 people affected by Cyclone Nargis, the military regime made a US$630 million

purchase of twenty MiG-29 fighter jets and MiG-35 attack helicopters from Russia.

Military enterprises controlling gas revenues?UMEHL, the Union of Myanmar Economic Holding Limited (known in Burmese as “U Pai”) is a military-run enterprise that manages the Armed Forces’ pension fund. UMEHL is well known as a major arms dealer for the military regime as 40% of the company’s shares are owned by the Directorate of Procurement at the War Office.

As oil and gas revenues are the single largest income source for the regime, it is widely believed that UMEHL has access to these revenues for the purchase of weapons.

In Burma the e x p l o r a t i o n , extraction, sale, and production of oil and natural gas, as well as other natural resources, are undertaken by State Owned Enterprises which are commonly

chaired by in-service or former military generals. UMEHL, together with the Myanmar Economic Corporation (MEC), another military enterprise, have been involved in a majority of business activity in Burma for over twenty years. Many major foreign investments are channelled through UMEHL, which since 1999 has set up 50 joint ventures with foreign firms.

Arms dealerLieutenant General Tin Aye, chairperson of UMEHL from 2002-2010 and ranked Number 5 in Burma’s armed forces, has made official visits to China, Russia and Ukraine to buy arms and military equipment. He is a liaison for military cooperation between Burma and North Korea and is allegedly involved in acquiring nuclear technology.

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Military parade in the new capital which cost over US$200 million to build

BuRMA’s ReVeNue BLAcK HoLeWhere’s the money?

Since receiving its first payments for the export of gas in 2001 until today, both the military junta led by Than Shwe and the current Thein Sein regime

have not disclosed how gas revenues enter the country or how they are managed. The gas money is not entered into public accounts or the national budget, so where is it? Most analysts speculate that payments are deposited into foreign bank accounts which are accessed by military generals for arms

purchases and personal expenses.

Corporate irresponsibility: no disclosure by investorsThe 10 major companies currently operating and/or investing in Burma’s oil and gas sector do not disclose how much or how they pay for Burma’s gas.

Missing billions: dual exchange rates under-calculate revenue valueGas revenues in Burma are recorded at the ‘official’ exchange rate of 6 kyat: US$1 while the market exchange rate ranges from 800-1,000 kyat: US$1, leaving billions of dollars worth of

gas payments completely unaccounted for.

Pocket money: contracts and bonuses worth millions undisclosedThere is no public information on how much companies pay as signature bonuses for each signed contract to explore and produce oil and gas in Burma. Since 1988 Burma has signed over 40 such contracts, each worth millions of dollars. Yet how much, how, and to whom

companies pay for these contracts, and how the revenues are utilized, are a complete secret.

Unknown money flows: no audit of state entitiesNone of the agencies or enterprises involved in the oil and gas sector, including the state-

owned Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise, undergo independent auditing or disclose how gas income is spent.

Corruption: the sponge that soaks up the moneyThe secrecy and lack of accountability mechanisms around oil and gas revenues provide a perfect enabling environment for corruption. According to nine Wikileaks cables, in early 2009 military regime leader Than Shwe considered a US$ 1billion bid to buy Manchester

United FC, one of the most expensive football clubs in the world, yet where the General got the funds to consider such a bid is unknown.

Former military officers control key positions in new governmentFollowing military-controlled elections in November 2010, former military officers, including President Thein Sein and 28 out of 35 high level cabinet ministers, took control of key positions in the new regime. All

28 former military officers resigned their military posts just weeks before the election. Under the new government, former military generals head the ministries of Burma’s largest money-making sectors - energy, mining, and electricity.

Budgetary process not transparentIn 2012, a budget drafted by the president was submitted to Parliament for some debate on allocation decisions, which was an improvement over the previous year. However, the source of budget revenues, including revenues from the sale of oil and gas, remain undisclosed. This makes it impossible to calculate whether all gas payments have been entered into the budget and, if so, at what exchange rate. This lack of transparency makes it impossible to allocate gas revenues for specific expenses, such as social spending.

WINDs oF cHANGe?

sHWe GAs FoR cHINA, NoT ARAKAN sTATeA campaign demanding 24-hour electricity in gas-producing Arakan State before any gas is exported highlights the continuing lack of equitable benefit sharing under Burma’s new government. Arakan is the second-poorest state in the country and 90% of households use wood for cooking fuel.

The upcoming Shwe gas project in the state is expected to produce 500 million cubic feet of natural gas per day for 30 years. Although Burma suffers from chronic energy shortages, the vast majority of the gas will be exported to China.

No taxes for military enterprises Government enterprises and military owned companies are exempt from the “Withholding Tax” law enacted on January 1, 2011; they are not required to pay any taxes.

Management of gas revenues, role of military enterprises remain opaqueUnder the new regime, there continues to be no public information on whether gas revenues are managed by the Ministry of Finance and Revenue or whether gas accounts continue to be accessed by military enterprises such as UMEHL and MEC.

In March 2011 a Public Accounts Committee was formed to “scrutinize the budget of the Union Government” yet it is uncertain how or if this committee will be able to manage oil and gas revenues. According to the laws and rules establishing the committee, proceedings of committee meetings should “not be leaked out” and meeting minutes “shall not be handed out.”

Budgetary autonomy of defense expenditures: The Special Fund LawOn January 27, 2011, just four days before the newly elected parliament opened, General Than Shwe enacted The Special Fund Law. This law establishes reserve funds which are to be allocated for “defending the Constitution and the State from external and internal threats.” According to the law, the commander of the Armed Forces has free rein to determine expenditures from the fund, which cannot be audited.

General Thein Sein now president

Poverty rates are high in Arakan State

Company Country of origin

Major projects in Burma UNGC* EITI** Transparency International Ranking***

Daewoo International

Korea Shwe Natural Gas Project No No N/A

CNPC China Trans-Burma China pipelines; Shwe Natural Gas Project

No No Low

ONGC Videsh India Shwe Natural Gas Project and 8.35% stake in Trans-Burma China pipelines

Yes No Low

PTTEP Thailand Yadana and Yetagun Natural Gas Project

No No N/A

CNOOC China Onshore and offshore oil blocks Yes No Low

Total France Yadana Natural Gas Project Yes Yes Mid

Chevron USA Yadana Natural Gas Project No Yes Mid

GAIL India Shwe Natural Gas Project and 4.17% stake in Trans-Burma China pipelines

No No N/A

KOGAS Korea Shwe Natural Gas Project No No N/A

Petronas Carigali

Malaysia Yetagun Natural Gas Project and offshore blocks

No No Low

*UNGC: the United Nations Global Compact encourages businesses to work against corruption ** EITI: the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) calls on extractive industry companies to disclose revenue payments. *** Transparency International Ranking: High performers disclose information systematically on a country-by-country basis, go beyond existing mandatory regulations applicable to them and have strengths in different areas of transparency. Middle performers mainly disclose information by geographical area and a few selected countries of operation. Low performers dis-close only by region and provide almost no information relevant to revenue transparency.

coRPoRATe IRResPoNsIBILITYCompanies operating in Burma face significant financial, reputational and legal risks. According to a 2011 study on respect for the rule of law, Burma is rated Number 1 among 197 countries for “extreme risk” to investments, offering the least legal protection for foreign companies and investors and being least transparent in implementing policies and regulations.

In addition, extraction projects are proceeding in active conflict zones and increasing foreign presence coupled with the lack of local benefits from such projects is contributing to rising local resentment, putting investments under threat of retaliatory attacks. The abuses associated with such projects have led to lawsuits, consumer boycotts, and withdrawal of shareholders, ruining the reputation of investing companies.

Companies can reduce risks, safeguard their business, and attract more investors by adhering to international revenue transparency guidelines and corporate social responsibility standards. In turn, shareholders are more likely to invest in a company that operates in a country where revenue transparency is practiced rather than in corrupt nations such as Afghanistan, Somalia and Burma.

Despite this, a brief analysis of the 10 major oil and gas companies currently operating and/or investing in Burma’s oil and gas sector reveals that participation in international initiatives encouraging business transparency is extremely limited and only half are – or have major subsidiaries that are – listed on a major international stock exchange. The majority of the companies are from Asia and relatively new to international exploration.

RecoMMeNDATIoNs• The establishment of functioning mechanisms for revenue transparency and accountability should be

a prerequisite for any economic engagement with the new military-backed government in Burma by international governments and banks.

• Corporations should refrain from any new investments in Burma’s oil and gas sector until legitimate laws and mechanisms to implement proper protection of human rights and the environment, as well as to ensure revenue transparency, are established and functioning.

Prior to inviting further foreign investments, Burma’s government should:

1 Immediately disclose the full amount of gas revenues, where the revenues are, how they are managed, and how they have been spent

2 Establish and enforce revenue laws in order to manage oil and gas revenues transparently, accountably and sustainably, including requiring corporations to disclose payments, production, and project costs

3 Establish a separate oil and gas revenue fund which is overseen by an independent management body that includes members from civil society

4 Establish a benefit sharing system whereby affected communities and producing regions receive a portion of oil and gas revenues

5 Establish and enforce laws that require Free, Prior and Informed Consent before project implementation and to conduct and publish mandatory Environmental, Social and Health Impact Assessments for all oil and gas projects before implementation

6 Establish and enforce laws to protect human rights and the environment from resource extraction projects, including requirements for de-comissioning and clean-up procedures

TRANsPAReNcY MecHANIsMsBurma is currently not following any international standards on revenue transparency, including the International Monetary Fund’s guide on transparency, the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, the UN Convention Against Corruption and the Natural Resources Charter. These standards call for a legal framework on how revenues are spent, indpendent auditing, an open budget process, public disclosure, and active engagment of civil society.

Oil-producing countries from around the world, including Indonesia, Brazil, Norway, the United States, East Timor, and Sudan provide models of revenue transparency mechanisms that could be applied in Burma. After analyzing these countries in a series of case studies, Arakan Oil Watch makes the recommendations listed below.

One thing is sure: systems for public disclosure of money flows, independent revenue management and auditing, civil society input, and equal benefit sharing are necessary for avoiding the curse of natural resources and the revenues they generate.

Sudan ended decades of civil war with an agreement to share oil revenues equitably

Residents of the state of

Alaska in the United States

receive divi-dends from

oil revenues

Although Burma is rich in oil and gas, military leaders have been exporting these resources for over a decade, leaving the people to suffer from chronic energy shortages and some of the lowest development indicators in the world.

How revenues from the sale of gas resources are spent is not known, yet it is clear that government spending for social development is paltry while the military continues to expand. Inequitable sharing of resource benefits is also contributing to ethnic conflicts.

Although a new “civilian” government is now in place, under Burma’s new constitution, the military remains firmly outside the law and beyond civilian

eND THe cuRsecontrol. The role of military companies in Burma’s economy and in accessing and managing Burma’s massive oil and gas revenues remain unknown and unregulated. Foreign oil companies engaging in Burma’s oil and gas sector also refuse to publish how much and how they pay the military regime.

It is urgently needed to ensure transparency and sound management of the country’s largest source of foreign income - revenues from the export of oil and gas - and address military dominance in the economy. Without this, corporations, banks, and governments that engage with Burma today will simply prolong the country’s resource curse.

Full version report at www.arakanoilwatch.orgContact: info@arakanoilwatch.org

Pipeline that will take gas to China being built in Shan State, Burma

EMBARGOED FOR MARCH 22, 2012

End Burma’s Resource Curse Says Watchdog Group

As investors start flooding in to Burma, a lack of revenue transparency and accountability is set to exacerbate the country’s resource curse, warns a watchdog group today.

According to a report by the Arakan Oil Watch, billions of dollars in revenues from the sale of natural gas have gone unrecorded in Burma’s public accounts and been siphoned off by corrupt military rulers, leaving Burma with some of the worst social indicators in the world and embroiled in conflicts over natural resources.

Natural gas exports are the biggest foreign income earner for Burma, amounting to over US$2 billion in sales per year since 2006. Revenues are set to increase by 60% as new gas exports to China and Thailand begin as early as next year. An additional 41 oil and gas blocks are currently under exploration by various foreign companies.

Despite recent moves by the new government to improve the budgetary process, detailed income and disbursement of oil and gas revenues remain undisclosed. The role of military enterprises in controlling gas revenues is also opaque.

“With new gas projects in the pipeline and more investors pouring in, Burma’s people urgently need to know where the gas money is and how it is spent” said Jockai Khaing of the Arakan Oil Watch. “A new influx of revenues without transparency will simply entrench military dominance of the economy.”

The report calls for the establishment of laws and institutions which will manage oil and gas revenues transparently before further extraction of natural resources by foreign investors. Laws that require impact assessments and the free, prior and informed consent of affected communities are also needed to ensure the protection of rights and the environment.

To see the full report, which includes case studies of revenue transparency systems from other oil and gas rich countries, please visit www.arakanoilwatch.blogspot.com

The Arakan Oil Watch is a community-based organization monitoring oil and gas projects in Burma.

Contact: Jockai Khaing +66 82 184 1335

+66 88 157 1328

၂ဝ၁၂၊ မတလ(၂၂)ရက ေန႔တြငထတျပနရနျဖစသည။

ျမနမာသယဇာတကနစာ အဆးသတရန ေစာငၾကညေရးအဖြ႔မ ေျပာၾကား

ျမနမာႏငငထသ႔ စးပြားေရးရငးႏးျမပႏသမား အလးအရငးႏငစတငဝငေရာက လာၾကေသာလညး တငးျပညတြငးတြင ဘ႑ာေငြဆငရာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏငတာဝနခမႈ ဆတသနးကငးမေနျခငးက တငးျပည၏ သဘာဝသယဇာတကနစာအား ပ၍ပငဆးရြားသြားေစသညဟ ရခငေရနေစာငၾကညေရး အဖြ႔မ ယေန႔ သတေပးေျပာၾကားလကသည။

သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔တငပ႔ေရာငးခရာမရရေသာ ဘ႑ာဝငေငြ ေဒၚလာဘလယေပါငးမားစြာက ျပညသ႔ ေငြစာရငးမားထတြင ထညသြငးျခငးမရဘ အကငပကျခစားေနေသာ စစေခါငးေဆာငမားကသာ မတရား အလႊသးစားျပလပေနၾကေသာေၾကာင ျမနမာႏငငသည ကမၻာေပၚမာ အဆးရြားဆး လမႈဖြ႔ၿဖးတးတကမႈ ညႊနးကနးမားႏငတငးျပညတစချဖစေနၿပး၊ သဘာဝသယဇာတဆငရာ ပဋပကၡမားႏငျပနာမားက လညး ရငဆငေနရသညဟ အဆပါအဖြ႔က ေျပာၾကားသည။

သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔တငပ႔ေရာငးခမႈသည ျမနမာႏငငအတြက အႀကးမားဆးေသာ ႏငငျခားဝငေငြရရရာ အရငးအျမစျဖစၿပး၊ (၂ဝဝ၆) ခႏစ ကတညးပင ထသ႔တငပ႔ေရာငးချခငးမ အေမရကနေဒၚလာ (၂)ဘလယေကာက ႏစစဥႏစတငး ရရေနသည။ အသစရာေဖြေတြ႔ရထားေသာ ဓါတေငြ႔မားကလညး တရတ ႏင ထငးႏငငမားသ႔ ေနာငႏစအေစာပငးကာလတြင တငပ႔ေရာငးခမညျဖစရာ ယခရရေနေသာ ဘ႑ာဝငေငြ ပမာဏထက (၆ဝ) ရာခငႏႈနးခန႔ ျမငတကသြားမညျဖစသည။ လကရအခနတြငလညး ေနာကထပ ေရနႏငဓါတေငြ႔ လပကြက(၄၁)ခတြင ႏငငျခားကမၸဏမားက စမးသပရာေဖြ၊တးေဖၚမႈ မားျပလပေနၾကသည။

ယၡတကလာသညအစးရသစက ႏငငဘ႑ာေငြအရအသး ဆငရာကစၥရပမားက တးတကေကာငးမြနလာ ေအာင လပေဆာငေနေသာလညး ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရသညဝငေငြမားႏင ပတသကၿပး အေသးစတက ထတေဖၚထားျခငးမရေပ။ ဓါတေငြ႔မရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားအေပၚ ထနးခပမႈတြင စစတပပငစးပြားေရးလပငနးမား၏ ပါ၀ငပတသကမႈ အခနးက႑ကလညး ေသးကြစြာ မသရရေပ။

“ေနာငႏစမာတငပ႔မ သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ ပကလငးစမကနးအသစမားႏင ရငးႏးျမပႏသေတြ အမားႀကး ဝငလာေနၾကတ႔အခလအခနမးမာ ျမနမာျပညေတြအေနန အဒ ဓါတေငြ႔ကရတ ဝငေငြေတြက ဘယမာထားလ၊ ဘယလအသးျပလဆတာက အျမနဆးသဖ႔လအပေနတယ” ဟ ရခင႔ေရနေစာငၾကညေရးအဖြ႔မ ဒါရကတာ ေကာခငမ ေျပာသည။

“ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈမရဘ ပေအာၿပး အသစဝငလာေနတ ေငြေၾကးေတြဟာ စစတပကၾကးစးထားတ႔ စးပြားေရးစနစကသာ ဒထကပၿပး အျမစတြယခငမာသြားေစလမ႔မယ” ဟ ကေကာခငမ ဆကေျပာသည။

ႏငငျခားရငးႏးျမပႏသမားအေနျဖင ျမနမာႏငငတြင ေနာကထပ သဘာဝသယဇာတ ရာေဖြတးေဖၚမႈ မားမျပလပမ ႏငငတြငးတြင ေရနႏငဓါတငြ႔ဆငရာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ပြငလငးျမငသာစြာ စမခန႔ခြႏငမည ဥပေဒမား ႏင အဖြ႔အစညးမားက ျပ႒ာနးတညေဆာကထားရမညဟ အစရငခစာက ေထာကျပ ေတာငးဆထားသည။

အခြငအေရးမား၊ သဘာဝပတဝနးကငမားအေပၚ အကာအကြယေပးႏငေစေရးအတြက သဘာဝ ပတဝနးကင၊ လမႈပတဝနးကငဆငရာ အကးသကေရာကမႈေလလာခကမားႏင ထခကခရမည လ႔အဖြ႔ အစညးမားထမ လြတလြတလပလပ၊ႀကတငၿပး နားလညထားေသာ သေဘာတခြငျပခကမား(FPIC) က လကနာရသည ဥပေဒမားအား ထတျပနျပ႒ာနရနလညး လအပသည။

အစရငခစာထတြင ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ ၾကြယဝေသာ အျခားႏငငမား၏ ဘ႑ာေငြပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ စနစမားႏငႏႈငးယဥၿပး ျဖစရပမနေလလာခကမားကလညး တငျပထားသည။အစရငခစာအျပညအစက www.arakanoilwatch.blogspot.com တြငဝငေရာကဖတရႈႏငသည။

ရခငေရနေစာငၾကညေရးအဖြ႔သည ျမနမာႏငငရ ေရနႏင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔လပငနး စမကနးမားအား စဥဆကမျပတ ေလလာေစာငၾကညေနေသာ လထအေျချပ အဖြ႔အစညးတစချဖစသည။

ဆကသြယရန။ ေကာခင (+66 82 184 1335)

(+66 88 157 1328)

 

2012 年 3 月 22 日前禁止发布

监察团体：结束缅甸的资源诅咒

随着投资者开始涌入缅甸，收益透明度及问责机制的缺失正加剧该国的资源诅

咒，一个监察团体在今天发出警告。

由阿拉干石油观察发布的一份报告显示，数十亿美元的天然气销售收入没有记

录进缅甸的国家账户，而被腐败的军事统治者窃取，留给缅甸的只是一些世界最糟

糕的社会指标，并使其卷入自然资源的冲突中。

天然气出口是缅甸最大的外汇收入来源，自 2006 年以来每年销售总额超过 20亿美元。明年年初，缅甸将新增对中国及泰国的天然气出口，财政收入将随之增加

60%。此外，石油及天然气 41 号区块目前正被一些外国公司勘探。

尽管近来新政府就改善预算程序采取了一些举动，石油及天然气的收入及支出

细节仍未被披露。军方企业在控制天然气财政收入中所发挥的作用也仍旧不透明。

“随着新的天然气管道项目和更多投资者的涌入，缅甸人民迫切需要了解天

然气资金在哪里，如何使用，”来自阿拉干石油观察的周凯说，“新收入大量涌入

却缺乏透明度，这只会巩固军方对经济的操控。”

该报告呼吁在外来投资者进一步开采自然资源之前，出台能够提升石油及天然

气财政收入透明度的法律及制度。 为确保对权利及环境的保护，法律还得要求进

行影响评价，并在自由、首要及被告知前提下征得受影响社区的同意。

查看报告全文（该报告包括对其他油气资源丰富国家收入透明度体系的案例研究），请访

问： www.arakanoilwatch.blogspot.com

阿拉干石油观察是一个以社区为基础的组织，对缅甸的石油及天然气项目进行监察。

联系方法： 周凯：+66 82 184 1335 ：+66 88 157 1328

หามเผยแพรกอน 22 มนาคม 2555

กลมเคลอนไหวเรยกรองใหยตมรดกบาปดานทรพยากรของพมา

นกลงทนเรมหลงไหลเขาไปในพมา ซงยงขาดความโปรงใสและการตรวจสอบไดเกยวกบรายได ซงจะยงสงผลใหเกดมรดกบาปดานทรพยากรมากขนของประเทศน กลมเคลอนไหวเตอนในวนน

จากขอมลในรายงานของกลม Arakan Oil Watch รายไดจากกาซธรรมชาตหลายพนลานเหรยญไมไดรบการบนทกขอมลอยางเหมาะสมและไมไดเขากระเปาของรฐ แตกลบถกโยกไปเขากระเปาของนายทหารททจรต สงผลใหพมายงคงเปนประเทศทมดชนชวดดานสงคมเลวรายสดในโลก และเตมไปดวยความขดแยงเนองจากทรพยากรธรรมชาต

การสงออกกาซธรรมชาตเปนแหลงรายไดจากตางประเทศใหญสดของพมา คดเปนจานวน 2,000 ลานเหรยญสหรฐฯ ตอปนบแตป 2549 เปนตนมา โดยคาดวารายไดจะเพมขนอก 60% หลงมการสงกาซงวดใหมไปใหกบประเทศจนและไทยตงแตตนปหนาเปนตนไป ในปจจบน บรษทจากตางชาตหลายแหงไดเขามาสารวจแหลงนามนและกาซเพมเตมอก 41 แหง

แมวารฐบาลใหมจะพยายามปรบปรงระบบการจดทางบประมาณ แตกยงไมเปดเผยขอมลรายไดอยางละเอยดและการใชจายเงนรายไดจากนามนและกาซ บทบาทของหนวยงานทหารทควบคมดแลรายไดจากกาซกดคลมเครอ

“ในขณะทมแผนการสรางทอกาซเสนใหมและมนกลงทนหลงไหลเขาไปในประเทศมากขน คนพมาจาเปนตองทราบวารายไดจากการขายกาซธรรมชาตอยทไหนและถกใชไปอยางไรบาง” Jockai Khaing แหงกลม Arakan Oil Watch กลาว “รายไดใหมทไมมการตรวจสอบจะยงทาใหทหารมบทบาทครอบงาเศรษฐกจลกซงขน”

รายงานเรยกรองใหมการกาหนดกฎหมายและจดตงหนวยงานเพอบรหารรายไดจากการขายกาซและนามนอยางโปรงใส กอนทจะปลอยใหนกลงทนจากตางชาตมาหาประโยชนจากทรพยากรธรรมชาตตอไป พมาจาเปนตองมกฎหมายทกาหนดใหมการประเมนผลกระทบและใหมการขอความยนยอมอยางเสร ลวงหนา และเกดจากความเขาใจของชมชนทไดรบผลกระทบ เพอประกนการคมครองสทธและสงแวดลอม

สาหรบรายงานฉบบเตมซงมกรณศกษาระบบความโปรงใสดานรายไดจากการขายนามนและกาซในประเทศรารวย โปรดด www.arakanoilwatch.blogspot.com

Arakan Oil Watch เปนองคกรชมชนทตดตามตรวจสอบโครงการนามนและกาซในพมา

ขอมลเพมเตม โปรดตดตอ

Jockai Khaing +66 82 184 1335

+66 88 157 1328

ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ဘ႑ာေငြပြင႔လငးျမငသာမႈ ျပနာမား

jrefrmho,HZmwusdefpm

2

ျမနမာ႔သယဇာတကနစာေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ဘ႑ာေငြပြင႔လငးျမငသာမႈ ျပနာမား

၂၀၁၂ ခ မတလတြင ထတေ၀သည

ရခငေရနေစာငၾကညေရးအဖြ႔

ရခငေရနေစာငၾကညေရးအဖြ႔(AOW)သည သးျခားလြတလပေသာ၊ လထအေျချပေသာ၊ အစးရမဟတ သည အဖြ႔အစညးတစချဖစၿပး၊ ျမနမာျပညတြငးရ လႈပရားမႈမားက တကၾကြစြာလပကငသည။ ရခငေရန ေစာငၾကညေရးအဖြ႔က (၂ဝဝ၆) ခႏစတြင စတငထေထာငခသည။ အဖြ႔အစညး၏ ယၾကညခကမာ ျပညသလထအခြငအေရးမား၊ လမႈဘဝမားႏင သဘာဝပတဝနးကငမားက အာမခခကအျပညျဖင အကာကြယေပးေရးတ႔က ခငမာေသခာေအာငလပေဆာငရနႏင ရခငျပညနယႏင ျမနမာႏငငတဝမးရ ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ စမကနးမား၏ လပရပမားႏင ၎တ႔၏ လအခြငေရခးေဖါကမႈ၊သဘာဝပတဝနးကငထခကပကစးမႈ ႏင ေငြေၾကးဆငရာ ပြင႔လငးျမငသာမႈမားကလညး ေစာငၾကညေလလာရနျဖစသည။ ရခငေရနေစာငၾကညေရးအဖြ႔သည အေရ႕ေတာငအာရ ေရနေစာငၾကညေရးအဖြ႔(Oil Watch Southeast Asia) တြင တကၾကြစြာလႈပရားေနေသာ အဖြ႔ဝငအဖြ႔အစညးတစချဖစၿပး၊ သယဇာတတးေဖၚမႈမားႏင ထခကပကစးမႈမားက ေလလာေစာငၾကညေနသည အမးမးေသာ ျမနမာအေျချပ အဖြ႔အစညးမား၊ ႏငငတကာရ အစးရမဟတေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးမား ႏငလညး ပးတြလပကငသည။

ဆကသြယရန

info@arakanoilwatch.orgwww.arakanoilwatch.org

မာတကာ

အစရငခစာအကဥးခပ...............................................................................................................၅အခနး(၁)သဘာ၀သယဇာတကနဇာဆသညမာ.............................................................................................၇ေျမပ.......................................................................................................................................၉ျမနမာနငင၏ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ေရာငးချခငးမရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြ ဇယား..................................................၉

အခနး(၂)ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔က႑ ျမနမာနငင၏အၾကးမားဆးနငငျခား၀ငေငြ.................................................၁၀ (၂၀၁၃) တြင တရတသ႔တငပ႔ေရာငးခမညေရႊသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ..................................................၁၀ (၂၀၁၃) တြင ထငးႏငငသ႔တငပ႔ေရာငးခမည လပကြကအမတ M9 မသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔....................၁၁ အႏၵယသ႔ မၾကာမတငပ႔ေရာငးခမညသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ..............................................................၁၂ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ က႑တြင ႏငငျခားတကရကရငးႏးျမပႏမႈမား.......................................၁၂ အကးအျမတခြေ၀ျခငး၊အပဆေၾကးေငြလကမတေရးထးျခငး၊ လပကြကေျမငားရမးခ၊အခြနႏင ၀နေဆာငမႈေၾကး.............................................................................................................၁၂

အခနး(၃)ျမနမာႏငင၏ဘ႑ာေငြတြငးနကႀကး (သ႔) ေပာကဆးေနေသာဘ႑ာေငြမား...........................................၁၃အပငး(၁)သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမား ဘယမာထားသနညး............................................................၁၃ ျပညသမသရေသာဘ႑ာဝငေငြလမးေၾကာငးမား...................................................................၁၃ ေပာကဆးေနေသာ ေဒၚလာဘလယေပါငးမားစြာ....................................................................၁၄ အကငပကျခစားမႈ..........................................................................................................၁၅ သနးေပါငးမားစြာအဖးတနေသာစာခပႏငအပဆေၾကးေငြမား ကထမခနထားျခငး..........................၁၅အပငး(၂)ဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာေငြ ႏင စစတပထမးခပမႈ.........................................................................................၁၆ လကနကဝယယမႈ ႏင စစတပတညေဆာကမႈအတြက ဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာေငြမား............................... ၁၆ ျမနမာ႔ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔လပငနး................................................................................၁၆ ဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးမားကစစတပပငစးပြားေရးလပငနးမားမထမးခပထားသလား .....................၁၇ ျမနမာလကနကေမာငခရာဇာ ႏင ေျမာကကးရးယားဆကႏြယမႈ.................................................၁၈အပငး(၃)တကယေျပာငးလေနၿပလား..........................................................................................................၁၉ အစးရသစအတြငးအေရးပါေသာရာထးမားကစစတပအရာရေဟာငးမားထမးခပထားျခငး................၁၉ ဘ႑ာေငြခြေဝသးစြမႈ ႏငပြငလငးျမငသာမႈမရျခငး...................................................................၁၉ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ခြမႈ ၎တ႔ထ စစတပပငစးပြားေရးလပငနးမား၏အခနးက႑မာ ရငးလငးမႈမရျဖစေနဆ......................................................................................................၂၀ ကာကြယေရး အသးစရတဆငရာ သးျခားလြတလပမႈအထးရပေငြ...............................................၂၁ စစတပပငစးပြားေရးလပငနးမားအတြက အခြနကငးလြတခြင.....................................................၂၁အပငး(၄)ရငးႏးျမပႏေသာကမၸဏမား၏ ႏႈတဆတေနမႈ...................................................................................၂၁

အပငး(၅) ဘ႑ာေငြခြေ၀သးစြမႈမရျခငး............................................................................................၂၃ တငးရငးသားေဒသမား၌ ေခါငးပျဖတအျမတထတျခငး...........................................................၂၃ ဝငေငြကြာဟမႈ ႏင လမႈဖြ႔ၿဖးတးတကေရးအတြကသးစြမႈမရျခငး................................................၂၃ အကးအျမတခြေဝခစားျခငးက ပဋပကၡမားက အဆးသတေစသည...........................................၂၄ ဆဒနေတာငပငး…………………………………………………………………………………........................၂၄ အငဒနးရားႏငင၏ အာေခးေဒသ……………………………………………………………………………........၂၅

အခနး(၄)သယဇာတကနစာက အျမစျဖတကသျခငး (ဘ႑ာေငြပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ)..............................................၂၆ ဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ၏ ႏငငတကာစခနစညႊနးမား.............................................၂၇ ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ၾကြယဝေသာႏငငမားမ ျဖစရပမနေလလာခကမား.................................၃၀ အလာစကားျပညနယ (အေမရကနျပညေထာငစ).................................................................၃၀ ေနာေ၀နငင.................................................................................................................၃၂ ဘရာဇးႏငင.................................................................................................................၃၃ တေမာႏငင..................................................................................................................၃၄

နဂးခပ..................................................................................................................................၄၀

အၾကျပတကတြနးခကမား.........................................................................................................၄၁

ေနာကဆကတြမား...................................................................................................................၄၂ကးကားခကမား......................................................................................................................၅၂

5

tpD&i fcHpm

tusOf;csKyf

ျမနမာႏငငသည သဘာဝသယဇာတ ေပါမားၾကြယ၀ေသာ ႏငငျဖစသည။ အထးသျဖင ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔မာ တငးျပည၌ အလအပယ ေပါမား သည။ ၎သယဇာတမားက ႏငငဖြ႔ၿဖးတး တကေရးက႑မားတြင မသးဘ စစေခါငးေဆာငမားက ဆယစႏစ တစခေကာ ျပညပသ႔တငပ႔ ေရာငးခ ျခငးျဖင ဘ႑ာေငြ အေျမာကအမားရရေနသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ၄ငးသယ ဇာတမားမရရေသာ ဘ႑ာ၀ငေငြမားႏငပတသကၿပး ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈမရ ျခငးႏင စမခန႔ခြမႈ ညဖငးျခငးတ႔ေၾကာင ျမနမာႏငငသည သဘာဝသယ ဇာတကနစာသင ႏငငတစခ ျဖစေနရသည။

ျမနမာႏငငသည ၎၏သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔က ျပညပႏငငမားသ႔ တငပ႔ေရာငးခ ရာမ အေမရကနေဒၚလာ (၂) ဘလယဝနးကငက ႏစစဥရရေနသည။ ၂ဝ၁၃ ခႏစအေစာပငးတြင တျခားလပကြကသးခမလညး သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔မားက ထတလပေရာငးချခငးမ လကရဝငေငြပမာဏ၏ ႏစဆနးပါး တးလာမညဟ မနးဆထားသည။ ထ႔အျပင လကရ စမးသပရာေဖြတးေဖၚလကရေသာ တျခားေသာ ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔လပကြကေပါငး (၄ဝ)ေကာမလညး ဘ႑ာဝငေငြ အေျမာကအမားက ရရလာအးမညျဖစသည။

သဘာ၀သယဇာတမားက တငပ႔ေရာငးခမႈမ ဘ႑ာဝငေငြအေျမာကအမား က ရရေနေသာလညး ျမနမာႏငငသည ကမၻာေပၚတြင အဆငးရဆး ႏငငတ ခ ျဖစေနၿပး ျပညသမားမာလညး ကာလတာရညစြာ စြမးအငႏငေလာငစာ ျပတလပမႈျပနာက ရငဆငေနၾကရသည။ ႏငငစးပြားေရးလပငနးႀကး မားက စစတပပင ကမၸဏမားႏင ၎တ႔၏အသငးအ၀ငးမ ခပကငထား ျခငးႏင အကငပက ျခစားမႈတ႔သည ႏငငစးပြားေရးက ဆတယတေစသည။ တငးရငးသားမားႏင အစးရတ႔ အၾကားျဖစပြားသည ႏစ (၆၀) ေကာၾကာ ျပညတြငးစစ ႏင လ႔အခြငအေရးခးေဖာကမႈေၾကာင ျပစတငေ၀ဖနခေနရ ေသာ ႏငငတခလညးျဖစသည။

သဘာ၀သယဇာတ အရငးအျမစထတလပသည စမကနးတ႔သည လယေျမ မားက သမးပကျခငး၊ အဓမၼလပအားခငးေစျခငး၊ အမးသမးမားအေပၚအဓမၼျပကငျခငး၊ သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ပကစးယယြငးျခငးႏင အတငးအၾကပ ေျပာငးေရြႊ႕ျခငးမားက တကရကျဖစေပၚေစေသာ အေၾကာငးအရငးမား လညး ျဖစသည။ ၎အျပင သဘာ၀သယဇာတ ထတလပသည ေနရာမားက ပငဆင ထနးခပလသညအတြက အစးရႏင တငးရငးသား လမးမားအၾကား

ဓါတပ-ေဒ၀း

(ေရြသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမးသပတးေဖာေနစဥ)

6

လကနကကင ပဋပကၡမားက အရနတးျမငလာေစသည။ သဘာ၀သယဇာတ တငပ႔ေရာငးချခငးမ ရရေသာ ၀ငေငြမားသည ႏငငတး တကေရးအတြက ျဖစမလာဘ အာဏာရငစနစက ပပးေပးၿပး ထပပငး စစေခါငးေဆာငမား၏ ခမးသာ ကြယ၀မႈက ျဖစေပၚေစသည။ အသစေရးဆြထားသည ဖြ႔စညးပအေျခခဥပေဒအရ အစးရသစတကလာ ေသာလညး စစတပသည ဥပေဒႏင ျပညသတ႔၏ လႊမးမးခပကငႏငမႈ ျပငပတြင ခငခငမာမာ ရေနဆ ျဖစသည။ ႏငငပငစးပြားေရးလပငနးမားႏင ေရနႏင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာေငြမားက စမခန႔ခြမႈမားႏငစပလဥး၍ စစတပပင ကမၸဏမား၏ ပါဝငပတသကမႈအခနးက႑က ယခအခနထ ကြကြျပားျပား မသရရသညအျပင သတသတမတမတ ျပဌာနးခကမား လညးမရေပ။ အစးရ သည ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ တငပ႔ေရာငးချခငးမ ဝငေငြ မညေရြ႕မညမ ရရသည၊ သ႔မဟတ ၎ေငြေၾကးမားက မညကသ႔ စမခန႔ခြမႈျပလပၿပး မညသ႔သးစြသညကလညး ထတျပနေၾကညာျခငးမရေပ။ အလားတ ျမနမာ ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ က႑တြင ပါ၀ငပတသကေနသည ႏငငျခား ကမၸဏမားသညလညး အဆပါေငြေၾကးမားက စစအစးရထသ႔ မညသ႔၊ မညမ ေပးေခရသညက ထတျပနရန ျငငးဆလကရသည။

ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔မရရသည ဝငေငြမားက ပမေကာငးမြနေသာ ပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈႏင တာဝနခမႈ စနစေအာကတြငစမခန႔ခြရန အေရးတႀကး လအပေနသည။ တဖနတငးျပည၏ သယဇာတမားမရရလာေသာ အကး အျမတက ျပညသမားအေနျဖင တနးတရညတ အကးအျမတခစားပငခြငရရေစရနႏင ေရရညတညတန႔ေစမည ဖြၿဖးတးတကမႈတစခ ျဖစေပၚလာေစ ရနအတြက စစတပႀကးစး၊ ခပကငထားေသာ ႏငငစးပြားေရးက ျပျပင ေျပာငးလရနလညး အေရးတႀကးလအပေနသည။

ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ေပါၾကြယ၀ေသာ တျခားႏငငမားတြင ေငြေၾကး စးဆငး လညပတမႈမားက ျပညသမားအား ထေရာကစြာ အသေပးႏငသည နညးစနစႏငလပငနးစဥမား၊ လြတလပေသာ စမခန႔ခြမႈႏင စာရငးစစ လပငနးမား၊ လထအေျချပအဖြ႔အစညးမား ပးေပါငး ပါ၀ငမႈမားႏင ေငြေၾကးမတစြာခြေ၀သးစြမႈမားက ႏငငတကာစႏႈနးမားႏငအည ပြငလငးျမငသာစြာ လကနာ ေဆာငရြကလကရသည။

ဤအစရငခစာတြင ျမနမာႏငငအေနျဖင ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈရစြာျဖင ေငြေၾကး စမခန႔ခြမႈက စနစတက တးတက လပေဆာငႏငရနႏင သဘာ၀သယဇာ တမားေၾကာင ကနစာသင႔ေနျခငးမ လြတေျမာကႏငရနအတြက တျခား ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ေပါၾကြယ၀ေသာ ႏငငမား၏ အဓက အေရးပါေသာ ေငြေၾကးစမခြန႔ခြမႈက႑မားမ လပေဆာငသငေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာမားက ထတႏတ တငျပထားပါသည။

ရခငကမးလြနပငလယျပငမရရ ေသာသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔က ထငးမးျဖငခကျပတစားေသာက ေနရေသာ ရခင အမေထာငစ (၉၀%)ေကာအတြက သးမျပေပ

ဓါတပ - ရခငေရနေစာငၾကညေရးအဖြ႔

7

သယဇာတေပါမားၾကြယဝေသာႏငငမားတြင ေရန၊ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ႏင တြငးထြကသယဇာတမားသည တငးျပည၏ အဖးတနလေသာ ဓနဥစၥာ အရငးအျမစ မားျဖစသည။ ဤဓနဥစၥာမားက ျပညတြငး၌ အသးျပႏငလင စးပြားျဖစထြနး တးတကမႈက ျဖစေပၚေစၿပး ပမ ေကာငးမြနေသာ လမႈဘဝ တးတကမႈမားက စြမးအငထတလပျခငးမတဆင ျဖစထြနးေစႏငသည။ ထ႔အျပင ဤစြမးအငမားက ထတလပေရာငးချခငးျဖင ဝငေငြအေျမာက အမား ရရႏငၿပး ရရေငြမားက အကးရရ အသးျပႏငလင ႏငငမား၏ တးတကမႈမားအတြက တြနးအားတစခ ျဖစေနေပမည။သ႔ေသာကအေၾကာငး မလစြာ သယဇာတ ကြယဝခမးသာေသာ ႏငငအမားစသည ၎တ႔၏ ဓနဥစၥာမားမ အကးမခစားရဘ ဆငးရမြေတ မႈမားႏင မတညၿငမေသာ လမႈဘဝမားက ႀကေတြ႔ေနရသည။ ဤလကၡဏာက သယဇာတ ကနစာ (သ႔မဟတ) “ဖလျခငး၏ဝေရာဓ” ဟ လသမားသည။ သဘာဝသယဇာတ အရငးအျမစ ကြယဝမႈသည ႏငငတစခအား တးတကေစရမညအစား အကငပကျခစားမႈ၊ ဖႏႈပခပခယမႈ၊ ဆငးရမြေတမႈႏင ပဋပကၡမားဆသ႔ ဥးတညသြားေစျခငးတ႔သည သယဇာတကနစာမား ျဖစသည။ သယဇာတ ကြယဝခမးသာေသာ ႏငငအမားစသည ဆးရြားသညအစးရ မား၏ အပခပျခငးက ခေနရသည။ အကငပကျခစားမႈႏင အစးရ၏ တာဝနခမႈ မရျခငးတ႔ေၾကာင သဘာဝသယဇာတ ေရာငးချခငးမရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ခးယျခငး (သ႕မဟတ) မတရား အလြအသးျပျခငးခေန ရသည။၁ သယဇာတ ေရာငးချခငးမ ရရလာေသာ ဝငေငြမားက လအနညးစ ၏ လကတြင ဝကြကအပစပထားျခငးေၾကာင လကရအစးရမ ႏငငအာဏာက ထနးခပထားႏငသည။ အာဏာရအစးရမ အထးသျဖင စစတပအားကးၿပး ႏငငအာဏာက ရယထား သည အစးရျဖစပါက ဤကသ႔ ဘ႑ာဝငေငြမားက ဝကြကထနးခပထားျခငးသည ဖႏပခပခယသည အပခပေရးက ပမ ဆးရြားေစပါသည။ ေရန အဓကထတလပေရာငးခေသာ ႏငငမား၌ လ႔အခြငအေရး ကာကြယေစာငေရာကမႈစႏႈနး အတကအကမားသည ေရနေစး အတကအကႏင ဆကႏြယမႈရေနသညက ေတြ႔ရရသည။၂

တာဝနခမႈစနစမရျခငးႏင အကငပကျခစားျခငးေၾကာင ေငြေၾကးအျမာက အမားက လကတစဆပစာ အခြငထးခလနညးစထသ႔သာ ေရာကရသြား မညျဖစၿပး ႏငငတြငးဆငးရ၊ ခမးသာ ကြာဟမႈကဆးဆးရြားရြားျဖစ ေပၚေစ သည။ ေနာကဆကတြအေနျဖင အကင႔ပကျခစားမႈေၾကာင႔ လမႈဖလေရး က႑မားတြင အစးရ၏ သးစြမႈနညးပါးျခငးႏင ေပါငးစပလကေသာအခါ

သဘာဝသယဇာတ ခမးသာ ၾကြယဝေသာ ႏငငမားတြင ေကာငးမြနေသာ အစးရ အပခပမႈ ရပါက သဘာဝ သယဇာတမ အလြနမားျပားေသာ ဝငေငြမားက ရရႏငၿပး တဆကတညး စးပြားေရး ဖြ႔ၿဖးတးတကမႈက ျဖစေပၚေစၿပး ဆငးရမြေတမႈက ေလာခေပး နငေၾကာငး ေလလာေတြ႕ရ ထား သည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ညဖငးေသာ အစးရတစရပ ျဖစေနပါက သဘာဝ အရငးအျမစမားမ ရရေသာ ဝငေငြမားသည ဆငးရ မြေတမႈႏင ပဋပကၡ ျပနာမားကသာ ျဖစေပၚ ေစပါသည။၄

tcef; 1

obm0o,HZmwusdefpmqkdonfrSm

8

ျပညပတငပ႔မႈ၏ အမကတရား

ခငလေသာအေထာကအထားမား အရ ၁၉၆၀ ႏင ၁၉၉၀ ခႏစမား အၾကား သဘာဝသယဇာတ မဖလ ေသာ တငးျပညမား၏ လတဥးခငး ဝငေငြသည သဘာဝသယဇာတ ၾကြယဝၿပး အရငးအျမစမားကသာ အဓက တငပ႔ေရာငးခေသာ တငး ျပညမား၏ လတဥးခငး ဝငေငြထက ၂ ဆ မ ၃ ဆ အထ ပျမနေသာ ႏႈနးထားျဖင တကလာခေၾကာငး ေတြ႕ရရသည။၅

ႏငငသားတ႔၏ ဆငးရမြေတမႈက အရနအဟန ျမငတကေစသည။ ရရလာေသာ ဘ႑ာ၀ငေငြက ျပညတြငး စးပြားေရးလပငနးမား၊ လသား အရငးအျမစ ဖြ႔ၿဖးတးတကေရးက႑မားတြင ရငးႏျမပႏျခငးမရပ၊ သဘာဝသယဇာတ မားက ထတယ၊ တငပ႔ေရာငးချခငးသည တငးျပည၏ ေရရညဆငးရမြေတမႈက ျဖစေပၚေစသည။ အေၾကာငးမာ သဘာဝသယ ဇာတ အမားစတ႔သည တခါသးျဖစၿပး ျပနလည မေမြးဖြားႏငေတာေပ။ ရရလာေသာ အကးအျမတမားက သကဆငေသာ ေဒသခလမးမားႏင ညတညမ ခြေဝေပး ျခငးမရ၍ ပဋပကၡမားက ျဖစေပၚေစၿပး ျဖစပြားေနဆ ပဋပကၡမားက ၾကာရညေစႏငသည။ သဘာဝသယဇာတ ထတယေသာ ေဒသတြင ေနထငသ လထသည သဘာဝပတဝနးကင ပကစးျခငး၊ အသက ေမြးဝမးေကာငး လပငနးမား ပကစးျခငး၊ ေလထညစညမးျခငး အစရသည သယဇာတ ထတယျခငးမ ျဖစပြားရေသာ ဆးကးမားကသာ ခစားရသည။ သ႔ေသာ ၎တ႔သည သငတငသညေလာေၾကးမရရသလ အလပအကင (သ႔) သဘာဝသယဇာတ ထတယျခငးမ ရရေသာ အကးအျမတမားက အျခားပစျဖင ခြေ၀ေသာ အကးခစားခြငမားလညး မရရၾကေပ။

သဘာဝသယဇာတ ကြယဝရျခငး၏ အျခားေနာကဆကတြ ဆးကးက Dutch Disease (ဒတခေရာဂါ) ဟေခၚပါသည။ တငးျပည၏ဝငေငြ အလြန အကြမားျပားလာေသာအခါ ျဖစေပၚလာေသာအႏရာယ ဆးကးက ရည ညႊနးသးႏႈနးသည အယအဆတစချဖစသည။ ဤစးပြားေရး ျပနာ သည အမားအားျဖင သဘာဝသယဇာတမားက ေရာငးချခငးေၾကာင ျဖစသည။ တဖန ဖြ႔ၿဖးေရးေထာကပေငြကသ႔ေသာ ႏငငျခားေငြမား အလြနအကြ ဝငလာျခငးမလညး ျဖစပြားေစႏငပါသည။ ႏငငျခား ေငြမားအစလက အျပလက ဝငလာျခငးသည မမတငးျပည၏ေငြေၾကးက တျခားတငးျပည မားႏင ႏႈငးယဥလင တနးဖးတကေစသည။ ၄ငးအေျခအေနတြင တငးျပည စးပြားေရး၏ အျခားေသာက႑မားတြင အလြနဆးရြားေသာ ဆးကးမားက ဖနးတးျဖစေပၚေစသည။၃ ဥပမာ မမတငးျပည၏ ေငြေၾကးတနးဖး တရနထး ျမငတကမႈသည မမတငးျပည၏ ပ႔ကနၿပငဆငမႈက ဆတယတေစသည။ ယငးေၾကာင တငးျပည၏ ကနထတလပမႈက႑က ကဆငးေစၿပး အလပ လကမႏႈနးက အမားအျပား ျဖစေပၚေစသည။

ဓာတပ - Tab

ျမနမာႏငင၊ ရမးျပညနယတြင တညေဆာကေနေသာ ပကလငးျဖစသည။ ဤပကလငးျဖင ေရႊသဘာoဓါတေငြ႔က တရတျပညသ႔တငပ႔မည။

9

Sales revenues from gas exports

2010 2013

US$2.5 billion

US$1.6 billion

သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ႏစစဥလကရ၀ငေငြ ဘ႑ာေရးႏစ (ဧၿပ-မတလ)

လာမညႏစမားတြင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔မရရမည ခန႔မနးေျခ ဘ႑ာေငြမား*(၁ ႏစ = အေမရကနေဒၚလာ ၁.၆၅ ဘလယ)

ရတနာ၊ ရတခြန** ေရႊသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ လပကြက အမတ M-9

၂ဝ၁၁-၂ဝ၁၂ US$ ၂.၉၄ ဘလယ US$ ၁.၂၅ ဘလယ (ႏစစဥ) (၂၀၁၃ ခႏစ တြင စတင ေရာငးခမည)

US$ ဝ.၄ သနး (ႏစစဥ) (၂၀၁၃ ခႏစတြင စတင ေရာငးခမည)

၂၀၁၀-၂၀၁၁ US$ ၂.၅၂ ဘလယ

၂၀၀၉-၂၀၁၀ US$ ၂.၉၁ ဘလယ

၂၀၀၈-၂၀၀၉ US$ ၂.၃၈ဘလယ

၂၀၀၇-၂၀၀၈ US$ ၂.၅၃ ဘလယ

၂၀၀၆-၂၀၀၇ US$ ၂.ဝ၃ ဘလယ

Newly discovered reserves

Current exports

Oil pipeline

Gas pipeline

Upcoming exports

Currently under exploration

Oil and gas fields: Money in the pipeline Global Corruption Ranking

2011

180

180

182

182

Myanmar

Afghanistan

Korea (North)

Somalia

* ranked out of 183 countries worldwide

ဇယားပ။ ျမနမာႏငင၏ သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ ေရာငးချခငးမရရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြ

US$2.5 billion

*တြကခကမႈအျပညအစအတြက ေနာကဆကတြကၾကညရႈပါ။** htt p://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/NG-561.pdf၂ဝ၁၁-၂ဝ၁၂ ဘ႑ာေရးႏစမားအတြက ကနးဂဏနးမားမာ ၂၀၁၂ ခႏစ ေဖေဖၚဝါရလ ၁၀ ရကေန႔အထသာ ျဖစသည။ယငးကနးဂဏနးမားက ၂၀၁၂ ခႏစ၊ေဖေဖၚဝါရလ ၂၂ ရကေန႔တြင Eleven News ၌ေဖၚျပထားသည။

Map by AOW

10

ျမနမာနငငက အာရတကရ သဘာဝသယဇာတ အခမးသာဆးႏငငမား အနက တႏငငတစခ အျဖစသတမတထားသည။ ေရနႏငသဘာဝ ဓါတေငြ႔၊ ကြနးသစ၊ ေကာကမကရတနာ၊ တြငးထြကသယဇာစေသာ သဘာဝ သယဇာတမား တငပ႔ေရာငးချခငးမ ႏစစဥ ေဒၚလာဘလယ ေပါငးမားစြာ ရရေနသည။၆ သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ တစခတညးတငပ႔ေရာငးခမႈမာ ၂ဝဝ၈ ခႏစ ႏငငစစေပါငး ပ႔ကနပမာဏ၏ ၄၅ ရာခငႏႈနးရၿပး ျမနမာႏငင၏ ႏငငျခားဝငေငြရရေရးတြင အႀကးမားဆး ေသာ ရငးျမစတစခ ျဖစသည။၇ မတမပငလယေကြ႔ရ ရတခြနႏင ရတနာ ကမးလြန လပကြကမားမ ထြကရ ေသာ သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔က ၁၉၉၈ ႏင ၂ဝဝဝ ခႏစတ႔မစ၍ ထငးႏငငသ႔ အသးသး တငပ႔ေရာငးခလာခသည။ ၂ဝဝ၈ ခႏစတြင ၿဗတနေရန ကမၸဏ (BP) က ျမနမာႏငငသည အာရ-ပစဖတ ေဒသတြင ပကလငးမတဆင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ အမားဆး တငပ႔သအျဖစ သတမတထားၿပး ၂ဝဝ၇ ခႏစတြင စစေပါငး သဘာဝ ဓါတေငြ႔ပမာဏ ၉.၇ ဘလယကဗမတာရသညဟ ေဖၚျပထားသည။ ဤပမာဏ အရဆပါက ယငး ႏစအတြငးမာပင ျမနမာႏငင သည ကမာၻ႕သဘာဝ ဓါတေငြ႔ အမားဆး တငပ႔ ေသာ ႏငငမားတြင အဆင (၁၁) ၌ တညရေနခသည။

၂၀၁၀-၁၁ခႏစတြင ဓါတေငြ႔ေရာငးချခငးမ ရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြသည ပဥးမ (၂) ဘလယေကာ ရသည။ လာမည ႏစမားအတြငးတြင (၆၀) ရာခငႏႈနး ျမငတက လာၿပး ေဒၚလာေငြ (၄.၁)ဘလယ ရရမညဟ ခန႔မနး ထားသည။ ျမနမာအစးရ သည ယငးေငြ၏ (၇၀) ရာခငႏႈနးက သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔တငပ႔မ၊ လပကြကေျမ ငားရမးခြင၊ အခြနႏင ဆေၾကးေငြတ႔မ ရရႏငမညဟ ခန႔မနး ထားသည။

ကမးလြနႏငကနးတြငး လပကြကေပါငး (၁၀၀)ေကာက ရာေဖြတေဖၚခြငျပ ထားၿပးျဖစသျဖင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မရရသည ဘ႑ာဝငေငြ ပမာဏမာလညး အရန အဟနျဖင ျမငတကလာမည အလားအလာ ေကာငးမားရေနသည။၈ လကရတြင ကနးတြငးလပကြကေပါငး ၆၅ ခႏင ကမးလြန လပကြက ၅၃ ခရသည။ ႏငငျခား ေရနကမၸဏ (၂၂) ခေကာသည ကမးလြနလပကြက (၃၁) ခတြင လပကငလက ရသည။ ကနးတြငးလပကြက (၁၃) ခမာလညး ႏငငျခားကမၸဏ (၁၁) ခႏင ဆကလက လပေဆာငေနသည။ ၂၀၁၁ ခႏစတြင လညး ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ကနးတြငး လပကြက အသစ(၁၈)တြငလညး စမးသပရာေဖြတေဖၚမႈမားျပလပ ရနခြငျပခသည။

မၾကာမ တငပ႔ေရာငးခမည ေရနႏင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔

တရတသ႔တငပ႔ေရာငးခမည ေရႊသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ (၂၀၁၃ ခႏစ)

ျမနမာႏငင၏ အေနာကဖက ရခငကမးလြနတြငရေသာ ၄.၅ ထရလယ ကဗေပရ သည သဘာဝ ဓါတေငြ႔တြငးႀကးမားမ ဓါတေငြ႔မားက ျမနမာႏငငက ျဖတသနးၿပး ပကလငးႀကးမားျဖင တရတႏငငသ႔ ၂၀၁၃ ခႏစမစတင၍ တငပ႔ေရာငးခသြားမည ျဖစသည။ ဤဓါတေငြ႔တြငးမားမ ဓါတေငြ႔မားက ေနာငႏစေပါငး(၃ဝ) တငပ႔ ေရာငးခမညျဖစရာ အေမရကနေဒၚလာ ၂၉ ဘလယ ခန႔ ဝငေငြရရမညဟ ခန႔မနး ထားသည။ ၂၀၁၀ ခႏစ ႏဝငဘာလတြင တရတ အစးရမ ျမနမာအစးရအား အာဖရကႏင အေရအလယပငးတ႔မ

a&eHESifhobm0

"gwfaiGNu¾

jrefrmEdkifiH.

t-uD;rm;qHk;

EdkifiHjcm;0ifaiG

tcef; 2

ေရႊသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔စမကနး

11

a&eHESifhobm0

"gwfaiGNu¾

jrefrmEdkifiH.

t-uD;rm;qHk;

EdkifiHjcm;0ifaiG

လာေသာ ေရနႏငေရႊသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔က တငပ႔မည ေရနႏငဓါတေငြ႔ပကလငး တညေဆာကျခငးက အရနျမႇငႏငရနအတြက အေမရကန ေဒၚလာ ၂.၄ ဘလယ ေခးငားခသည။၉ ေခးေငြဆငရာ စာခပပါ အခကအလကမားက လသရငၾကား ထတျပနျခငးမရေပ။ ဤစမကနးအတြက ေခးေငြႏင ဓါတေငြ႔ အတြက ေပးေခး ေငြမားအျပင တရတအစးရသည ျမနမာစစအစးရအား ႏငငျဖတ သယပ႔ခ တႏစလင အေမရကန ေဒၚလာသနး (၁၅၀)ျဖင ႏစေပါငး (၃၀)အတြက စစေပါငး ေဒၚလာ ၄.၅ ဘလယေပးရမည ျဖစသည။

ေရႊဂတစစမကနး ပကလငး တညေဆာကျခငးႏငအတ ပငလယေရနက ဆပကမး စမကနး၊ ေကာကျဖအထးစပြားေရးဇ စမကနးႏင တရတႏငငသ႔ ေရနတငပ႔ျခငးက ေခာေမြ႔စြာ လပေဆာငေပးမည ႏငငျခားစကမႈလပငနးမား အား ဝနေဆာငမႈ လပငနးမားသည အပထပေဆာငး ဝငေငြမားစြာက ရရေစ မညျဖစသည။ ဤစမကနးမားမ ရရလာမည ဝငေငြမားကလညး ပြငလငးျမင သာေသာ နညးလမးမား ျဖင စမခန႔ခြလမၼညမဟပေပ။

ထငးႏငငသ႔ (၂၀၁၃)တြင တငပ႔ေရာငးခမည လပကြကအမတ M9 မသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔

၂၀၁၀ ခႏစ ဇလငလတြင ထငးႏငင PTT ကမၸဏႏင ျမနမာစစအစးရပင ျမနမာေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔လပငနး MOGE တ႔သည ေဇာတက သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔တြငး (M-9 လပကြက) မ ဓါတေငြ႔က ႏစေပါငး (၃ဝ)တငပ႔ရန သေဘာတစာခပက လကမတ ေရးထးခၾကသည။ ေဇာတက သဘာ၀ ဓါတေင႔ြ သကတြင ဓါတေငြ႔ ပမာဏ ကဗေပ ၁.၅ ထရလယ ရသည။ ဓါတေငြ႔ ဝယယ ေရး သေဘာတစာခပ အရ PTT သည ေန႔စဥ ဓါတေငြ႔ ကဗေပသနး ၃၀၀ ထတယမည ျဖစသည။ ၎အနက သနး ၂၄၀ က PTT ပင ထငးႏငငသ႔ တငပ႔မာျဖစၿပး ကဗေပသနး ၆၀ ကျမနမာႏငင အတြက အသးျပမည ျဖစသည။၁၀

PTT ၏လကေအာကခ ကမၸဏျဖစေသာ PTTEP သည ေဇာတက လပကြက က ၁၀၀ ရာခငႏႈနးပငဆငၿပး အဓကထတလပေနသ ျဖစသည။ ဤေဇာတက ဓါတေငြ႔သကမ ဓါတေငြ႔မားက ၂၀၁၅ ခႏစတြင စတငထတလပမညဟ စစဥထား ၿပး ဓါတေငြ႔မားက သယယႏငရန ၆၃ ကလမတာ ရညလားေသာ ပကလငးအသစ တခက ရတနာပကလငးႏငအၿပင ထပမသြယတနးတည ေဆာကမာျဖစသည။၁၁

ရတနာသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႕ ပကလငးတညေဆာကစဥ လ႔အခြငအေရး ခးေဖာကမႈမား အႀကးအကယျဖစေပၚခသည။ ထငးႏငင၏ စြမးအင လအပ ခက ၄၀ ရာခငႏႈနးခန႔က ျမနမာႏငငရ ရတနာႏင ရတခြန ဓါတေငြ႔သက ႀကးမားမ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မားျဖင ျဖည႔ဆညးေပးေနသည။၁၂ ဤထငးႏငင ပင PTTEP သည အျခားလပကြကမား ျဖစေသာ M3, M4, M7 ႏင M11 တ႕ကလညး တဥးတညး၏ပငအျဖစ လကကငေနသည။

ေရႊသဘာဝဓါေငြ႔က တရတႏငငသ႔ တငပ႔မည ပကလငး

ဓါတပ- Tab

12

အႏၵယသ႔ မၾကာမတငပ႔ေရာငးခမညသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔

အႏၵယႏငငသည ရခငျပညနယရ (A2) လပကြကမ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မားက ကနးတြငးပငးပကလငးမတဆင ဘဂၤလားေဒရႏငငက ျဖတကာတငသြငးရန စစဥေန သည။ အႏၵယႏငငပင (Essar Group) မ လပေဆာငေနေသာ လပကြကတြင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ၁၃ ထရလယထြကရမညဟ ခန႔မနးထား သည။ (Essar Group) သည စစေတြအနး တညရသည ကမးနးလပကြက L တြင ေရနစည သနး ၃၃၀ ရေသာ ဟကထရကာဗြန ထြကရမညဟ ခန႔မနးထားသည။၁၃

ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ က႑တြင ႏငငျခားတကရကရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈမား

ဘ႑ာ၀ငေငြမားသည သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ေရာငးချခငးမ ၀ငလာသကသ႔ ႏငငျခား တက ရက ရငးႏးျမပႏမႈျဖငလညး ၀ငေရာကလာေနသည။ ၁၉၈၉ ခႏစမစ၍ ျမနမာႏငငသည ႏငငျခား ရငးႏးျမႇပႏသမားက လမးဖြငေပးၿပးေနာက ႏငငျခားမ တကရက ရငးႏး ျမႇပႏမႈမားသည သဘာဝသယဇာတ ထပလပမႈ က႑မားတြင စၿပဝငေရာကလာသည။ အထးသျဖငေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔၊ ေရအားလပစစ ႏင သတတးေဖၚေရး က႑မား တြငျဖစသည။ ဤေငြေၾကးမားသည သယဇာတမားက ထပယတငပ႔ျခငးက အဆငေျပေခာေမြ႔ေစရနအတြက စမကနး အေျခခအေဆာကအဥးမားက အေကာင ထညေဖၚတညေဆာကရန အေၾကာငးျပခကျဖင ဝငေရာကလာျခငးျဖစသည။

အစးရ၏ တရား၀င ထတျပနထားေသာ ကနးဂဏနးမားအရ ၂၀၁၀-၂၀၁၁ ဘ႑ာ ေရးႏစတြင ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနး ၁၂ ခတြင ႏငငျခား တက ရကရငးႏး ျမႇပႏေငြ ၁၀.၈ ဘလယ ရေၾကာငး ေဖၚျပထားသည။၁၄ ဤပမာဏသည ယငးႏစ အတြငး ႏငင၏စစေပါငး ႏငငျခား တကရကရငးႏးျမပႏမႈပမာဏ၏ ထကဝက ေကာရသည။ ၂၀၁ဝ ေမလမစ၍ ေရန၊သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔၊ သတတြငး တးေဖၚေရးႏင ေရအားလပစစစမကနးႏစခတ႔တြင တရတႏငင၏ ရငးႏးျမပႏမႈမာ အေမရကန ေဒၚလာ ၈.၁၇၃ ဘလယရသည။ ကာလတေလာက ႏငငတြငးတရတတ႔၏ ရငးႏး ျမႇပႏမႈမာ ၁ဝ.၄၈ ဘလယရသညဟ ေဖၚျပထား သည။၁၅ ထငးႏငငကလညး ၎ ဘ႑ာေရးႏစတြင စစေပါငးရငးႏးျမပႏမႈ ပမာဏ အေမရကနေဒၚလာ ၂.၄၉ ဘလယ ရၿပး ျမနမာ၏ႏငငျခားရငးႏးျမပႏမႈတြင ဒတယအမားဆးႏငငျဖစသည။

အကးအျမတခြေ၀ျခငး၊ အပဆေၾကးေငြလကမတေရးထးျခငး၊ လပကြက ေျမယာငားရမးခ၊ အခြနႏင ၀နေဆာငမႈေၾကး

ျမနမာႏငငတြင ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ထတလပေရး က႑တြင ရငးႏးျမႇပႏသည ႏငငျခားကမၸဏမား ခပဆသည စာခပအမးအစားမာ (PSC) ေခၚ ထတလပမႈမ ခြေ၀ေပးေရး သေဘာတစာခပ ျဖစသည။ ၎ PSC စာခပအရ ျမနမာအစးရသည ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ မားကပငဆငၿပး တးေဖာထတ လပသည ကမၸဏမားႏင အကးအျမတက ခြေ၀ယျခငး ျဖစသည။ ၎စာခပတြင အစးရထသ႔ လပကြက ေျမယာငားရမးခြငအတြက ေပးေခရျခငး၊ သေဘာတ စာခပႏင တးေဖာထတလပမႈ အဆငဆငတြင ခပဆရေသာ စာခပမားတြင လကမတေရးထးခအတြက အစးရ သ႔ အပဆေၾကးေငြမား ေပးရျခငး၊ ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ေရာငးရ အျမတေငြမားက အစးရသ႔ ခြေ၀ေပးရျခငးတ႔ပါ၀ငသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင လပငနး စာခပတငးမ ေဒၚလာသနးေပါငးမားစြာ ရရသည။

13

အပငး(၁)။ ။ သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရေသာဘ႑ာေငြမား ဘယမာထားသနညး

ျမနမာႏငင၏ ႏငငျခားပ႔ကနမားတြင ၀ငေငြအမားဆးရရေနသည သဘာဝ ဓါတေငြ႔ တငပ႔ေရာငးချခငးမ ရရလာေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားသည တငးျပည၏ အႀကးမားဆးေသာ ႏငငျခားဝငေငြ အရငးအျမစႀကးတစခ ျဖစေနေသာ လညး ထေငြမားက ယခငအပခပခသည သနးေရႊအစးရႏင လကရ သနးစနအစးရ လကထက ႏစခလးတ႔တြင ပြငလငးျမငသာစြာ စမခန႔ခြျခငး မရေပ။ သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔တငပ႔မမ ရရသညေငြက မညကသ႔လကခရရသည၊ မညကသ႔ စမခန႔ခြထားသည၊ မညကသ႔ သးစြသညက လသရငၾကား ထတေဖၚတငျပေလ မရသညအျပင စစတပပင ကမၸဏမား၏ သဘာ၀ဓါတ ေငြ႔တငပ႔မႈမ ရရေသာ ၀ငေငြမား စမခန႔ခြေရးႏင သးစြမႈတြင ပါ၀ငပတသက ေနျခငးမားကလညး ရငးရငးလငးလငး ထတေဖၚေျပာဆျခငးမရေပ။ ထ႔ေၾကာင အကးအျမတခြေ၀မႈ လးဝမရျခငးသည ျမနမာႏငင၏ သယဇာတ ကနစာအား ပမ ရညလားဆးဝါး ေစသည။

ျပညသမသရေသာ ဘ႑ာဝငေငြလမးေၾကာငးမား

၂၀၀၁ ခႏစမစ၍ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ တငပ႔ေရာငးချခငးမ ၀ငေငြမား လကခရရ ခေသာလညး ယခငအပခပခသည ဗလခပမးႀကးသနးေရႊႏင လကရ အစးရ ဥးသနးစနတ႔သည မညေရြ႕မညမ ရရၿပး မညကသ႔ စမခန႔ခြသညက ေဖၚျပျခငးမရေပ။ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔၀ငေငြသည ျပညသ႔ေငြစာရငး(သ႔) အမးသား ဘတဂက ထသ႔ ၀ငလာျခငးမရေခ။ ဤသ႔ဆလင ထေငြမားသည မညသညေနရာတြင ရေနသနညး။ ဆနးစစ ေလလာသအမားစမ သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔တငပ႔မႈမ ရရသညေငြသည ႏငငျခားဘဏမားတြင စာရငးဖြင ထားၿပး၊ ၎ေငြမားက စစဗလခပမားက လကနက၀ယယေရးႏင ကယေရး ကယတာ အတြကသာ သးစြေနသညဟ ခန႔မနးၾကသည။

ျမနမာႏငငတြင အပခပခေသာ ဗလခပမးၾကးသနးေရႊ ဥးေဆာငသည စစအစးရသည သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔တငပ႔မႈမ ရရသညေငြေၾကးမားက မညသညေနရာတြင သ၀ကထားၿပး၊ မညကသ႔ စမခန႔ခြသညက ျပညသမား ကအသေပး ထတျပနေၾကျငာျခငးမားမရခဘ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏင တာ၀န ခမႈကငးမစြာျဖင ဆယစႏစႏငခကာ အပခပသြားခသည။ ယေန႔ကာလအထ ျမနမာျပည သမားအျပင၊ အဆငျမငစစအရာရမားအခ႕ပင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႕ တငပ႔မႈမ ရရသညေငြမားက မညသညေနရာတြငရၿပး မညကသ႔ စမခန႔ခြ ထားသညက မသရေပ။

ျမနမာအစးရပင ျမနမာ ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ လပငနးဌာန၏ အရာရ ေဟာငးတဥးက ရတနာ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႕စမကနးမ ရရသညေငြသည ျမနမာႏငငသ႔ ၀ငလာေလမရေၾကာငး ေျပာဆခသည။ ထငးႏငငမ သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔အတြက ေပးေခရေသာေငြေၾကးသည ၾကားခေနရာတစခမတဆင စကၤာပ၊ ဒဘငး၊ တရတႏငငမားရ ဘဏစာရငးမားသ႔ ေရာကရသြားသည။ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရသညေငြက စစလကနကပစၥညးမား ၀ယယျခငးႏင ပဂၢလကပစၥညးမား ၀ယယရာတြင ႏငငျခားဘဏမားမတဆင သကဆငရာ ႏငငႏင ကမၸဏမား သ႔ လႊေျပာငးေပး ေလရသည။

jrefrmEkdifiH.

b¾maiG

wGif;euf}uD;

tcef; 3

“ဗလခပမးၾကး သနးေရႊႏင စစဗလခပ အေပါငးအပါ တ႔သည ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရသည ေငြက ျမနမာႏငငအတြငး ျဖစေပၚ ေနေသာ လမႈအခကအခ မားတြင သးစြလသည ဆႏၵ မရေပ။ ႏငငသားအမားစမာ စား၀တေနေရး ခကခေနခန တြင ၎ေငြျဖင လကနက မ ား၀ယယ ျခငး ၊စ စေခ ါ ငး ေဆာင မသားစ၀ငမား စငကာပကသ႔ ႏငငျခား တငးျပညမားသ႔ ေစး၀ယ ထြကျခငးမား ျပလပေလ ရသည။“ ၁၆

14

သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔တငပ႔မႈမ ရရသညေငြမားက ျမနမာစစတပပင ကမၸဏမား ထမးခပထားသညဟ စြပစြေျပာဆမႈမား ရေနသည။ ထငးႏငငသ႔ သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႕ ေရာငးချခငးမ ရရသညေငြသည ဘ႑ာေရးႏင အခြန၀နႀကးဌာနသ႔ ၀ငေရာကလာျခငးမရဘ စစတပပင စးပြားေရးလပငနးတစချဖစေသာ ျမနမာ စးပြားေရး ဥးပငလမတကမ ထမးခပထားသည ႏငငျခား ဘဏတခ တြင ထညသြငးထားေၾကာငး အေမရကန ျပညေထာငစတြင ခလႈေနသည စစေထာက လမးေရးေဟာငး ဗလမးေအာငလငးထြဋမ ေျပာဆခသည (ေအာကတြငရႈပါ)။၁၇ ၂၀၀၉ ခႏစတြင ထတျပနခသည ထတျပနခကတခတြင ၎ေငြမားက စကၤာပ ဘဏႏစခ ျဖစသည (OCBC ႏင DBS) ဘဏတ႔တြင အပႏထားေၾကာငး ေဖၚ ထတခသည။၁၈

ဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ ကြၽမးကငသတဥးက ျမနမာအစးရသည ထငးႏငငသ႔ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ တငပ႔ေရာငးချခငးမ ႏစစဥ ေဒၚလာသနးတစေထာငမ ႏစ ေထာငရရေနၾကာငး၊ သ႔ရာတြင ၎ေငြမားက ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာ စာရငးတြင ထနးသမးထားျခငးမရေၾကာငး ေျပာဆခသည။ ၎ေငြမားက ထပပငး စစဗလ ခပမားသာထတယသစြႏငသည ႏငငျခားတငးျပညမားႏင ႏငငတြငးရ အခ႕ဘဏမားတြင အပႏထားသည။၁၉

ေပာကဆးေနေသာ ေဒၚလာဘလယေပါငးမားစြာျမနမာႏငငျခားေငြလလယႏႈနးျဖင တနဖးမေနေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမား

“ျမနမာစစဗလခပေတြဟာ ျပညသေတြအေပၚလအခြငအေရးကးလြနမႈက ခးေဖါကေနသလ၊ စမးအငကရရတ ဘ႑ာေငြေတြကလညး မသနားမလညတျပညသေတြဆက ဓါးျမတကသလ အတငးလယ ေနၾက တယ” ဆငတာနယ (Sean Turnell) ၂ဝ

သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ တငပ႔ေရာငးချခငးမ ရရသညေငြက ျမနမာအစးရ ေငြလလယ ႏႈနး (၁) ေဒၚလာလင (၆) ကပႏႈနးျဖင တြကခက ေဖာျပသည။ ျပငပ ေပါကေစးမာ (၁) ေဒၚလာလင ကပ (၈၀၀) မ (၁၀၀၀) ၾကားရသည အတြက စာရငးမ၀ငေသာေငြ ဘလခ ရေနသည။၂၁ ၁၉၉၈ ခႏစမစ၍ ျမနမာစစဗလခပမားသည အစးရ၏ တရား၀င ေငြလလယႏႈနးျဖင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႕ ေရာငးချခငးမရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြ ဘလယႏငခကာ ၀ကထားႏငသည။ ျမနမာအစးရသည ထငးႏငငသ႔ ဓါတ ေငြ႕ေရာငးချခငးမ ႏစစဥေဒၚလာ သနးႏစေထာငေကာ ရရေနသည။ ရတနာ၊ ရတခြန သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနးမားမရရသည ေငြအေျမာကအျမားက ထပပငးစစဗလခပ မားမ သ၀ကထားသည။၂၂

ဤေငြလလယႏႈနးစနစကအေျခခ၍ ျမနမာစစအစးရသည ၂ဝဝဝ ခႏစမ ၂ဝဝ၈ ခႏစအထ တငပ႔ခေသာ ရတနာဓါတေငြ႕မရရခသည ဘ႑ာေငြမ ၉၉ ရာခငႏႈနး (ခန႔မနးေျခ အေမရ ကနေဒၚလာ ၄.၈ဝ ဘလယ မ ၄.၈၃ဘလယ) က သဝကထား သည။ ရတာနာစမကနးတစခတညးမ အမးသားေငြစာရငးထသ႔မေရာကခေသာ ဓါတေငြ႕တငပ႔ေငြမားမာ ကေလး သနးသးဆယ အတြက စာသငေကာငး ၂ဝဝဝဝဝ ေကာက တညေဆာကႏငမညျဖစသည။၂၃

စစဗလခပေဟာငးမား

15

အကငပက ျခစားမႈ

လ႕၀ကထားမႈႏင တာ၀နယမႈ ကငးမေသာ ယႏရားသည ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရသည ဘ႑ာအခြနမား အကငပကျခစားမႈက ျဖစေပၚေစသည။ ႏငငတကာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈအဖြ႔ (Transparency International) ၏ အကင ပက ျခစားမႈဆငရာ ၂၀၁၁ ခႏစထတျပနခကတြင ႏငငေပါငး ၁၈၃ ႏငငတြင ျမနမာႏငငသည အဆင ၁၈၀ တြင ရသည။ ၂၀၀၉ ခႏစက ထြကေပၚလာေသာ ၀ကလ သတငးေပါကၾကားမႈတြင ျမနမာစစေခါငးေဆာင သနးေရႊသည ကမာၻ႕ေစးအႀကးဆး ေဘာလးအသငးတစချဖစသည မနခကစတာယႏကတက ေဘာလးအသငးအား အေမရကနေဒၚလာ (၁) ဘလယႏင ၀ယယရန စဥးစားေနေၾကာငး ေဖာျပခသည။ ထသ႔ဝယယရန စစေခါငးေဆာငမား အေနျဖင ၎ေငြမားကမညသညေနရာမရရမညက စဥးစားစရာ ျဖစသည။

သနးေပါငးမားစြာအဖးတနေသာ စာခပႏင အပဆေၾကးေငြမားက ထမခန ထားျခငး

သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြမားက လ႕၀ကထားျခငး၊ သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔ ေရာငးရေငြမားက မညသညေနရာမာထားရသညက ျပညသမား သရႏငရန ေဖာျပထားျခငး မရသညအျပင ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ ရာေဖြ တးေဖၚထတယရနအတြက လကမတေရးထးရေသာ ထတလပမႈ ခြေဝေရးသေဘာတစာခပတစခစအတြက လကမတေရးထးခ ဆေၾကးေငြမားက လညး ကမၸဏမားက စစအစးရအား မညမေပးေခခသညကလညး လသ ရငၾကား ထပေဖၚေျပာဆမႈမရေပ။ ၁၉၈၈ ခႏစမစ၍ ျမနမာႏငငသည ေဒၚလာ သနးခ တနေသာ လပငနးစာခပေပါငး ၄၀ ေကာက လကမတ ေရးထးခသည။ ၎လပငနးစာခပ ေရးထးမႈႏငပတသက၍ ကမၸဏမား အေနျဖင မညသ႔က မညမေပးရသညက ေဖၚျပျခငးမရဘ လ႕၀ကထားသည။

၁၉၉၂ ခႏစတြင ျမနမာေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔လပငနးႏင ျပငသစႏငင အေျခစက တတယလ ကမၸဏတ႔၏ (PSC) စာခပအရ တတယလ ကမၸဏသည ျမနမာအစးရပင ကမၸဏသ႔ ရတနာစမကနး (PSC) စာခပ အတြက လကမတေရးထးခ ဆေၾကးေငြ ေဒၚလာ ၁၅ သနး ေပးအပခ ရသည။၂၄ ၂၀၀၇ ခႏစတြင တရတကမၸဏ (CNPC) သည သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ လပကြက AD-1 ႏင AD-8 ထပလပခြငရရေရးအတြက လကမတထးျခငး အပဆေၾကးေငြ ေဒၚလာ ၁၀ သနးႏင ေဒၚလာ (၂) သနး က ျမနမာအစးရ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔လပငနးသ႔ ေပးအပခရသည။ ကလသမဂၢ လၿခေရး ေကာငစတြင ျမနမာစစတပမ အရပသားမားႏင တငးရငးသား ေဒသအတြငး တကခကေန မႈက ရပဆငးရနႏင ႏငငေရးအရ ေတြ႔ဆေဆြး ေႏြးမႈစတငရန ဆးျဖတခကက တရတႏငငမ ဗတအာဏာျဖင ပယခၿပး သးရကအၾကာတြင တရတကမၸဏမ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ထတလပခြင ရရချခငးျဖစသည။၂၅

တရတႏငင ဒတယ သမတ ျမနမာႏငငက ၂၀၀၉ ခႏစတြင

လာေရာကလညပတစဥ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔အပါ အ၀င

စးပြားေရးစာခပမားက ခပဆခ႔သည

ဓါတပ- Xinhua

16

ျမနမာေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔လပငနး(MOGE)

ရာခငႏႈနးျပည႔ ႏငငပငျဖစေသာ ျမနမာေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔လပငနး(MOGE) သည ျမနမာႏငင၏ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔တြင ရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈ လပေနသည ႏငငျခား ကမၸဏမားႏင အစအစပ လပပငခြငရေသာ တခတညးေသာ ကမၸဏျဖစသည။ ႏငငျခား ကမၸဏမားႏင လပငနးသေဘာတ စာခပခပဆရာမ ေဒၚလာသနးခရေနသည (MOGE) သည ျမနမာႏငင အတြက အမားဆး ေငြရာေပးေနေသာ ကမၸဏ တချဖစသည။ (MOGE) သည ျပညတြငးေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ရာေဖြေရး၊ ျပညတြငး ပကလငးတညေဆာကမႈက ႏငငျခားကမၸဏမားႏင ပးတြတာ၀နယရေသာ ကမၸဏ ျဖစသည။၃၀ (MOGE) သည စြမးအင၀နႀကးဌာနေအာကတြင ရၿပး ဗလမး ခပေဟာငး သနးေဌးက ၀နႀကးအျဖစ တာ၀န ယလကရသည။

(MOGE) သညေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ေရာငးချခငးမ ရရသညေငြမားက တရားဝငလကခရရၿပး မညသ႔မညပ စမခန႔ခြသညက ထတေဖၚေျပာဆျခငး မရေပ။ ေပါကၾကားထားေသာ ၂၀၀၃ ခႏစအထ ရတနာသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနးမ ထငးႏငငသ႔ တငပ႔ခ ေပးေခေငြစာခပမားအရ ရတနာသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ တငပ႔မမ ရရေသာ၀ငေငြမားက (MOGE) စကၤာပဘဏမားတြင အပႏထားေၾကာငးသရ သည။ ၎ဘဏစာရငးမားက (MOGE) သ႔မဟတ စစတပပင ကမၸဏမား ျဖစသည ျမနမာစးပြားေရး ဥးပငလမတက(UMEHL)ႏင ျမနမာစးပြားေရး ေကာပ ေရးရငး (MEC)တ႔အနက မညသည ကမၸဏမ စမခန႔ခြသညက မသရေပ။

အပငး(၂)။ ။ ဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာေငြ႔ ႏင စစတပထမးခပမႈ

လကနကဝယယမႈႏင စစတပတညေဆာကမႈအတြက ဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာေငြမား ျမနမာႏငငသည ျပညပရနမရေသာလညး ၁၉၈၈ ႏစကတညးကပင ျမနမာ စစတပ၏ စစသားဥးေရးမာ ယခငကထက ျမငတကသြားၿပးယခအခနတြင ခန႔မနးေျခစစသားဥေရ ၄၉၂၀၀၀ ျဖင ေဒသတြငးတြင အႀကးဆးေသာ စစတပျဖစသည။ ျပညသမားအေပၚ လ႔အခြငအေရး ခးေဖာကမႈ၊ သတျဖတမႈ၊ အဓမၼျပကငမႈမားက ျမနမာစစတပမ ယေန႔ထတင ကးလြနေနသည။ ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ေရာငးချခငးမ ရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးမားသည ျမနမာျပညအတြက အမားဆး ႏငငျခား ၀ငေငြျဖစၿပး ၄ငးေငြမားျဖင စစတပက ေခတမလကနကမား တပဆင အသးျပေနသည။

ဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ပေအာၿပးရရသညႏငတစၿပငနက စစတပအတြက သခပကာကားမား၊ တကေလယာဥမား၊ စစသးေလယာဥမား၊ ေရဒါစနစမား၊ ေျမျပငမေဝဟငပစဒးကဥမား၊ ေဝဟငမ ေဝဟငပစ တာတဒးကဥ စနစမားက ဝယယလာခသည။၂၆ ၁၉၉၈ ခႏစ ရတနာဓါတေငြ႔သကမ ဓါတေငြ႕မားက ထတလပၿပး ယငးဓါတေငြ႔မားက ထငးႏငငသ႔တငပ႔ခ ေပးေခေငြကရရၿပးေနာက သနးေရႊစစအစးရသည စစလကနကပစၥညးမားက အခန အဟနျဖင ဝယယခ သည။ ၎စစလကနကပစၥညးမားအတြက ဘလယေပါငးမားစြာက အသးျပၿပး တရတ၊ ရရား၊ အႏၵယ၊ ပါကစၥတန၊ ေျမာကကးရးယား၊ ယကရနးႏင အစၥေရးတ႔ထမ အဆငျမင ေခတမလကနကမားက မာယတငသြငး ဝယယ ခသည။၂၇ ရတနာဓါတေငြ႔ စမကနးမ ပထမအရစ ေဒၚလာသနး ၁၀၀ ရရၿပးေနာက ရရားႏငငထတ MIG 29 ဂကတကေလယဥ ၁၂ စငး၀ယယခသည။၂၈ သနးေရႊစစအစးရသည၂၀၀၇ ခႏစ တြင ၁၀ မဂါ၀ပရ အႏျမသေတသန ဓါတေပါငးဖတခ တညေဆာကရနလညး ရရားႏငငႏင စာခပခပဆခသည။

၂၀၀၉ ခႏစတြင ကလသမဂၢ၊ အာဆယႏင ျမနမာအစးရ ပးေပါငးထားသည သးပြငဆငအဖြ႔သည နာဂစ မနတငးဒဏသင ျပညသ (၁ဝဝဝဝဝ) ေကာအတြက လသားခငးစာနာမႈအေရးေပၚ အေထာကအကအတြက ေဒၚလာသနးေပါငး ၆၉၃ ရာေဖြေနစဥ စစေခါငးေဆာငတ႔သည ရရားႏငငမ ေဒၚလာ သနးေပါငး ၆၃၀ တနဖးရ MIG 29 ဂကတကေလယဥ အစးေရ ၂၀ ႏင Mi-35 တကခကေရး ရဟတယာဥမားက ၀ယယခသည။ ၂၉

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ဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးမားက စစတပပငစးပြားေရးလပငနးမားမ ထမးခပထားသလား

ဥးပငလမတကေခၚ ျမနမာစးပြားေရးဥးပငလမတက (UMEHL) သည စစတပပင စပြားေရးလပငနး တစချဖစၿပး စစတပ၏ ပငစငရနပေငြမားကစမခန႔ခြသည။ ဤဥးပငလမတကက ၁၉၉ဝ ခႏစတြင စစတပက ဖြ႔စညး ထေထာငထားၿပး စစအရာရမားက ဥးစးဥးေဆာငစမခန႔ခြေနသည။ ၁၉၈၈ ေကာငးသားအေရး ေတာပႀကးက ႏမနငးၿပးသညေနာက ဥးပငလမတက သည ျမနမာႏငင၏ ပထမဆးေသာ စစတပထမးခပသည စးပြားေရးလပငနးတစချဖစလာခသည။ ဤဥးပင လမတကကမၸဏ၏ အစရယယာ (၄၀%) က စစရးခပက ပငဆငထားၿပး ျမနမာစစအစးရတြက အဓက လကနက ေမာငခတငသြငးသအျဖစ လသမားသည။၃၁ ကန ၆၀ ရာခငႏႈနးက ေဒသဆငရာ စစတငးမား၊ စစတပမ တာ၀နထမးေဆာငဆ အရာရႀကး ငယမား၊ စစတပ အဖြ႔အစညးေပါငး ၁၄၆၇ ခ၊ အရာရ ၆၀၆၉ ဥးႏင အၿငမးစား စစတပ အဖြ႔အစညးေပါငး ၈၉ ခ ေကာမတမား က ပငဆငထားသည။၃၂ ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ ဘ႑ာေငြမားမာ စစအစးရ အတြက အႀကးမားဆး ေသာ ဝငေငြလမးေၾကာငးႀကး တစချဖစသညအားေလာ စြာ ဥးပငလမတက သည ၄ငးေရနႏင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔မားမ ရရသညေငြမားျဖင ျမနမာစစ အစးရအတြက စစလကနကပစၥညးမား ဝယေပးေနသညဟခငခငမာမာယ ၾကညထားၾကသည။၃၃

ျမနမာႏငငတြင ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ ရာေဖြ၊တးေဖၚ ထတလပေရာငးခ ျခငးအပါအဝင တျခားသဘာဝ သယဇာတက႑မားကလညး တာဝနထမး ေဆာငဆ သ႔မဟတ စစဗလခပေဟာငးမားက ဥးေဆာငေနသည ႏငငပင စးပြားေရး လပငနးမားက တာဝနယလပေဆာငေနသည။ ႏငငပငကမၸဏ ၄၆ ခသည ကြၽနးသစ၊ ေကာကမက၊ ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔၊ သတ တးေဖာေရးတ႔မ ရရသည ႏငငအခြန ဘ႑ာေငြမားက စစေခါငးေဆာင မားသ႔ ပပးေပးေနရသည။ ၂၀၀၇ ခႏစတြင ျမနမာရငးႏးျမပႏမႈ အပစ၏ အဆအရ ႏငငပငစးပြားေရးလပငနးကမၸဏမားသည ေဒၚလာ (၃) ဘလယ အကးအျမတ ရရေၾကာငး ေဖၚျပခသည။၃၄

ျမနမာစးပြားေရးဥးပငလမတကႏင တျခားစစတပပင စးပြားေရးလပငနး တစချဖစသည ျမနမာစးပြားေရး ပးေပါငးေဆာငရြကမႈအဖြ႔ တ႔ႏစခသည ျမနမာ၏ အဓကစးပြားေရးလပငနး က႑မား ျဖစေသာ ေကာကမက ရတနာတးေဖၚေရး၊ အထညအလပစကရမား၊ သစထပလပမႈမား၊ စားေသာကကနႏင အေဖာယမကာလပငနးမား၊ ကနတက၊ ဘဏလပငနး၊ ေဟာတညႏငခရးသြားလာ ေရးလပငနး၊ ဆကသြယေရးလပငနး၊ သမဏ ထတလပမႈလပငနး၊ ပ႔ေဆာငေရး လပငနး၊ ေဆာကလပေရးလပငနး၊ ဘလပေျမလပငနး၊ ေမာေတာကား ထတ လပမႈလပငနး၊ အလကနပစၥညးထပလပမႈလပငနးႏင ကနသြယမႈ လပငနး စသညတ႔က ႏစေပါငး (၂၀) ေကာ လပကငလာခၾကသည။၃၅ အဓကႏငငျခား ရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈ အမားစသည ဤဥးပငလမတကႏင ေပါငးစပလပကငျခငးျဖင ျပညတြငးထသ႔ ဝငေရာက သည။၃၆ ၁၉၉၉ ခႏစကတညးကပင တညေထာငထားေသာ ဥးပင လမတကသည အကးတစးပြားေရးလပငနး (၅၀) ေကာက ႏငငျခား ကမၸဏမားႏင ဆကစပလပကငလာလကရသည။ ယခအခနတြင ဥးပင

ဤဓါတပ(၂ဝ၁ဝ ခႏစရကကးထားေသာ ပ) တြင ျမနမာစးပြားေရးဥးပငလမ တက၏ ယခင ဥကဌျဖစသ တငေအး (ယာ) ႏင POSCO ကမၸဏဥကဌ(ဝ) တ႔ ႏစဥး ႏစဘက ပးေပါငးေဆာငရြကေရး အတြက ေဆြးေႏြးေနၾကျခငး ျဖစသည။ POSCO သည ေဒဝးႏငငတကာ (Daewoo Int-ernational) အားမၾကာ ေသးခငက ဝယယထမးခပ ထားသည။ ေျမာကမားစြာေသာ ႏငငျခားရငးႏးျမပႏမႈမားမာ စစတပပငစးပြားေရးလပငနးလမးေၾကာငးမတဆငဝငေရာကလာျခငးျဖစသည။ဓါတပ (er.asia.co.kr)

18

လမတကသည စစေပါငး စးပြားေရးလပငနး ၃၈ ခကပငဆငထားၿပး ႏငငျခား ကမၸဏမားႏင အကးတစးပြားေရးလပငနး ၉ ခကလညး ထမးထား သည။၃၇

၂၀၁၁ ခႏစ ဇနန၀ါရလတြင ျပညတြငးအခြနမားဥးစးဌာနမ ကမၸဏမား အခြန ေရာငရားျခငးက ထမးခပရန အခြနဥပေဒက ထတျပနေသာလညး ျမနမာ စးပြားေရးဥးပငႏင အျခားေသာ အစးရပင ကမၸဏမားသည အခြန ကငးလြတ ခြငရရခၾကၿပး မညသညအခြနမ ေပးေဆာငရန မလအပေပ။၃၈

ျမနမာလကနကေမာငခရာဇာ ႏင ေျမာကကးရးယားဆကႏြယမႈ

ျမနမာစးပြားေရးဥးပငလမတက၏ ဥကဌျဖစသ (၂ဝဝ၂-၂ဝ၁၀) ဒတယ ဗလခပႀကးတငေအးသည ျမနမာစစတပတြင ထပဆးအဆင (၅) ေနရာ တြင တာ၀နယလပေဆာငခသလညး ျဖစသည။ ဒတယဗလခပႀကး တငေအးသည စစလကနက မားႏင စစသးပစၥညးမားဝယယရန တရတ၊ ေျမာက ကးရးယား၊ ရရားႏင ယကရနးႏငငမားသ႔ သြားေရာကခသည။ ၂ဝဝ၈ ခႏစ တြင တငေအးသည ျမနမာစစဥးစးခပႏငအတ ျမနမာ-ေျမာကကးရးယား ႏစႏငငၾကား စစေရးအရ ပေပါငးေဆာငရြကေရး ပမန ျဖစေစေရးအတြက ႀကးပမးရန ေျမာကကးရးယားသ႔ သြားေရာကခ သည။၃၉ ၂ဝ၁ဝ ခႏစ အေစာ ပငးတြင ရရားက MI-29 အမးအစား တကေလယာဥ အစးေရ (၂ဝ) က ဝယယ တငသြငးေရးတြင တငေအးသည အဓက တာဝနယခ သျဖစသည။

တငေအးသည ၂ဝ၁ဝ ႏဝငဘာ စစတပထမးခပခေသာ ေရြးေကာကပြ မတငမစပၾကားတြင ေရြးေကာကပြေကာမရင ဥကဌအျဖစလပကငရန စစတပမ အနားယခသည။ ယခအခါ ျမနမာစးပြားေရးဥးပငလမတကတြင ဒတယဗလခပႀကး ခငေဇာဥးက ဥကဌအျဖစ ေဆာငရြက ေနသည။ ဒတယ ဗလခပႀကး ခငေဇာဥးသည ဗလခပမႈးႀကးသနးေရႊအေပၚ သစၥာရသျဖစၿပး ဥးပငကမၸဏအေပၚ အဓကၾသဇာအာဏာ လႊမးမးထားသ ျဖစသည။၄၀

ျမနမာစးပြားေရး ဥးပငသည ေျမာကကးရးယား ဘဏတချဖစသည (Kwangson Banking Corporation) သ႔ ေငြေၾကးလႊေျပာငးေပးျခငး ဆကဆမမားရသည။ ၎ဘဏသည အေမရကန အစးရ ဘ႑ာေရးဌာန၏ စပြားေရးပတဆ႔မႈ စာရငး၀င ဘဏတချဖစၿပး ျမနမာအစးရႏင တျခား ႏငငမားသ႔ လကနက ေရာငးခရာတြင သသယအျဖစခရေသာ အဓက ဘဏျဖစသည။၄၁ ၂ဝ၁ဝ အေတာအတြငး ျမနမာသည ေျမာကကး ရးယားမ လကနကကၽြမးကငသမား ထငးႏငငသ႔ေရာငးခသည ဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာ ေငြမားျဖင အခေၾကးေငြ ေပးေဆာငခသည။ ယငးေျမာကကးရး လကနကကၽြမးကငသမားက ေတာငကးရးယား စးပြားေရးလပငနးရငမား ပစျဖငဟနေဆာငကာ ျမနမာသ႔လာေရာကခၿပး ဒးကဥနညးပညာ မားအတြက ျမနမာအစးရႏင အေပးယလပခသည။ ျမနမာသည ေျမာကကးရးယားထမ ႏးကလးယားနညးပညာမား ရယေနသညဟေျပာဆမႈမားရေနသည။၄၂ တဖန ေျမာကကးရးယား အငဂငနယာမားကလညး ျမနမာ ႏငငၿမ႕ေတာ နယျပညေတာတြင ေျမေအာကဥးမငလင ေခါငး အေရအတြက ၆၀၀ မ ၈၀၀ ခန႔ႏင ေျမေအာကအေဆာကအဥးမား တညေဆာကရာတြင ကညေဆာငရြက ေပးေနသညဟ သရသည။၄၃ ဝကလခ သတငးေပါကၾကားမႈ (wikileaks) မ ထတေဖၚခေသာ အေမရကန သတမန ဆကသြယေရး သတငးအရ ျမနမာစးပြားေရးဥးပငလမတကသည ဆနစပါး ႏင တျခားေသာ လယယာစကပးေရးကနၾကမးပစၥညးမားက စစလကနက မားႏင အလအလယျပလပရနအတြက ေျမာကကးရးယားကတငပ႔ခသညဟသရသည။၄၄

ျမနမာႏငေျမာကကးရးယားဆကႏြယမႈ၊ ၂၀၀၈ ေျမာကကးရးယားခရးစဥ

19

အပငး ၃။ ။တကယေျပာငးလေနၿပလား

အစးရသစအတြငးအေရးပါေသာ ရာထးမားက စစတပအရာရေဟာငးမား ထမးခပ ထားျခငး

စစတပမ ဥးေဆာငကငးပခသည ၂၀၁၀ ေရြးေကာကပြအၿပး ေပၚေပါက လာသည လႊတေတာက ၂၀၁၁ မတလတြင စတငခသည။ ဥးသနးစန အပါအ၀င စစတပ ထပပငးေခါငးေဆာငမားသည အစးရဝနႀကးအဖြ႔ဝင ၃၅ ဥးအနက ၂၈ ဥးမာ အစးရသစအတြငး အေရးပါေသာ ရာထးမားက ရယထားၾကသည။ အဆပါ စစအရာရေဟာငး မားသည ေရြးေကာကပြမတငမ သတငးပတအခ႕ အလမသာ ၎တ႔၏ စစရာထးမားမ ႏတထြကလက သမားျဖစသည။

အစးရသစလကေအာကတြငရေသာ အႀကမားဆး ဘ႑ာေငြရာေဖြေရး က႑မား ျဖစၾကသည စြမးအင၊ သတတြငးတေဖၚေရးႏင လပစစစြမးအင ကသ႔ေသာ ဝနႀကးဌာန မားက စစဗလခပေဟာငးမားက ဥးေဆာငေနသည။ ျပညတြငးသြငးကန၊ ျပညပထတကန အခြနဘ႑ာမားက စမခန႔ခြရာ၌ အေရးပါေသာ ဘ႑ာေရးႏငအခြန ဝနႀကးဌာနကလညး သနးေရႊအစးရ လကေအာကတြင ဘ႑ာေရးႏင အခြနဝနႀကးဌာန၏ ဝနႀကးအျဖစ လပကငခေသာ ဥးလထြနးက အလားတပင ဝနႀကးအျဖစ ေဆာငရြကေန သည။

ေရြးေကာကပြက စစရာထးမားကပမ တညၿမခငခန႔ေအာင ျပလပေပးခၿပး ေနာက စစတပႏင ၎၏ကမၸဏမားအတြက အခြငထးမားႏင အကာအ ကြယမားကလညး တရားဝငျဖစေစရန ေအာကေဖၚျပပါ ဥပေဒမားႏင လပထးလပနညးမားက ျပ႒ာနထားသည။

ဘ႑ာေငြခြေဝသးစြမႈႏင ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈမရျခငး

၂ဝ၁၁ ခႏစတြင အမးသားဘ႑ာေငြခြေဝမႈက ဆယစႏစမားစြာအတြငး ပထမဆး အႀကမအျဖစ လသရငၾကားထတျပနခသည။၄၅ ဘ႑ာေငြ ခြေဝ သးစြေရးက ဥပေဒျပလႊတေတာ၏ ဇနနဝါရ ၃၁ ရကေန႔ ပထမအႀကမ အစညးအေဝးက မကငးပမ စစတပက ျပဌာနးေပးချခငးျဖစသည။ အဆပါဘ႑ာေငြခြေဝသးစြမႈမားႏင စပလဥး၍ လြတေတာအေနျဖင မညကသ႔ ေသာ ေလလာသးသပမႈမးကမ မျပလပႏငခေပ။

၂ဝ၁၂ ခႏစတြင သမၼတက ေရးဆြထားေသာ ႏငငေတာ ဘ႑ာေငြခြေဝသစြမႈ မႈၾကမးက အတညျပဆးျဖစခကရယရန ျပညေထာငစလႊတေတာသ႔ တငသြငးခသည။ ၂၀၁၁ ခႏစႏင ႏႈငးယဥလင တးတကမႈရရသညဟ ဆရေပမည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ေရနႏင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႕ ေရာငးချခငးမရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမား အပါအဝင ႏငငေတာ ဘ႑ာေငြရရရာ လမးေၾကာငးက ထတေဖၚေျပာဆချခငး မရေပ။ သ႔အတြကေၾကာင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႕ ေပးေခမႈေငြေၾကးမားသည အမးသား ေငြစာရငးထသ႔ ေရာက၊ မေရာကက ခန႔မနးတြကခရန မလြယကေပ။ တဖန မညသညေငြလလယႏႈနးျဖင ျပလပထားသည ကလညး ရငးရငးလငးလငးမသရရေပ။ ဤသ႔ ပြငလငးျမင

လႊတေတာထအမတေနရာ၂၅% က စစတပမ တကရကရယထားသညအျပင တျခားေနရာ ၅၈% ကလညးစစတပေကာေထာကေနာကခ ႀကဖြ႔ပါတကခပကငထားသည။(ဓါတပ AFP)

20

သာမႈကငးမေနျခငးသည သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ကရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက လမႈဖလေရးကသ႔ တျခားေသာ သးစြမႈမားအတြက ခြေဝသးစြရနလးဝျဖစႏင ေျခမရေပ။ ထ႔ေၾကာင ႏငငဘ႑ာ ေငြခြေဝသးစြမႈ လပငနးစဥမားမာလညး ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈကငးမေနျခငးျဖစသည။

ယခခနထ လႊတေတာမားထ ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမားက ကန႔သတ ထနးခပမႈမားရေန သည။ ဤအေျခအေနတြင ဘ႑ာေငြခြေဝသးစြမႈဆငရာ ဆးျဖတခကမားႏင စပလဥး၍ လႊတေတာ ကယစားလယမားအေနျဖင ေလာကနသည ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမား သ႔မဟတ ထနးခပမႈမားကလညး ျပလပႏငလမၼည မဟတေခ။ တဖန လႊတေတာထ အမတေနရာ ၂၅% က စစတပက တကရက ေနရာယထားသည အျပင တျခား အမတေနရာ ၅၈% မာလညး စစတပေကာေထာကေနာကခ ေပးထားသည ျပည ေထာငစႀကခငေရးႏင ဖြၿဖးေရးပါတ(USDP)က ခပကငထားသညက ထညထြကရ အးမည။ ၂၀၁၂ ဘ႑ာေငြခြေဝရာတြင စစတပက အေမရကနေဒၚလာ (၂.၃)ဘလယ ရရမညျဖစၿပး ၂၀၁၁-၂၀၁၂ ဘ႑ာေရး ႏစထက ၃၆% ပျမငတကသြားမညဟ ျမနမာတငး(စ)က ေဖၚျပထားသည။၄၆

သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ဘ႑ာေငြ စမခန႔ခြမႈ ႏင စစတပပငစးပြားေရးလပငနး မား၏ အခနးက႑မာရငးလငးမႈမရ ျဖစေနဆ

လကရအစးရသစလကထကတြငလညး ထငးႏငငသ႔ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႕ ေရာငးခ၍ရရသည လကရဘ႑ာေငြမားႏငပတသက၍ မညသည ၀နႀကးဌာနမ စမခန႔ခြသည၊ မညကသ႔ ၾကပမတေဆာငရြကသညက ျပညသထသ႔ ထတျပနျခငးမရေခ။ အစးရသစ လကထကတြင သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔ တငပ႔မႈမရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ဘ႑ာေရးႏင အခြန၀နႀကး ဌာနမ စမခန႔ခြေနသလား သ႔မဟတ ျမနမာစးပြားေရး ဥးပငလမတကႏင ျမနမာစးပြားေရး ေကာပေရးရငးကသ႔ေသာ စစတပပင စးပြားေရးလပငနး မားက ခပကငထားသလား ဆသညမာလညး မသညးကြေပ။

ျပညေထာငစ အစးရ၏အသးစရတက ၾကပမတရန ၂၀၁၁ခႏစ မတလတြင ျပညသ႔ ေငြစာရငးေကာမတက ဖြ႔စညးခေသာလညး ေကာငမတအေနျဖင ေရနႏင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔မရရသညေငြေၾကးမားက မညကသ႔ စမခန႔ခြ၊ လပေဆာငေနသညကလညး ရငးလငးစြာ မသရရေပ။ ဥပေဒႏင စညးကမး ခကမားအရ ျပညသ႔ေငြစာရငး ေကာမတ၏ လပေဆာငမႈမားႏင အစညးအေ၀း၏ မတတမး၊ အခကအလကမားက သတငးေပါကၾကားခြင၊ ျဖန႔ေ၀ပငခြငမရေပ။

ျပညသ႔ေငြစာရငးေကာမတတြင စစတပေကာေထာကေနာကချပထားသည ျပည ေထာငစ ႀကခငေရးႏငဖြ႔ၿဖးေရးပါတမ ဥးသရနေဇာက ဥကဌ ေနရာက ယထားၿပး အတြငးေရးမးမာ ၎ပါတမ ဥးေမာငတးျဖစသည။ ဥးသရနေဇာ သည ဗလခပမးႀကး သနးေရႊအပခပေရး လကထကတြင အမးသား စမကနးႏင စးပြားေရးဖြ႔ၿဖးမႈ ၀နႀကးဌာနတြင ဒတယ၀နႀကးအျဖစတာ၀န ထမးေဆာငခၿပး ဥးေမာငတးသည ျမနမာပလလပငနးမ အၿငမးစား ဥးေဆာငညြနၾကားေရးမး ျဖစသည။

သးျခားလြတလပေသာအထးရနပေငြ“မညသညပဂ ၢ လ ၊အဖြ ႔အစညးကမဆ အထးရနပေငြ သးစြမႈအေပၚ စစစျခငး၊ စာရငးစစျခငးက ခြငမျပေခ”

21

ကာကြယေရး အသးစရတဆငရာ သးျခားလြတလပမႈ အထးရပေငြျပညသ႔လႊတေတာ အစညးအေ၀း မကငးပမ ေလးရကအလ ၂၀၁၁ ခႏစ၊ ဇနန၀ါရလ ၂၇ ရကေန႔တြင ဗလခပမးႀကးသနးေရႊသည အထးရပေငြ ဥပေဒက ျပဌာနးေပးခသည။ “ဖြ႔စညးပ အေျခခဥပေဒက ကာကြယရနႏင ႏငငေတာအား ျပညတြငး၊ ျပညပရနမ ကာကြယရန” အလ႔ငာ ၎အရ ရပေငြက ျပလပထားျခငးျဖစသညဟ ၄ငးဥပေဒအရ ျပဌာနးထားသည။ ၎ဥပေဒအရ တပမေတာ ကာကြယေရး ဥးစးခပသည အထးရပေငြ သးစြေရးတြင လြတလပစြာ သးစြပင ခြငရရၿပး၊ စာရငးစစ ခြငမျပေပ။

“တပမေတာ ကာကြယေရး ဥးစးခပသည ျပညေထာငစ မၿပကြေရး၊ တငးရငးသား စညလးမႈ မၿပကြေရးႏင အခပအျခာအာဏာ တညတခငၿမေရး အတြက အထး ရပေငြက ျပညတြငးေငြေၾကး ပစျဖငျဖစေစ၊ ႏငငျခားေငြ ေၾကးပစျဖငျဖစေစလြတလပစြာ သးစြပငခြငရသညဟ ေဖၚျပထားသည။ ၎အထးရပေငြ သးစြေရးႏငပတသက၍ မညသ႔ တဥးတေယာကမ စစေဆးပငခြင မရရဟ ဥပေဒတြင ျပဌာနးထားသည။”

စစတပပငစးပြားေရးလပငနးမားအတြက အခြနကငးလြတခြင၂ဝ၁၁ ခႏစ၊ဇနနဝါရလ (၁) ရကေနတြင ပငရငးမႏႈတယေပးသြငးခြန (Withholding Tax) ဥပေဒသည အသကဝငလာခသည။ ၎အခြနဥပေဒအရ စးပြားေရးလပငနးမား၊ ကနသညမား၊ အစးရမဟတေသာ အဖြ႔အစညး မား(NGOs)၊ တသးပဂၢလမား အေနျဖင ကပေငြ သးသနး (၃၀၀၀၀၀) ထကပေသာ ၀ငေငြမားက (၃) ရာခငႏႈနးမ (၂၀) ရာခငႏႈနးထ အခြနေပး ေဆာငရမညဟ ျပဌာနးထားသည။ သ႔ရာတြင အစးရ ပငကမၸဏမားႏင စစတပပင ကမၸဏမားက အခြနကငးလြတခြင ျပထားသည။

အပငး(၄)။ ။ရငးႏးျမပႏေသာကမၸဏမား၏ ႏႈတဆတေနမႈ

ျမနမာႏငငအတြငး လပေဆာငေနေသာကမၸဏမားသည ေငြေၾကးအရေသာ လညးေကာငး၊ ဂဏသကၡာအရေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ဥပေဒဆငရာအရေသာ လညးေကာငး ႀကးမားေသာအႏရာယမားက ႀကေတြ႔ေနၾကရသည။ တရားဥပေဒစးမးေရးႏငပတသကၿပး ၂ဝ၁၂ တြငျပလပခေသာ ေလလာခက တစခအရ ျမနမာသည ႏငငျခားကမၸဏမားႏင ရငးႏးျမႇပႏသမားအတြက အကာအကြယ ေပးမႈအနညးဆးႏင မဝါဒမားႏငစညးကမးစညးမဥးမားက အေကာငအထည ေဖၚေဆာငရြကရာတြငလညး ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ အားအ နညးဆး ႏငငတစခ ျဖစေနေသာေၾကာငး ႏငငေပါငး ၁၉၇ ႏငငအနက ရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈမားအတြက ဆရႈးမႈအႏရာယအႀကးမားဆးေသာနပါတ(၁) တငးျပညတစခအျဖစသတမတထားသည။၄၇ ပဋပကၡျဖစပြားေနေသာ နယေျမမားတြင သယဇာတတးေဖၚေရး စမကနးမားက လပငနးလပေဆာငမႈ မားက ဆကလကျပလပေနၾကဆျဖစသည။ စမကနးမားမ ေဒသချပညသ မား အကးေကးဇး မေဝမခစားရမႈမရသညအထ ထေဒသမားသ႔ ႏငငျခားသားမားေရာကရလာမႈေၾကာင ေဒသခမား၏ မေက နပမႈက ပမမးေမႊးေပးရာ ေရာကေစသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင ကမၸဏရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈမားသည လကတ႔ျပန တကခကမႈမား၏ အႏရာယႏငရငဆငရမညျဖစသည။၄၇

၂ဝဝ၇ခႏစက ရခငျပညနယတြင ျဖစပြားခေသာ သာဓကတစခရသည။

အစးရမားက ပြငလငးမႈမရဘ တရားဝင ေငြေၾကးေပးေခေနေသာ ကမၸဏမားမာ အကငပကျခစားမႈ ျဖစေပၚလာမႈက အားေပးအားေ ျမ ႇာက ျပ လပေနျခငး ျဖစသညဟ ေျပာဆၾကလမၼည။ ထသ႔ လပေဆာငျခငးျဖင ကမၸဏမားမာ အကငပကျခစားမႈလပေဆာငခက တြင ပါဝငပတသကေနသညဟ စြပစြ ခရျခငး၊ ေဒသတြငးႏင ႏငငတကာ လပငနးလပကငခြငကလညးထခကေစျခငး၊ ေဒသတြငး ပဋပကၡ၊ ျပနာတ႔ တြင ၾကားညႇပပါဝငေစျခငး၊ ေစးကြကမား ၌ ေရရညစးပြားေရး အခြငအလမးမားက ေလာကေစျခငးစေသာ ျပနာမားက ႀကေတြ႕ေစေသာေၾကာင ယငးကမၸဏ မားအတြက စးပြားေရး ဆငရာ ဆးရႈးမႈ အႏရာယမားက ျဖစေပၚေစသည။ (သယဇာတတးေဖၚေရးက႑ႏင စပလဥ ၍ ရငးႏးျမႇပႏသမား၏ ထပျပနခက)

22

ေရနရာေဖြေရး စမကနးေၾကာင လယယာေျမသမးပကခရမႈအေပၚ အမက ေဒါသထြကေနေသာ ရခငေဒသခတစစက ေရနရာေဖြတးေဖၚေနေသာ တရတကမၸဏထသ႔ ဝငေရာကလာၾကၿပး လပငနးခြငရ ပစၥညးမားက ဖကဆးသြား သည။ အဆပါစမကနးမားႏင ဆကစပေနေသာ အခြငေရးခး ေဖါကမႈမားသည တရားစြဆခရမႈမား၊ ကနပစၥညးအေပၚ ဆန႔ကငသပတ ေမာကမႈမား၊ အစရယယာ ရငမားႏႈတထြကျခငးႏင ကမၸဏမား၏ ဂဏသကၡာပကစးျခငးမားက ဥးတညသြားေစသည။

ႏငငတကာ ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးဆငရာပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ လမးညႊနခကမားႏင စးပြားေရးလပငနးမား၏ လ႔အဖြ႔စညးအေပၚ တာဝနယမႈစခနစညႊနးမားက လကနာကငသးျခငးအားျဖင ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖင ဆးရႈးမႈအႏရယက ေရာငရားႏငကာ ၎တ႔၏စးပြားေရးလပငနးက အကာအကြယ ေပးႏငၿပး ရငးႏးျမႇပႏသမားကလညး ပမဆြေဆာငႏငေပသည။ အျပနအလန အားျဖင အာဖကနနစၥတန၊ဆမားလးယားႏင ျမနမာကသေသာ အကငပက ျခစားေသာႏငငမားထက ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကး ဆငရာ ပြင႔လငးျမငသာမႈက အေကာငထညေဖၚကငသးေသာႏငငမား၌ လပကငေနသည ကမၸဏမား၌သာ အစရယယာရငမားကလညး ပမရငးႏး ျမႇပႏခင ၾကမညျဖစသည။

လကရအခန၌ ျမနမာႏငင၏ ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔က႑မားတြင လပကငေနေသာ (သ႔မဟတ) ရငးႏးျမႇပႏထားေသာကမၸဏ (၁၀)ခက အၾကမးျဖငး ေလလာၾကညလကေသာအခါ စပြားေရးဆငရာ ပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈက တြနးအား ေပးေနသည ႏငငတကာႀကးပမး ေဆာငရြကမႈမားတြင ပးေပါငးပါဝငလပေဆာငမႈ အလြနအမငးအားနညးေနသညက ေတြ႕ရရ သည။ အဓကလပငနးခြကမၸဏမားရေသာ ၎တ႔ထမ ကမၸဏ ထကဝကက သာလင ႏငငတကာစေတာေစးကြကစာရငးထ၌ ေတြ႔ရသည (ေနာကဆက တြကၾကညရႈပါ)။ ကမၸဏအမားစမာ အာရႏငငမားမျဖစၿပး ႏငငတကာ ရာေဖြတးေဖၚေရးလပငနးမားထသ႔ အသစဝငေရာကလာ သမားျဖစၾက သည။ ျမနမာျပညထရလပကငေနေသာ ထကမၸဏ (၁၀) ခ အနက (၂) ခ သာလင လသရငၾကားထပေဖၚမႈ မႈဝါဒက ကငသးသညက ေတြ႔ရသည။ ထကမၸဏ(၂)ခမာ Chevron and Total တ႔ျဖစသည။ ဤကမၸဏ(၂)ခ မာ EITI ကအတညျပေထာကခထားၿပး ႏငငအလက ဘ႑ာေငြေပးေခမႈမားက ထပေဖၚေပးရမညျဖစေသာ ကငဝတ၊ စညးကမးမားကလညး အေကာင ထညေဖၚေဆာငရြကရန ကတတဝတျပ ထားေလသည။၄၈

ကမၸဏ(၁၀)ခထတြင Total ကမၸဏမလြ၍ တျခားမညသညကမၸဏကမ ျမနမာအစးရအား ေပးေခရသည ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးမားက အေသးစတ ထတေဖၚမႈမျပလပၾကေပ။ တခ႕ေသာ ကမၸဏမားက ေဒသအလက ဘ႑ာေငြေပးေခးမႈက (အေရ႕ေတာငအာရႏင တျခားေဒသမား) ထတျပန ၾကေသာလညး ျမနမာအစးရအား မညေရြ႔မညမေပးရသညက ထပေဖၚ ေျပာၾကားျခငး မရေခ။၄၉ Total ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးအရ ပြငလငးျမင သာမႈက ကငသးေစရန ဖအားေပးျခငး ခရၿပးေနာက Total ကမၸဏသည ၂ဝဝ၈ ခႏစတြငျမနမာအစးရအားေပးေခခသည ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကး တစတ တေဒသက ေဖၚျပခဖးသည(အေမရကနေဒၚလာ ၂၅၄ သနး)။၅၀

အေမာငထထကရခင ျပညကလစလရႈၿပး ေရႊဓါတေငြ႔က တရတက တငပ႔မည။ ရခငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔က တရတသ႔ မတင ပ႔မ

ရခငျပညအဝမး ၂၄ နာရလပစစမး ေတာငးဆ လႈပရားမႈမားကၾကညလင အစးရသစ လကထကတြငလညး အကးျမတ ခြေဝမႈမရျခငးက ေတြ႔ျမငႏင သည။ ၂၄ နာရလပစစမး လႈပရားမႈ အဖြ႔သည ရခငျပညနယတြင လပစစ မးမရရျခငး၊ လပစစမးခေစးႏႈနး အဆမတနျမငမားေနျခငး၊ လ႔အခြင အေရးခးေဖါကခရမႈ၊ သဘာဝပတဝနးကငပကစးဆးရႈးမႈႏင ေရႊသဘာဝ ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနးမ ရရလာေသာ အကး အျမတက မေဝမခစားရမႈတ႔က မးေမာငးထးျပေနျခငးျဖစသည။

ေရႊသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔စမကနးမ တစေန႔ လင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ပမာဏ ကဗေပ သနး (၅ဝဝ) ခန႔က ႏစေပါငး (၃၀) ၾကာေအာင ထထပယမညျဖစသည။ ဓါတေငြ႔ပမာဏ ကဗေပသနး (၅၀၀) အနက သနး (၄၀၀) က တရတသ႔ တငပ႕မာျဖစၿပး ကနသနး(၁၀၀)က ျပညတြငး၌ အသးျပရန ရညရြယထား သည။ အဆပါ သနး (၁ဝဝ) က လကနက ေမာငခရာဇာ ေတဇ၏ ထးဘလပေျမ စကရ၊ ဘနးဘရင ေလာစစဟန၏ ေအးရားေဝါလ ဘလပေျမစကရ၊ ေဇာဇာ၏ အင.ဂ.အး ဘလပေျမစကရ ႏင ေအာငကဝငး၏ ကေမၻာဇ ဘလပေျမ စကရမား အပါအဝင စစအစးရႏင စစတပအသငးအဝနး ပငဆငေသာ စကရေပါငး (၅၀) ေကာက တငပ႔မည ျဖစသည။

ဓါတပ (AOW)

23

အပငး (၅)။ ။ဘ႑ာေငြခြေ၀သးစြမႈမရျခငး

တငးရငးသားေဒသမား၌ ေခါငးပျဖတအျမတထတျခငး“ဗမာတစကပရရင၊ခငမားတ႔လညးတစကပရေစရမယ”

(ဗလခပေအာငဆနး)

ျမနမာႏငငသည အဂၤလပလကေအာကမ ၁၉၄၈ ခႏစတြင လြတလပေသာ ႏငငျဖစလာ ခသည။ သ႔ရာတြင လြတလပေရးရၿပး တစႏစအၾကာတြင အစးရႏငတငးရငးသား ျပညနယ မားအၾကား ျပညတြငးစစႀကး ျဖစပြားလာခသည။ တငးရငးသားေဒသမား၏ ကယပင အပခပခြငႏင သးျခားအပခပမႈတ႔က အစးရက ျငငးဆနျခငးမာ ထသ႔ျပညတြငးစစမး ေတာကေလာငခရျခင၏ အဓက အေၾကာငးရငးျဖစသည။ ဗလခပေအာငဆနး၏ “ဗမာတစကပရရင၊ ခငမားတ႔လညး တစကပရေစရမယ” ဆေသာ နာမညေကာ ေၾကြးေၾကာသသည ၁၉၄၉ ခႏစတြင ကရငလမးတ႔အား “ဗမာတကပ၊ ကရငတကပ” မးလးညသည ေတာငးဆသျဖင ကရငေတာလနေရးက ျဖစေပၚေစခသည။ ဤဗလခပ ေအာငဆနး၏ ေၾကြးေၾကာသသညပင ယခအခနထ ျဖစပြားေနေသာ ပဋပကၡ ျပနာ အေၾကာငးအရငးျဖစသည တငးရငးသားေဒသတြငးရ သဘာဝ သယဇာတႏင ဘ႑ာေငြ ခြေဝသးစြေရးလအပခကက ညႊနျပေနျခငးပငျဖစသည။ ရငးလငးခက။ ။အကးအျမတ ခြေဝခစားေရးသည ျမနမာျပညတြင ယေန႔တငေအာငျဖစပြားေနသည လကနကကင ပဋပကၡမား၏ အဓကအေၾကာငး တရား တစချဖစသည။

ေကာကစမး၊ ကၽြနးသစ၊ ေရန၊ သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႕ႏင ေရအားလပစစ ရငးျမစမား ကသ႔ေသာ အကးအျမတျဖစထြနးႏငသည သဘာဝသယဇာတ အမားစက တငးရငးသားေဒသမား၌ ေတ႔ြရရၿပး ၎တ႔အား အမနးခငးႏငငမားသ႔တငပ႔ ေရာငးခေနသည။ ထသယဇာတ တငပ႔ေရာငးခရာမ ရရလာ ေသာ ဘ႑ာဝငေငြမားကလညး သယဇာတပငရငစစစစျဖစေသာ ျပညနယမားအား ခြေဝေပးမႈလးဝမရေခ။ ဤျပညနယမားမာ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင၊ လမႈပတဝနးကင ပကစးဆးရႈးမႈမားအတြက နစနာေၾကးမရရသညအျပင ထသယဇာတမားက ကမၸဏမားက ေခါငးပ ျဖတထတယ၊တငပ႔ျခငးေၾကာငး ျဖစေပၚလာေသာ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင ပကစးဆးရႈးမႈမားႏင လအခြငအေရးခးေဖါကခရမႈမား ကသာခစားေနၾကရသည။ ဝငေငြကြာဟမႈ ႏင လမႈဖြ႔ၿဖးတးတကေရးအတြကသးစြမႈမရျခငး

တငးျပညဘ႑ာေငြမားက အလြသးစားျပလပမႈႏင ႏငငအဝမးျဖစေပၚေနေသာ အကငပက ျခစားမႈတ႔က ပမခငခန႔သည စစအပခပေရးကဥးတညသြားၿပး၊ တဖကတြငလညး ျပညသ အမားစ၏ စးပြားေရးအေျခအေနမားမာ တစတစ ယယြငးပကစးလာေနသည။ ျမနမာျပညသ ၆၂ သနးခန႔ သည အာရ၏အဆငးရဆးစာရငးဝင ျပညသမားျဖစသည။ ျမနမာျပညသမား၏ ခန႔မနေျခ ပမးမ လတစဥးခငး၏ တစရကဝငေငြသည (၂.၂ဝ) ေဒၚလာ သာရၿပး အမနးခငးထငးႏငင၏ လတစဥးခငး ဝငေငြႏငႏႈငးယဥလကလင (၇) ဆပနညးေန သညဟ ႏငငတကာေငြေၾကရပေငြအဖြ႔ (IMF) ၏ စရငးဇယားမား၌ေဖၚျပထားသည။၅၁ သ႔ေသာ အဆငျမငစစအရာရမား၊ ၎တ႔မသားစဝငမားႏင အေပါငးအေဖၚမားမာမႈ တငးျပည၏ အခမးသာဆးေသာ ပဂၢလမားျဖစေနၾကသည။ သာမန ျပညသျပညသားမား စတကး ထေတာငမထညႏငေသာ ဇမခပစၥညးမားက ယငးလကတစဆပစာ လတစစက ပေအာၿပးအသးျပႏငသည။ ၂ဝဝ၆ ခႏစတြင ျမနမာစစအာဏာရင သနးေရႊသမး၏ လကထပမဂၤလာပြက အခနးနားဆျဖစေအာငကငးပခၿပး ၎လကထပပြ၌ ရရခေသာ လကဖြ႔ပစၥညးႏင ေငြေၾကးပမာဏ အေမရကနေဒၚလာသနး (၅၀) ခန႔ရရခသညဟ ခန႔မနးထားၾကသည။ ဤမဂၤလာပြအေပၚ ျမနမာျပညသမား ေဒါသျဖစခၾက ရသည။

24

tusKd;tjrwfcGJa0cHpm;jcif;u

yVdyuQrsm;udk tqkH;owfaponf

ဆဒနေတာငပငး။ ပဋပကၡျဖစပြားေနေသာ ျမနမာႏငငအတြက သငခနးစာ

သဘာ၀သယဇာတ ကြယ၀ေသာ ႏငငမားတြင ေဒသခမားအေနျဖင သဘာ၀သယဇာတမား၏ အကးအျမတက မတစြာခစားပငခြင မရရျခငးသည ေသြးထြကသယ ျပညတြငးစစက ျဖစေပၚ ေစေသာ အေၾကာငးအရငး ျဖစသည။ ေတာငပငး ဆဒနတြင ျဖစေပၚခေသာ ပဋပကၡသည ဥပမာ တရပပငျဖစသည။ သဘာ၀သယဇာတ ခြေ၀သးစြရာတြင မတမႈမရျခငးေၾကာင ကယပငအပခပေရး ေတာငးဆမႈႏငအတ ရညလားေသာ ျပညတြငးစစပြဆသ႔ ဥးတညသြားၿပး ေနာကဆးအကးရလဒ အျဖစ ေတာငပငးဆဒနသည ၂၀၁၁ ဇလင ၉ ရကေန႔တြင သးျခား လြတလပေသာႏငင ျဖစလာခ သည။

ဆဒနနငင၏ ရ၅ ရာခငႏႈနးေသာ ေရနသကသည ေတာငပငးဆဒနတြင တညရေသာလညး ေရနသန႔စင စကရမား၊ ေရနလပငနးႏင ပတသကေသာ စကမႈလပငနးမားႏင ၎တ႔ႏင ဆကစပ ေနသည အလပအကငအခြငအလမးမားမာ ေျမာကပငးဆဒနတြင တညရေနသည။ စးပြားေရး ဖြ႔ၿဖးမႈ ကြာဟခကသည ဆယစႏစ ႏစခၾကာ ျဖစပြားခေသာ ျပညတြငးစစမး ေတာကေလာငေစျခငး ၏ အဓက အေၾကာငးရငးတစချဖစသည။ ၂၀၀၅ ခႏစတြင ေရးထးခေသာ ၿငမးခမးေရး စာခပအရ ျပညတြငးစစက ရပစႏငခသည။ ၿငမးခမးေရး စာခပႏငအတ ေတာငပငးဆဒနေဒသသည ကယပငအပခပေရး၊ ဗဟအစးရႏင အာဏာခြေ၀သးစြခြငရရခၿပး ေရနလပငနးမရရေသာ အကး အျမတ၏ ၅၀ ရာခငႏႈနးက ခစားပငခြင ရရခသည။၅၂

သဘာ၀သယဇာတမရရသည အကးအျမတအား မတစြာခြေ၀ ခစားပငခြငရရျခငးသည ျပနာ မားက ေလာကေစႏငသကသ႔ ပဋပကၡမားက ရပတန႔ကာကြယမႈ ေပးႏငသည။ ျမနမာႏငငတြင ကာလရညျဖစပြားေနေသာ ျပညတြငးစစ၏ အဓကအေၾကာငးအရငးမာ သယဇာတမရရသည အကးအျမတမားက သယဇာတပငရင တငးရငးသားတ႔အေနျဖင ခြေ၀ခစားပငခြင မရျခငးပငျဖစ သည။ သဘာ၀အရငးအျမစ ထြကရရာေဒသႏင ေဒသခလထအား ထသယဇာတမား၏ အကး အျမတက ခြေဝသးစြခြငေပးေရးမာ မျဖစမေန လပေဆာငရ မညအခကျဖစသည။

သယဇာတ ထြကရရာေဒသမားႏင သယဇာတပငရင လ႔အဖြ႔အစညးတ႔အား သယဇာတ ထပယျခငးႏင ၎၏ ျပနာဝနထပဝနပးတ႔အတြက မမတတ နစနာေၾကးေပးေဝေရးက လပေဆာငရမည နညးလမးတစခမာ ထေဒသတြင အသျပႏငမည ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႕ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက တကရကခြေဝေပးျခငပငျဖစသည။ ဒတယနညးလမးတစခမာ လယယာေျမ သမးပကခရေသာ ေဒသခမားက ေငြေၾကးခြေဝေပးေရးႏင စမကနလပငနးမားတြင ေဒသခမား အလပအကငရရေရးက ေဆာငကဥးေပးရမညျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ပမန အားျဖင သယဇာတ တးေဖၚေရးလပငနးမားသည မားမားစားစား အလပအကငဖနတးေပးမႈ မရေသာေၾကာင ဒတယ နညးလမးက အသးျပရာတြင အခကအခမားႀကေတြ႔ႏငသည။

25

အငဒနးရားႏငင၏ အာေခးေဒသ

လကနကကငပဋပကၡကအဆးသတေစခေသာ ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာေငြခြေဝမႈ

အငဒနးရားႏငငသည အေရေတာငအာရတြင ေရနႏငသ၀ဘာဓါတေငြ႔ ကြယ၀ေသာႏငငျဖစၿပး အာေခးေဒသသည ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ သကကြယ၀ေသာ ျပညနယျဖစသည။ အာေခးေဒသသည လြတလြပေသာ ဆလတနဘရငႏငငေတာအျဖစ ရပတညခၿပး၊ ဒတ(ခ) ကလန အပခပမႈက ရာစႏစတစခေကာတကပြဝငခေလ သည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ၁၉၄၉ ခႏစတြင အာေခး ဆလတန ဘရင ႏငငသည အငဒနရားသမၼတႏငငထသ႔ အထေဒသ တစခအျဖစသာ ဒတယပ ကၽြနဇာတအသြငးခခရသည။ အာေခးျပည သတ႔ အငဒနရား ထမ လြတလပေရး ေတာငဆမႈႏငအတ ခြထြကေရးတကပြက ဆငႏႊလာခၾကသည။ ရလာဒအေနျဖင ႏစေပါငး ငါးဆယေကာၾကာ ျမငခသည လကနကကငတကပြႏင ပဋပကၡမားသာ အဖတတငလာခ သည။

၂ဝဝ၅ ခႏစတြင အငဒနးရားအစးရႏင အာေခးလြတေျမာကေရးအဖြ႕ (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka) တ႔သည ၿငမးခမးေရးသေဘာတစာခပက လကမတေရးထးခၾကသည။ ထသေဘာတစာခပတြင အာေခးက ကယပငအပခပခြငရ အထးနယေျမတစခအျဖစ သတမတေပး ထားၿပး၊ ၄ငးနယေျမက ထြကရေသာ ေရနႏင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ အကးအျမတ ၇ဝ% ႏႈနးကေပးထားသည (အာဏာရငဆအာတ လကထကတြင ၅% ႏႈနး သာရရခ)။ ၿငမးခမးေရး သေဘာတစာခပ ခပဆရာ၌ အာေခးလြတေျမာကေရးအဖြ႕ (GAM) အတြက ဤသ႔ သဘာဝသယဇာတ ခြေဝ ေတာငးဆမႈမာ ေလာမေပးေသာ အဓက ေတာငးဆခကတစချဖစခသည။၅၃

အငဒနးရားႏငင အာေခးေဒသတြင ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရသည၀ငေငြအား ခြေ၀ေပးျခငးသည ပဋပကၡအား ေျပလညေစျပး ေဒသတြငး တညၿငမေအးခမးမႈက ရရေစသည။ အာေခးေဒသ၏ ဥပမာသည ျမနမာျပည၏ ျပညတြငးစစမးက ၿငမးသတရန ျမနမာ ေခါငးေဆာငမား ေလလာသငသည စနမနာေကာငး တချဖစသည။

ဆဒနႏငငတြင ဆယစႏစ ႏစခေကာ ျဖစပြားေနခေသာ ျပညတြငးစစပြသည ေရန ဘ႑ာေငြက တရားမတစြာ ခြေ၀ေပးျခငးျဖင အဆးသတ ေစခ႔သည (ဓါတပ-AFP)

26

ႏငငမားအေနျဖင သယဇာတကနစာအား ေျဖရငးရနနညးလမးတခမာ တာ၀နခမႈႏင ပြငလငးျမင သာမႈရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးဆငရာ စမခန႔ခြမႈ စနစက ျပဌာနး၊ကငသးေပးျခငးပငျဖစသည။ ဤစနစသည အကးအျမတ ခြေ၀ရာတြငလညး မတမႈကျဖစေပၚေစႏငသည။ အစးရတစခသည ဘ႑ာ ဝငေငြမညမရရၿပး၊ မညသညေနရာတြင သးစြသညက ျပညသမားအေနျဖင လြတလပစြာ သတငးအခကအလကရရႏငပါက အကငပကျခစားမႈက ေလာကေစႏငသညအျပင အလြသးစား ျပျခငးမလညး ကာကြယေပးႏငကာ ျပညသမားအတြက အကးရေစေသာလပငနးမားတြင ပ၍သးစြရန အလား အလာရႏငသည။ သဘာ၀သယဇာတ မကြယ၀သညႏငငမား၏ အေတြ႔ အႀကအရ ျပညသမားအေနျဖင အစးရသယဇာတမားႏင ဘတဂကသးစြမႈ ဆငရာ သတငးအခကအလကမားက သရျခငးသည အကငပကျခစားမႈက ေလာခနငသညအျပင မ၀ါဒေကာငးမားကပါ ျဖစေပၚေစသည။၅၄ သယဇာတ ကနစာသငျခငးအား ေရာငလႊႏငေစရနႏင ေရရညတညတန႔ခငၿမေစမည စပြားေရးအေဆာကအဥးတစခက ျဖစေပၚေစရနအလ႔ငာ သဘာဝသယဇာတ ရငးျမစမားက ျပညသမား၏ လေနမႈဘဝျမႇငတငေရးအတြကအသးျပရ မည။ ဤသ႔အသးျပရာတြငလညး သဘာဝပတဝနး ကငပကစးဆးရႈးမႈက ေရာငလႊၿပး ေတာကပေသာအနာဂါတတစခအတြက ရငးႏးျမႇတႏမႈပစမး သာ ျဖစရေပမည။ အစးရ၏ ဘ႑ာေရးပြငလငးျမငသာမႈသည ျပညသမား၏ သဘာ၀အရငး အျမစ အေျခခ စကမႈလပ ငနးမားမရရသည အခြနဘ႑ာႏင ပတသကေသာ အသအျမငက တးပြားေစၿပး အကငပကျခစားမႈက ေလာခႏငသညအျပင ေကာငးမြနေသာစမခန႔ခြမႈႏင အကးအျမတခစားခြငညမမႈက ျဖစေပၚေစႏင သည။ အစးရ၏ ေငြေၾကးစးဆငးမႈအား ျပညသမားအား သရေစျခငးသည တညရေနဆ စနစဆးမားက ပမေကာငးမြနလာႏငေပသည။

ဘ႑ာေရးပြငလငးျမငသာမႈသည သယဇာတတးေဖၚေရးလပငနးမားမ မညမ၊ မည၍ရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးႏငပတသကေသာ အသအျမင ကတးပြားေစၿပး အကငပကျခစားမႈက ေလာခႏငသညအျပင ေကာငးမြန ေသာ စမခန႔ခြမႈ ႏင အကးအျမတခစားခြင ညမမႈက ျဖစေပၚေစႏငသည။ အစးရ၏ ေငြေၾကး စးဆငးမႈအား ျပညသမားအား သရေစျခငးသည တညရေနဆ စနစဆးမားက ပေကာငးမြနလာႏငေပသည။ ဤသ႔လပ ေဆာငရာ၌ အစးရထသ႔စးဆငးသြား ေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကး ပမာဏက ျပညသမားအားပမသရေအာငျပလပရၿပး တညရေနေသာ အျပနအလန ထနး ကြပမႈ စနစမားကလညး တးတကေစသည။

ပြငလငးျမငသာသညစနစတစခတြင ရငးႏးျမပႏမႈကလကခထားေသာ အမရငအစးရသည သယဇာတ ေရာငချခငးမ ကမၸဏမားထမ ရရေသာ ေငြပမာဏက ေဖၚျပရၿပး၊ ကမၸဏမားသညလညး ယငးအစးရအား မညမ ေပးရ သညက ေဖၚျပေပးရသည။ တဖန ကမၸဏအေျခစကရာ မခငႏငင အစးရမား ကလညး ၎ႏငငမ ကမၸဏမားအေပၚ ဘ႑ာေရးႏင ဆငေသာ ထတေဖၚမႈမားရလာေစရန စညမဥးဥပေဒမား ထတျပနၿပး ျပဌာနးေပး ရသည။

လထအေျချပ အဖြ႔အစညးမားႏင စာနယဇငးမားသညလညး ဘ႑ာေရး

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usdefpmudk

tjrpfjzwf

ukojcif;

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yGifhvif;

jrifomr+

tcef; 4

27

ျမနမာႏငငသည ဘ႑ာေရးပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏငပတသက၍ မညသညႏငငတကာ စခနစညႊနမားကမ လကနာကငသးျခငး မရေပ။

ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈတြင အဓကအခနးက႑မပါဝငသည။ထအဖြ႔အစညးမားသည ဘ႑ာေငြလညပတစးဆငးမႈ ေစာငၾကည ေရးက ေစာငၾကညရၿပး လထန႔ စမကနးႏငသကဆငသအားလး သတငးအခကအလကမားက ကယကယ ျပန႔ျပန႔ႏင အလြယတကသရနငရန ေဆာငရြကရမည။

ေကာငးမြနေသာ စမခန႔ခြမႈစနစတစခေအာက၌ ဘ႑ာ၀ငေငြမားက ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ ရေအာင ျပလပ၍ စမခန႔ခြပါက အာဏာရသတ႔အေနျဖင ေငြေၾကး မားအား မတရားရယျခငးက နညးပါးေစ ႏငပါသည။ ႏငင၏ျပဌာနး ဥပေဒ၊ ႏငငသားမားႏင လထအေျချပ အဖြ႔အစညးမားအေနျဖင သဘာ၀ သယဇာတ ေရာငးချခငးမရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားအား ဖြ႔ၿဖးေရးလပငနးမား၊ သဘာ၀ ပတ၀နးကင ကာကြယေရးလပငနးမားတြင မတစြာသးစြျခငး၊ ပစၥပၸနႏင အနာဂတ မးဆကမားအတြက အသးျပျခငးက အာမခေပးရမည။

စမကနးလပကငရာေဒသမားႏင ထေဒသမားမ ထခကခ ေဒသချပညသမား၊ အနာဂတ မးဆကသစမားက အကးအျမတမားအား ညမစြာ ခြေ၀သးစြျခငး စနစသည သယဇာတထတလပမႈေၾကာင ထြကေပၚလာသည မတရားမႈႏင အျငငးပြားမႈမားက ေျဖရငးႏငမညအျပင အနာဂတတြငႀကေတြ႔ ရမည ပဋပကၡမားႏင ဆငးရမြေတမႈကပါ ေရာငရားႏငသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင အစားထး၍ မရေသာ သယဇာတမား ေရာငးရျခငးမရရသည ဘ႑ာဝငေငြ မားအား အထးရပေငြတရပအျဖစ သတမတထားၿပး ေရရညတညတ႔ ခငခန႔ေစေသာ ဖြ႔ၿဖးေရးစမကနးမား (သ႔မဟတ) ေဒသခမားဖြ႔ၿဖးတး တကေရးအတြက ခြေဝအသးျပႏငသည။

အခနး (၁) တြင တငျပခကအရ ဘ႑ာေရး ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈရျခငးသည သဘာ၀ သယဇာတအား အလြသးစားျပလပျခငးမ ကာကြယရာတြင အေရးႀကးေသာ အခကျဖစသည။ ဤအခနးတြင ႏငငတကာဆငရာ ဘ႑ာေရးပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈ စခနစညႊနးမားႏင ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ထတလပေသာ ႏငငမားမ ေလလာဆနးစစခကမားက တငျပသြားမည ျဖစသည။

ဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ၏ ႏငငတကာစခနစညႊနးမား

သယဇာတရငးျမစဆငရာ ဘ႑ာေငြပြငလငးျမငသာမႈအေပၚ ႏငငတကာေငြ ေၾကးရနပေငြအဖြ႔ (IMF) ၏ လမးညႊနခက

ႏငငတကာေငြေၾကးရနပေငြအဖြ႔က သယဇာတၾကြယဝေသာႏငငမားရ သယဇာတတးေဖၚေရး လပငနးမား၏ ေငြေၾကးဆငရာ ပါဝငပတသကမႈႏင စပလဥး ၍ ေျဖရငးႏငမည နညးလမးမားက ထတျပနထားၿပးျဖစသည။ ယငးထပျပနမႈအရ သယဇာတတေဖၚေရး လပငနးစမကနးမားမ အစးရေငြ စာရငးမားထသ႔ စးဆငးသြားေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးမားက ပမေကာငးမြန ေသာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏင တာဝနခမႈမားျဖင လပေဆာငၾကရန တကတြနး ထားသည။ သယဇာတရငးျမစဆငရာ ဘ႑ာေငြပြငလငးျမငသာမႈအေပၚ ႏငငတကာ ေငြေၾကးရနပေငြအဖြ႔၏ လမးညႊနခကက (၂ဝဝ၅)ခႏစတြင စတငပႏပထတ ေဝခၿပး (၂ဝဝရ)ခႏစတြင ထပမျဖညစြကမြမးမ ထားသည။ အဆပါလမးညႊနခကတြင လကနာကငသးရန အေကာငးဆး နယပယ (၄)

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ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ ဘ႑ာေငြ စမ ခန႔ခြမႈဆငရာ စျပဥပေဒ

ကလဘယာ တကသလအတငပငခအပ စ မ ေရနဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ခြမႈဆငရာအဖြ႔က ေရနႏငသဘာဝ ဓါတေငြ႔ ဘ႑ာ ေင ြေ ၾကး ဆ င ရာဥပေဒမ ားအတ ြက မရမျဖစလအပေသာ အခကလကမား က ေဖၚျပထားသည။ ၎တ႔တြငေအာကပါအခကမားပါဝငသည။(၁) အရပရပဆငရာ ေရနႏငသဘာဝ

ဓ ါ တေ င ြ ႔ ဘ ႑ာေ င ြေ ၾ ကး မ ား တြင ပါဝငေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကး လမးေၾကာငးမားက ရငးလငးစြာ ေဖၚျပျခငး

(၂) ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ ဘ႑ာေင ြအပႏ ထားမ ႈအတ ြက ညြနၾကားခကမား

(၃) ဘ႑ာေငြကမညသကထတယသးစြေနသညႏင မညသ႔ အသးျပ မႈ ျပလပသညက ထမးခပ ကန႔ သတထားျခငး

(၄) အပႏထားေသာဘ႑ာေငြမားအား ပ ယ ဖ က ျ ခ ငး ၊ အ သး ျ ပ ျ ခ ငး တ႔အတြက အေသးစတညႊနၾကား ခကမား

(၅) ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ ဘ႑ာ ေငြမားက ထခကခ လမႈ အသငး အဝနးႏင သယဇာတပငရင ျပည နယမား၊ ေဒသမားအား ခြေဝေပး ျခငး

(၆) ဝငေရာကလာေသာရငးႏ း ျမ ပႏ မႈမား၊ အသးစရတမား၊ လကခ ရရေသာ အတးေငြမားအား ျပညသ မားသရေအာင အစရငခတငျပျခငး

(ရ)သးျခားလြတလပေသာ စာရငးစစ မႈ အပါဝင ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးအား ထမး ညႇ၊ စစစ၊ ေစာငၾကညျခငး၆၂

ခကက တငျပထားသည။ ၎တ႔မာ (၁) လပပငခြငအခနးက႑ႏငတာဝန ဝတရားမား ရငးလငးျပတသားစြာ ရေနျခငး၊ (၂) ျပညသမားမသတငး အခကအလကမားက အလြယတကရရႏငျခငး၊ (၃)ပြငလငးစြာ ဘကဂက ေရးဆြမႈ၊ အေကာငအထညေဖၚေဆာငရြကမႈ၊ အစရငခတငျပမႈႏင (၄) ဂဏသကၡာႏင အာမခ ေပးျခငးတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။၅၅

ဤလမးညြနခကတြင ဘ႑ာေရးပြငလငးျမငသာမႈအျပင သေဘာတစာခပ ခပဆမႈမားအတြကလညး ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈမားကပါ တကတြနးထားသည။ႏငငတကာေငြေၾကးရနပေငြအဖြ႔မ တကတြနးထားေသာ ဘ႑ာေရးႏင ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ (၄) ခကမာ ေအာကပါအတငးျဖစသည။

(၁) လပပငခြငအခနးက႑ႏင တာဝနဝတရားမား ရငးလငးျပတသားစြာ ေဖၚျပျခငး

ဘ႑ာေငြ စမခန႔ခြမႈစနစသည ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ တရားဝငျဖစေစမည ျဖစသည။ ဤစနစအရ တကေသာဥပေဒမားက ျပဌာနးရမညျဖစၿပး ဘ႑ာေငြက မညသညေနရာတြင ထမးသမးထားမည၊ မညကသ႔စမခန႔ ခြမည၊ မညသက ထတယသးသးစြမညႏင မညကသ႔ သးစြမညစေသာ အခကမားက ဥပေဒ မားျဖင ထမးခပထားရမညျဖစသည။ (၂) ပြငလငးစြာဘကဂကေရးဆြမႈ၊အေကာငထညေဖၚေဆာငရြကမႈသဘာ၀အရငးအျမစမရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြအား မညမသးစြသည၊ တဖန ထေငြမားက အမးသား ဘတဂကတြင မညကသ႔ သးစြသညက ရငးလငးစြာ တငျပ ေဖာျပရမညျဖစသည။

(၃) ျပညသမားမ သတငးအခကအလကမားက အလြယတက သရႏငျခငးသဘာ၀အရငးအျမစမရရသည ဘ႑ာ၀ငေငြမားႏင ပတသတသည သတငးအခကအလကမားက ျပညသမား အလြယတက ေလလာသရႏင ရမည။ ဤအထတြင ခန႔မနးေျခအရေငြေၾကးပမာဏ၊ ကမၸဏမ အစးရသ႔ ေပးအပရသည ေငြေၾကးပမာဏ၊ အစးရမမညေရြ႔မညမ ထမးသမးထားၿပး (သ႔မဟပ) မညမအထသးစြေၾကာငး စေသာပမာဏ၊ အစးရႏင သကဆငရာ ကမၸဏတ႔၏ စာခပမားႏင အျခားသငေတာသည အခကအလကမား ပါဝငသည။

(၄)ဂဏသကၡာႏငအာမခေပးျခငးႏငငတကာမ လကခအသအမတျပထားေသာ စာရငးအငးစနစက အသးျပ ရမညျဖစၿပး စာရငးစစမား ပမန၀ငေရာကစစေဆးျခငးႏင အခကအလက မားက ျပညသမားသ႔ ထတျပနျခငးတ႔က ျပလပရမည။

ျမနမာႏငငသည ႏငငတကာ ေငြေၾကးရပေငြအဖြ႔ (IMF) ၏ အဖြ႔၀ငႏငငတစခ ျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာ အဖြ႔၀ငအစးမားအေနျဖင IMF ၏လမးညြနခကမားက လကနာရနမလအပေပ။

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သယဇာတတးေဖၚေရးလပငနးမားပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႀကးပနးခက( EITI )ဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈအတြက ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ လကခ ကငသးေနေသာ ႏငငတကာ စခနစညႊနးမားက ႏငငတကာေနာကဆကတြ သေဘာတညမႈျဖစသည သယဇာတတးေဖၚေရး လပငနးမား ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႀကးပနးခကတြင(EITI)ထညသြငးထားသည။ EITI တြင ကမၻာတဝနး လးမ အဖြ႔ဝငေလာကထားသည ႏငငႏင EITI စခနစညႊနက လကနာကငသးေနသညႏငငေပါငး (၃၀) ရသည။ EITI သည ႏငငအဆင၌ ကမၸဏ ေပးေခမႈႏင အစးရဘ႑ာဝငေငြက ေစာငၾကည၊ ကကညမႈျဖင ဘ႑ာေရး ဆငရာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈမားရရေအာင ေဆာငရြကေနျခငးျဖစသည။ ဤ လပငနးစဥက အစးရဖကမလပဂၢမား၊ကမၸဏမားႏင အရပဖကလ႔အဖြ႔ အစညးမား၏ စမႀကးၾကပမႈေအာက တြင လပေဆာငရသည။၅၆ ႏငငမားႏငထေတြ႔ဆကဆရာတြင ဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏင ဆကစပ ေနေသာ (၁) ေရရညတညတန႔ခငခန႔ေစေသာ ဖြ႔ၿဖးတးတကမႈအတြက ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးမားကအသးျပျခငး၊ (၂) ျပညသလထ နားလညသေဘာ ေပါကမႈႏင ပးေပါငး ပါဝငလာမႈ၊ (၃) ပမ ေကာငမြနေသာ ေငြေၾကးဆငရာပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ၊ စမခန႔ခြမႈႏင တာဝနခမႈ၊ (၄)သယဇာတတးေဖၚေရး လပငနးမားမ ဘ႑ာဝငေငြႏင အသးစရတ မားအတြက အစးရ၏ တာဝနယမႈစေသာ အေၾကာငးကစၥမား စြာက EITI ဥပေဒသမားက တြနအားေပးလကရသည။

ဤဥပေဒသမားႏင ကကညေစရနအတြက (၁) သယဇာတ တးေဖၚေရးလပငနးမားမ အစးရရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကး မားက ပမနပႏပထတေဝေဖၚျပျခငး၊ (၂) ဘ႑ာေငြမားႏင ဘကဂကမားအား သးျခား လြတလပစြာ စာရငးစစႏငျခငး၊ (၃)အရပဖကလ႔အဖြ႔အစညးမားမ တကၾကြစြာပါဝငႏငျခငး စေသာအ ခကမားက အေကာငထညေဖၚ ေဆာငရြကရ မည။၅၇ယခအခနထ ျမနမာႏငငမာ EITI ႏငပးေပါငးေဆာငရြကရနအတြက အရပလကၡာတစတစခကမ ေဖၚျပထား ျခငးမရေသးပါ။၅၈

ကလသမဂၢ အကငပကျခစားမႈဆန႔ကငေရးညလာခ (UN Convention Against Corruption)

အကငပကျခစားမႈ တကဖကေရး စခနစညြနးသည ဘ႑ာခြနေငြ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏင တကရက ဆကစပေနသည။ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ အသးအႏႈနးသည အစးရ၏အကငပကျခစားမႈႏင ေငြေၾကးမားက အလြသးစားျပလပျခငးတ႔ အတြက ရညရြယထားျခငးျဖစသည။ ကလသမဂၢ ဂနဗာသေဘာတညခကတြင ပါဝငေသာ စးပြားေရးလပငနးမားကဥးတညထားသည အကငပကျခစားမႈ တကဖကေရး စညးကမးမ၀ါဒမားအျပင ကလသမဂၢ အကငပကျခစားမႈ ဆန႔ကငေရးညလာခက ခမတလကေသာ ႏငငတကာ အကငပက ျခစားမႈ တကဖကေရး စခနစညြနးမားက အဖြ႔၀ငႏငငမားမ လကနာရမညျဖစသည။ သေဘာတညခကတြင အကငပကျခစားမႈတကဖကေရးက အစးရ၏ မ၀ါဒအေနျဖင အေကာငအထညေဖၚ ေဆာငရြကျခငး၊ ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာေငြမားက မညသက စမခန႔ခြရမညဟသည အခက အပါအဝင ျပညသ႔၀နထမးမား၏ လပေဆာငမႈမားက သတသတမတမတျပဌာနးေပးျခငးစသည စဥးမဥး စညးကမးမားပါ၀ငသည။၅၉

ျမနမာႏငငသည ၂၀၀၅ ခႏစတြင ညလာခသေဘာတညခကက လကမတ ေရးထးေသာလညး စာခပအဖြ႔ဝငႏငငမျဖစေသးေသာ ႏငငအခ႕ထတြင ျမနမာႏငငပါဝငေနေသးသည။၆၀

သဘာ၀ သယဇာတဆငရာ ပဋညာဥစာခပ (Natural Resource Charter)

ဘ႑ာေငြပြငလငးျမငသာမႈရေရးက အားေပးေထာကခသည အျခားေသာ လပေဆာငခကမာ သဘာ၀သယဇာတ ပဋညာဥစာခပျဖစသည။ ဤသဘာ၀ သယဇာတဆငရာ ပဋညာဥစာခပသည သဘာဝသယဇာတမားမ ဖနတးေပး ေသာ အခြငအလမးမားက အစးရမားႏင လ႔အဖြအစညးမား မညကသ႔ အကးရရ အသးျပရမညက သတမတထားေသာ စးပြားေရးဆငရာဥပေဒသမားပါဝငေသာ စာခပျဖစသည။ စာခပတြင သဘာဝသယဇာတ စမခန႔ခြမႈက တးတကေစရနအလ႔ငာ လမးညႊနခကမားႏင စခနစညႊနးမားကထညသြငးထားသည။

၎စာခပတြင ျမနမာႏငငမ လကမတေရး ထးျခငးမရေသးေပ။၆၁

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ေရနႏငသဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ၾကြယဝေသာႏငငမားမ ျဖစရပမန ေလလာခကမား

အေမရကနျပညေထာငစ၊ အလာစကားျပညနယ ျပညသအားအသ ေပးျခငး၊စစစေစာငၾကညျခငးႏင အကးအျမတခြေဝမႈ

အလာစကားျပညနယသည အေမရကနျပညေထာငစရ သဘာ၀သယဇာတ ေပါမားေသာ ျပညနယ တစချဖစၿပး ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ေရာငးချခငးမ တငးျပညဘ႑ာေငြ အမားအျပားရရေသာ ျပညနယတစခလညးျဖစသည။ ၂၀၀၉ ခႏစ ဧၿပလ တစလတညးတြင ေရနစဥေပါငး ၂၁ သနးေကာႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ၃၄ ဘလယေကာ ကဗေပထတလပခသည။၆၃ အလာစကား ျပညနယသည ၎၏ သယဇာတထတလပေရးအတြက တကရက ေျမငားရမးျခငးမ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ရရေနသညအျပင အေမရကန ဗဟ အစးရႏင အကးအျမတခြေဝျခငးမလညး ဝငေငြမားရရေနသည။၆၄

အလာစကားျပညနယ ဖြ႔စညးပအေျခခဥပေဒတြင ျပညနယမထြကရေသာ ေရနႏငတျခားေသာ သဘာ၀အရငးအျမစ အားလးသည ဘအမးသား အေမြအႏစအျဖစ ျပဌာနးထားသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင အလာစကားျပညသမား အတြက ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ေရာငးချခငးမရရေသာ အခြနဘ႑ာမားက အၿမတမးရပေငြအျဖစ တညေထာငထားသည။ အၿမတမးရပေငြ၏ ၂၅ ရာခငႏႈနးက ရငးႏးျမပႏမႈျပလပသည။ ၎ေငြေၾကးမားက ျပညနယ အစးရ၏ ဘတဂကတြင သးစြခြငမျပေပ။ ရငးႏးျမပႏမႈမ ရရေသာ အကး အျမတကသာ ျပညနယအစးရ၏ ဘတဂကတြင သးစြႏငသကသ႔ ျပညသ မားထသ႔ အညအမေပးေ၀ ပငခြငရသည။

အလကစကားဖြ႔စညးပအေျခခဥပေဒတြင ေရနႏင တျခားေသာတြငးထြက သယဇာတမားက ဘအမးသားပငဆငမႈအျဖစ သတမတထားၿပး ေရနႏင သဘာဝဓါတေငြ႔ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက အၿမတမး ရနပေငြတစရပအျဖစလညး ထေထာငထားရမညဟ ျပဌာနေပးထားသည။ အလာစကားျပညနယမ ရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြ၏ အနညးဆး (၂၅%) က အလာစကား အၿမတမးရနပေငြ ထသ႔ ထညဝငထားရၿပး ထရနပေငြကရငးႏးျမပမႈမား ျပလပၾကေလသည။၆၅ ရနပ ေငြထသ႔မစေဆာငးေသာ သဘာဝ ဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ျပညနယ ဘက ဂကထသ႔ တကရကထညသြငးၿပး ျပညနယအတြက အသးျပသည။ ရနပေငြ ထမ ရငးႏးျမတႏေသာေငြေၾကးမားက အလာစကားဘတဂကထ သ႔ေသာ လညးေကာငး၊ ႏစစဥခြေ၀ေငြေပးေခမႈအျဖစ ျပညသမားၾကား အညအမ ခြေဝျခငးအတြကေသာလညးေကာငး အသးျပသည။၆၆

၁၉၈၂ ခႏစမ ၂၀၀၉ ခႏစအတြငး ခကလကမတျဖင ျပညသမားထသ႔ ေပးေ၀ေငြမာ ၁၇.၅ ဘလယ ရသည။ ၂၀၀၈ ခႏစတြင အလာစကားျပည နယသားမားသည တဥးလင ေဒၚလာ ၂၀၀၀ ရရၾကသည။၆၇

ျပညနယအစးရ တ၀ကပါရေသာ Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation သည ရပေငြက စမခန႔ခြသည။၆၈ ၎စမခန႔ခြေရး ေကာပရတအား အစးရ ကယစားလယ ႏစဥး၊ ျပညသမား ကယစားလယ ေလးဥးပါ၀ငသည စမ အပခပေရးအဖြ႔ (Board of Trustees) က ႀကးၾကပသည။၆၉ ႀကးၾကပေရး

အေမရကနျပညေထာငစ၊ အလာစကား ျပညနယရ ျပညသမားသည ေရန ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ခြေဝယၾကသည။ (ဓါတပ-Rolf Hicks)

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အဖြ႔သည ရပေငြ၏ အေျခအေန၊ လပငနးေဆာငရြကခကမား၊ စာရငးစစျခငး ႏင ႏစပတလည အစရငခစာက သတငးစာမားႏင ရပေငြအဖြ႔၏ အငတာနက စာမကႏာတြင ထတျပနရသည။၇၀ မညသမဆ ၎ရပေငြႏင ပတသတေသာ ဗဟသတျဖစဖြယမား၊ အလပအကငမားစစမးျခငးတ႔က တကရက အးေမးလပ႔ကာ ေမးျမနးႏငသည။

အေထြေထြဗဟသတျဖစေသာ ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔သကဆငရာ သတငးအခကအလကမား၊ အဖြ႔၏ဘ႑ာေရးအေျခအေန၊ ၀ငေငြ၊ တးေဖာမႈ အေျခအေနႏင ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ထတလပမႈ သတငးအခက အလကမားက အငတာနကစာမကႏာတြင ေဖာျပထားသည။၇၁ ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ လစဥထတလပမႈ၊ ေျမငားရမးခအတြကရရသည ၀ငေငြ မားက အလာစကားျပညနယ သဘာ၀အရငးအျမစဌာန၏ ၀ကဘဆက အငတာနက စာမကႏာတြင ေဖာျပထားသည။ ၇၂

ျပညသမားသသငေသာ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာ သတငးအခက အလကမားက ေဖာျပရာတြင ေနရာကြျပားမႈအေပၚလက၍ အခကအခရႏင သညကေတြ႔ရသည။ ဥပမာအေနျဖင ေျမငားရမးခအတြက ရရသည ေငြေၾကး အား သရရန သဘာ၀အရငးအျမစဌာနသ႔ စစမးႏငသည။ စစေပါငး ဘ႑ာအေျခအေနက သရလပါက ဘ႑ာေရးႏင စမခန႔ခြေရးရးသ႔ ဆက သြယစစမးနငသည။ မညသ႔ပငျဖစေစ အလာစကား ျပညသမားသည ရပေငြ အဖြ႔၏ လပေဆာငခကမားႏင ရငးႏးျမပႏမႈမားက အထးစတ၀ငစား သည။

အလာစကားတြင ကငသးေသာ ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရပေငြအခ႕က ျပညသမား လက၀ယသ႔ ျဖန႔ေ၀ေပးျခငးသည အခ႕ေသာ ႏငငမားတြင လႀကကမားလကရၿပး အထးသျဖင အရတႏငဂါနာႏငငတ႔တြင ကငသး သည။ ၇၃

ျမနမာႏငငအတြက သငခနးစာ

အခြနဘ႑ာမားႏငဆငေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားသည တေနရာ တညးတြင မရရႏငေသာလညး အလာစကား အၿမတမးရပေငြသည စနစကစြာ စမခန႔ခြထားၿပး ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏင လြတလပေသာ အဖြ႔အစညး ျဖစသည။၇၄

အလာစကား ပစသည ဓနဥစၥာမားကခြေ၀ရာတြင လထအတြက မတမႈႏင ထေရာကမႈရေသာ ပစျဖစသည။ ၎ပစမးက ျမနမာႏငငတြင ကငသးသင သည။ ဘ႑ာေငြ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏင ပတသက၍ အေရးပါေသာအခကမာ ၀ငေငြေပးေဆာငျခငးႏင ဘတဂကဆငရာ သတငးအခကအလကမားက ျပညသမားထသ႔ ျဖန႔ေ၀ေပးျခငးျဖစသည။ အျခားတဖကတြငလညး ဘ႑ာ ေငြ ခန႔မနးေျခ၊ လကခရရမႈ၊ ေရနဆငရာ အမးသားရပေငြ၊ အမးသား ဘတဂကစသည ျပညသမား သသင သထကသညမားက ျဖန႔ေ၀ေပးရမည။

ျမနမာႏငင၌ ဘ႑ာေရးပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏငပတသက၍ စဥးစားေသာအခါ ျပညသမားႏင သကဆငသည သတငးအခကအလကဆငရာရး ထားရျခငး သည ေရြးခယစရာ နညးလမးတချဖစသည။ ၎သတငး အခကအလကႏင ဆငေသာရးသည အစးရအဖြ႔အစညးမား၏ ဘ႑ာေငြ သတငးမားက စစညးျခငး၊ စေဆာငးရရသညမားက အငတာနကစာမကႏာ (သ႔)

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စာၾကညတကကသ႔ ေနရာတခတညးမ ျဖန႔ေ၀ေပးျခငးတ႔ျဖစသည။ သတငးအခကအလက မားအား အလြယတက ေလလာနငသည အေနအ ထားတြငထားရရမည။ ဤ ကသ႔ ျပညသမားမ သတငးအခကအလကမားက မနမနကနကန ရရေနျခငးသည ျပညသမား၏ သသယက ေလာကေစႏင သည။

ဘ႑ာခြနေငြ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏငပတသက၍ အျခားေသာ အေရးႀကးသည အခကမာ တာ၀နယျခငး ျဖစသည။ ပမနအေနျဖင စာရငးစစျခငးမားက ျပညသထသ႔ ျဖန႔ေ၀ေပးျခငး၊ ကြျပားေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးမားမ ဘ႑ာခြန စမခန႔ခြမႈႏငပတသက၍ ၾကပမတေပးျခငးတ႔ျဖစသည။ အစးရကယစား လယမား၊ လထအေျချပအဖြ႔အစညးမားမ ကယစားလယမားျဖင ဖြ႔ထား ေသာအဖြ႔သည ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မရရေသာ အခြနဘ႑ာ သးစြမႈႏင ပတသတ၍ ဥပေဒမား ျပဌာနးေပးျခငး၊ ဘ႑ာခြနေငြႏင ပတသတ၍ စာရငးစစ၏ ထတျပနခကက ျပနလညသးသပျခငး၊ ေငြေၾကး သးစြမႈႏင ပတသက၍ ဥပေဒေရးဆြေရး လပငနးမားက အႀကေပးျခငးတ႔တြင တာ၀န ယရသည။

ျမနမာႏငငအတြက အထးစဥးစားသငသညအခကမာ လြတလပေသာ စာရငးစစထားရျခငးႏင ဘ႑ာေငြ စမခန႔ခြမႈတ႔သည မရမျဖစလအပေသာ အစတအပငးမားျဖစသည။

ေနာေ၀ႏငငေရနဆငရာဘ႑ာေငြ စမခန႔ခြမႈႏင အမးသားေရန ရပေငြ

ဖြ႔ၿဖးၿပးႏငငတချဖစသည “ေနာေ၀” ႏငင၏ ကနးမာေရး၊ ပညာေရးႏင လမႈ ဖလေရးဆငရာ ညႊနးကနးမားသည ကမၻာေပၚတြင အေကာငးဆးျဖစသည။ ေနာေ၀ႏငငသည ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔သက ေပါကြယ၀ေသာ ႏငငျဖစ သည။ ကမၻာေရနတငပ႔မႈတြင တတယအမားဆး ႏငငျဖစၿပး ၂၀၁၀ ခႏစတြင ဘပ၏စရငးအရ စညေပါငး (၆.၇) ဘလယ တငပ႔ခသည။ အလားတပင ေနာေ၀ႏငငသည ကမၻာေပၚတြင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ထတလပ သည ထပတနး ၁၀ ႏငငတြငပါ၀ငသည။ ၂၀၁၀ ခႏစ ဘပ၏ခန႔မနးခကတြင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ သကပမာဏ ၂.၀ ထရလယ ကဗမတာ ရသည။၇၅

ေရနသကမား ကနဆးသြားခနတြင ေရရညစးပြားေရး တးတကမႈႏင ပတသတ ၍ စးရမမႈမားရေနသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင ေနာေ၀အစးရသည ၁၉၉၀ ခႏစမစ၍ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ႏင ေရနတ႔မရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက သးသန႔ ရပေငြအျဖစ ထားရသည။ ေရနတငပ႔ရာမရရေသာ ေငြေၾကးအေျမာက အမားက၇၆ အမးသားေရန ရပေငြအျဖစထားရရန ဥပေဒျဖငျပဌာနးထား သည။ ၎ရပေငြအား ေနာေ၀ပငစငရပေငြဟလညးေခၚသည။၇၇ ႏငငေတာ သည ကနး၊ ေရတ႔မ ထြကရေသာ ေရနသကမားက ေရရည အမးသား အကးစးပြားအလ႔ငာ စမခန႔ခြခြငရသည။၇၈ ေရန ရပေငြေၾကးသည ေရရညဘတဂက အေလာအတငးက ကညရနအတြက ရပေငြမားတးပြား ေစရန ေကာငးမြနေသာလပငနးမားတြင ရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈလပရန ရညရြယ သည။ သယဇာတမား ကနဆးသြားခနတြင ၎ရပေငြျဖင စးပြားေရး ေျပာငးလမႈမားက ကညရန ရညရြယသည။

ေရန ရပေငြ လၿခစတခစြာ အသးျပႏငေရးအတြက ရပေငြ အသးျပမႈ၊ စမ ခန႔ခြမႈႏငပတသတ၍ ကန႔သတခက အမားအျပားထားရသည။ ေရန ရပေငြ

ေနာေ၀ႏငင၏ ကမးလြန ေရနတးစငတခ

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ဘရာဇးႏငငတြင ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရေသာဘ႑ာေငြက ပငရငျပညနယမားႏင ေဒသအပခပ ေရးဌာနမားက ခြေ၀းေပးသည

ဘရာဇးၿမ႕ေတာ Rio တြင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႕မ ရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြအား ၎ျပညနယ

အတြကအသးျပရန ေတာငးဆ ေနေသာ လထဆႏၵျပပြ

(ဓါတပ - Bloomberg)

က အစးရဘတဂကသ႔ ေျပာငးလပါက ပါလမန၏ သေဘာတညမႈျဖငသာ ေျပာငးလႏငသည။၇၉ ၎ရပေငြမ ပငဆငေသာေငြမားက ပဂၢလက လပငနး မားတြင သးစြခြင မရေခ။ Norges ဘဏသည အဆပါ ရပေငြ စမခန႔ခြေရးတြင တာ၀နရသည။၈၀ ၎ရပေငြႏငပတသကေသာ ရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈႏင လပငနးမား အားလးက ဘ႑ာေရး၀နႀကးဌာနႏင ျပညသမားသ႔ အသေပးရသည။၈၁

ျမနမာႏငငအတြက သငခနးစာ

ေနာေ၀ႏငငတြင ကငသးေနေသာ အမးသား ေရနရပေငြႏငတညေသာ ျမနမာအမးသား ေရန (သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔) ရပေငြသည တငးျပည၏ ဘ႑ာေရး လၿခမႈက ေပးစြမးႏငမညျဖစသည။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မရရေသာဘ႑ာေငြ အားလးအား ရပေငြအျဖစထားရရနမလအပေပ။ သ႔ေသာ သငေတာ ေသာ ပမာဏျဖင ထားရသငသည။ အခ႔ေသာ အမးသားေရန ရပေငြက ေရရညစးပြားေရး ဖြ႔ၿဖးမႈအတြကစဥးစားသငၿပး အနာဂတ မးဆကသစမား အတြက ထမးသမးထားသငသည။

ဘရာဇးႏငငသဘာ၀အရငးအျမစ ထတယသညေဒသသ႔ ဘ႑ာေငြမား ခြေ၀ေပးျခငးႏင သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ကာ ကြယေပးျခငး

ေပၚတဂ လကေအာကခကလနဘ၀ျဖင ရာစႏစမားစြာၾကာေညာငးၿပး-ေနာက ဘရာဇးႏငငသည ၁၉ ရာစအစပငးတြင လြတလပသည ႏငငျဖစ လာခသည။ လြတလပေရးရၿပးေနာကပငးတြင ျပညတြငးမၿငမမသကမႈ မားႏင စစအပခပေရးသည ၁၉၈၅ ခႏစတြင အဆးသတခသည။၈၂ သ႔ရာတြင ဘရာဇးႏငငသည ႏငငသားမား၏ ၀ငေငြမမတမႈႏင ေရရညဖြ႔ၿဖးမႈႏငပတသတ၍ အခကအခရ ေနဆျဖစသည။ လြနခေသာႏစ အတြငး ဘရာဇးႏငငသည လမႈဖြ႔ၿဖးေရး လပငနးမားျဖစေသာ ကနးမာေရး၊ ပညာေရးႏင လမႈဖလေရး လပငနးမားက တးတကေအာင လပေဆာငလာ ခသည။၈၃

ဘရာဇးႏငင၏ ေရနသက ပမာဏမာ စညေပါငး ၁၂ ဘလယႏင သဘာ၀ ဓါတေင႔ြ ၁၀ ထရလယ ကဗေပရသည။၈၄ ဘရာဇးႏငင၏ စးပြားေရးႏင ႏႈငးယဥပါက ေသးငယေသာပမာဏျဖစသည။ ဘရာဇးႏငငသည လယယာ

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စကပး ေရးႏငစကမႈက႑ႏစခတြင အေျခအေနေကာငးမား ရေနသည။

ဘရာဇး ဗဟအစးရသည ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ဘ႑ာအခြနမား ရရသည။ အထးသျဖင ေရန ကမၸဏမားထမ အခြနေငြႏင ႏငငပငေရန လပငနးမ အျမတေငြမားရရသည။ သဘာ၀သယဇာတ ထတလပသည ေဒသမားသ႔ ရရလာသည၀ငေငြမားက အခးက ခြေ၀ေပးျခငးမား ျပလပ သည။ ၎က (Special Participation) ဟေခၚသည။၈၅

ဘရာဇးႏငင၏ ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈမားျဖင ဘ႑ာေငြ စမ ခန႔ခြေရး လပငနးစဥတြင သဘာ၀သယဇာတ ပငဆငသည ျပညနယအား မလပငရငျဖစသညအတြက ေျမယာငားရမးခ (royalty) ၏ ၅၀ ရာခငႏႈနးက ရရၿပး အခးကခြေ၀မႈမ ၄၀ ရာခငႏႈနးကရရသည။ သကဆငရာ ေဒသ အပခပေရးသည ေျမငားရမးခ၏ ၁၇ ရာခငႏႈနးကရရၿပး အခးကခြေ၀မႈ၏ ၁၀ ရာခင ႏႈနးကရရသည။ ဘရာဇး သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ၀နႀကးဌာနမလညး သဘာ၀ ပတ၀နးကငျပျပငေရးအတြက အခးက ခြေ၀မႈမ ၁၀ ရာခငႏႈနး ရရသည။ ပဂၢလက ေျမပငရငမားသညလညး အခးက ခြေ၀ေပးမႈက ခစားရ သည။၈၆

ျမနမာႏငငအတြက သငခနးစာ

ဘရာဇးႏငင၏ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔မရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြခြေ၀မႈသည ျမနမာႏငငအတြက ေလလာသငသည သငခနးစာျဖစသည။ ဘ႑ာေငြ ခြေ၀ ေပးရာတြင ဗဟအစးရ၊ ျပညနယ၊ သကဆငရာ ၿမ႔နယ၊ သကဆငသည ျပညနယႏင မသကဆငေသာျပညနယမားအၾကား ခြေ၀မႈသည ျမနမာႏငင တြင ကငသးသငေသာပစျဖစသည။ ဘရာဇးနငင၏ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔မ၀ငေငြသည တငးျပညစစေပါငး ထတကန၏ ၄ ရာခငႏႈနးသာ ရသည။ ျမနမာ ႏငငတြင ႏငငဘ႑ာေငြအမားစမာ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔မရရသည။ ဘရာဇးႏငငတြင ဘ႑ာေငြခြေ၀သးစြမႈ၌ ရႈပေထြးမႈ မရသညအတြက ျမနမာႏငငအတြက သငေတာေပသည။၈၇

တေမာႏငငေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြမားက လမႈဖြ႔ၿဖးေရးႏင သဘာ၀ ပတ၀နးကင ကာကြယေရးတြင သးစြျခငး။

ေပၚတဂ၊ ဂပန၊ အငဒနးရားတ႔၏ ကလနျပျခငးကခရၿပးေနာက အေရ႕တေမာ ႏငငသည ၂၀၀၂ ခႏစတြင လြတလပသညႏငငျဖစလာခသည။ သဘာ၀ သယဇာတေပါကြယ၀ေသာ တေမာႏငငသည ၁၉၉၉ ခႏစတြင ျပနလည ဆတခြာေသာ အငဒနးရားစစတပမားက ဖကစးသြားခသည ႏငငတခလး နးပါး၏ အေျခခအေဆာကအအမားက ျပနလညတညေဆာကျခငးႏင အလပ ျဖစမည ဒမကေရစစနစက ေလာကလမးလကရသည။ ထသ႔ ျပနလည ထေထာငေရး လပငနးစဥမားတြင ႏငင၏ အဓကအေရးပါသည ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မရရသည ၀ငေငြမားအား အကးရရ မညသ႔သးစြ သြားသငသညဆသညမာ စနေခၚမႈၾကးတရပျဖစလာသည။ တေမာ၏ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႕သကတညရမႈပမာဏသည ခန႔မနးေျခအားျဖင ၁၁ ထရလယကဗေပႏင ေရနစညသနးေပါငး ၉၅၉ သနးရမညဟ ခန႔မနးတြက ခကထားသည။(သ႔ရာတြင သဘာ၀သယဇာတ၏ ၄၀ ရာခငႏႈနးက ခပဆထားသည စာခပမားအရ တျခားႏငငမားက ပငဆငထားႏငသည)။

တေမာလထအေျချပ အဖြ႔အစညးမား ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ဘဘ႑ာေငြ႔အား မညသ႔ ေစာငၾကပရမညက ေဆြးေႏြးပြျပလပေနစဥ

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တေမာ၏ Greater Sunrise သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနးသည ျမနမာႏငငမ ေရႊ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနးမ ထြကရမညပမာဏႏင ႏငးယဥႏငသည။ (ျမနမာ ႏငင ေရႊသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔သကတြင ၈.၃ ထရလယ ကဗေပရမညဟ ခန႔မနး ထားသည။)၈၈ တေမာ၏ ၎သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနးသည ၂၀၀၂ ခႏစ တြင ၾသစေၾတးလႏငခပဆခေသာ ပငလယျပငေရပငနက သေဘာတ စာခပအရ ၾသစေၾတးလႏင ပးတြပငဆငသည ႏစႏငငပင ေရပငနက အတြငးတြင တညရသည။ ၾသစေၾတးလ၏ ပငဆငမႈ အစရယယာမားက ခြေ၀ၿပးေနာက တေမာသည (Greater Sunrise) သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနးမ ဆယစႏစမားအတြငး ၀ငေငြေဒၚလာ ၁၀ ဘလယ မ ၁၇ ဘလယထ ရရႏင မညဟ ခန႔မနးထားသည။၈၉

တေမာႏငငတြင ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရလာသညဘ႑ာေငြအား စမ ခန႔ခြရန၊ ဥပေဒသးခက ျပဌာနးထားသည။ ေရန (သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔) တးေဖာမႈ ဆငရာတြင လကနာရမည ကင၀တမား (Petrol -eum Mining Code)၊ ေရန (သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔) ႏငဆငေသာ အခြန ဥပေဒ (the Petroleum Tax Law) ႏင ေရန(သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔) ရပေငြ ဥပေဒ (the Petroleum Fund Law) တ႔ ျဖစသည။ ေရနတးေဖာမႈဆငရာ ျပဌာနးခကဥပေဒတြင ႏငငျခားတငးျပညမားႏင ပးေပါငးထတလပရေသာဧရယာမ သဘာ၀ သယဇာတမားက ႏငငေတာ၏ ပငဆငမႈအျဖစျပဌာနးထားၿပး အမးသား အကးစးပြားအတြက မတသငတငစြာအသးျပရနေဖၚျပထားသည။ ၎အစ အစဥတြင သဘာ၀သယဇာတမ ရရလာသည ဘ႑ာေငြမားအား ရပေငြ အျဖစထားရျခငးႏင သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာထမးသမးေရး လပငနးမား တြင သးစြရနေဖာျပထားသည။၉၀ ေရန အေကာကခြန အကဥပေဒသည တေမာရ ေရနလပငနးမားမ တကေသာအေကာကခြနမား ေကာကခရန ျပဌာနးထားသည။ ေရနမ ရရေသာ အေကာကခြနျဖင တေမာျပညသတ႔၏ လမႈစးပြားေရးႏင ျပညသ မားအတြက အကးအျမတရရေစရန ရညရြယထားသည။၉၁ ဥပေဒျပဌာနး ထားေသာျငားလညး ေရနကမၸဏမားက အခြနအျပညအ၀ မေပးပေနႏငျခငး တ႔ေၾကာင တရားဥပေဒ အား တကစြာလကနာကငသးရန အေရးပါေသာ အခကျဖစသည။

ေရနမရရေသာဘ႑ာေငြမားက စမခန႔ခြရန ဖြ႔စညးပအေျခခဥပေဒတခက ၂၀၀၅ ခႏစတြင ေရနရပေငြ ဥပေဒျဖငျပဌာနးသည။၉၂ ဥပေဒ၏ နဒါနးပငးတြင ပစၥပၸနႏငအနာဂတမးဆကတ႔ အကးျဖစထြနးမႈအတြက အဓက ရညရြယ ထားၿပး ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈရေသာ စမခန႔ခြမႈကပါ အဓကေဖာျပထားသည။ သဘာ၀သယဇာတ တးေဖၚထတလပေရးလပငနးမားႏင ေရာငးချခငးမ ရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ေရနရပေငြတြင၉၃ အပႏထားရန ဥပေဒျဖင ျပဌာနးထားသည။ ၎ ရပေငြမေငြမားက တငးျပညဘတဂကထသ႔ ႏစစဥ အကန႔အသတျဖငသာ လႊေျပာငးပငခြငရသည။၉၄ လထကယစားျပအဖြ႔ အစညးမားမ ကယစားလယ မား ပါ၀ငေသာ ေရနရပေငြအတငပငခအဖြ႔၏ အႀကျပခကျဖင ၎ေငြမားက သးစြႏငသည။၉၅

၂၀၀၅ ခႏစတြင ေရနရပေငြအကဥပေဒက အတညျပျပဌာနးျခငးမျပမ ႏငင အႏ႔အျပားရ ေထာငေပါငးမားစြာေသာ တေမာျပညသမားျဖင လထႏးေႏာ ဖလယမႈမားက ျပလပခသည။၉၆ ရပေငြႏငပတသတေသာ အပႏထားသည ေငြပမာဏ၊ ထတယသြားေသာေငြ၊ ရငးႏးျမႇပႏထားေသာေငြ စသညတ႔ႏင ပတသတသညမားက ႏစ၀က၊ ႏစပတလည အစရငခစာမားျဖင အစးရထ သ႔ ေပးပ႔ရၿပး ထမတဆင ျပညသမားသေစရန ထတျပနေပးရ သည။၉၇ ၂၀၁၁ ခႏစဘ႑ာေငြ ရငးတမးအရ ေရနရပေငြတြင အေမရကနေဒၚလာ

တေမာ တကသလေကာငးသားမား ပါလမနအမတတဥးခငးစအတြက အဖးတနကားမား၀ယယမႈက ဆႏၵျပ ေနစဥ

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၉.၃၂ ဘလယရသည။၉၈

တေမာႏငငတြင ရပေငြႏငပတသတ၍ စသတမတခကမား ျပဌာနးထား ေသာလညး သဘာ၀အရငး အျမစမားမရရေသာ ေငြေၾကးမားျဖင လထ၏ ဘ၀ျမႇငတငရန အခကအခရေနဆျဖစသည။ ကမးမာေရး၊ ပညာေရးႏင စးပြားေရးညႊြနးကနးမား တးတကေအာငလပေဆာငရန မားစြာလအပ ေနေသးသည။ ေရနတးေပၚထတလပမလပငနးသည ျပညသမားအတြက အလပအကင မားမားေပးႏငသည လပငနးမဟတ ျခငးေၾကာင ေရနႏင႔ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ တးေဖၚထတလပေရာငးချခငးမ ရရေသာေငြေၾကးမားျဖင ျပညသမားအား အလပအကငမားမား ေပးႏငေအာင လပေဆာငရန လအပသည။ ႏငငလဥးေရ ၁၁ သနးတြင ၂၀ ရာခငႏႈနးမာ အလပလကမမား ျဖစေနသည။ ၿမ႔ေတာ ဒလရ အသက ၂၀ႏင ၂၄ ႏစ အၾကား လငယတ၀ကမာ အလပလကမမား ျဖစၾကသည။၉၉

လထအေျချပအဖြ႔အစညးမားမ သဘာ၀သယဇာတမားကမတးေဖာမ ႏငင ဖြ႔ၿဖးေရးအတြက အေရးပါေသာ အပခပေရး၊ အေျခခအေဆာကအအ ဖြ႔ၿဖးေရး၊ လသားရငးျမစဖြ႔ၿဖးေရးမားႏင စကပးေရးလပငနးမားက ႏစအတနၾကာ ဥးစားေပးလပေဆာငသငေၾကာငး အႀကျပတငျပခသည။၁၀၀

သတငးအခကအလကမား ထတျပနျခငးႏင အကငပကျခစားမႈ တကဖကေရး တငးတာမႈမား

တေမာအစးရႏင ကမၸဏတ႔အၾကားခပဆေသာ သေဘာတညခကမားအား လးသည သးျခားေဆြးေႏြး ျခငးမဟတေပ။ လကမတေရးထးခ အပဆေၾကးေငြ (signature bonus) ေပးကမးျခငးက ပတပငထားသည။ လပကြကေျမယာ ငားရနးခ (royalty) ႏင တးေဖာထတလပေရာငးချခငး အဆငဆငမရရေသာ ၀ငေငြအားလးအား ထတျပနေၾကျငာျခငးႏင ၎ဘ႑ာေငြမားက တသးတျခား ရပေငြ (petroleum fund) မားတြင သမးဆညးထားျခငးအားျဖင အမးသား ဘတဂကမဟတသညအတြက ႏငငေရး ရညရြယခကျဖင သးစြမႈက တားျမစ ရနရညရြယသည။ ရပေငြထမ အစးရႏင အပခပေရးအရာရတ႔၏ ထတယသးစြမႈက ဥပေဒဆငရာ လပထးလပနညးျဖင တငးၾကပထားသည။၁၀၁

တေမာတြင ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ၊ သတငးအခကအလကထတျပနမႈႏင ပတသက၍ တျခားေသာ စညးမဥးစညးကမးမားကလညး ဥပေဒမား၊ ကငသးလကနာမႈ မားျဖင ျပဌာနးထားသည။ တကေသာ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆ ခကမရေသာျငားလညး ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈသည အေျခခကေသာမျဖစ ေၾကာငး ၂၀၀၅ ခႏစ ေရန အကဥပေဒတြငျပဌာနးထားသည။၁၀၂ ၀နႀကးခပေဟာငး Mari Alkatiri သည ေရန ရပေငြႏငပတသက၍ အကငပကျခစားျခငး၊ ဘကလကမႈမားႏင အႀကအဖနမားက ကာကြယ ႏငရန တျခားေသာ နညးလမးမားက ေဆာငရြကခသည။၁၀၃ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏငလာဘစားမ တကဖကေရးက အားေပးသည အေနျဖင တေမာတြင တငးျပျပညျပလြတေတာအမတမားအပါအ၀င အစးရ၀နထမး အရာရ မားႏင ၄ငးတ႔၏ မသားစ၀ငမားအား ေရန၊ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ႏင တျခား တြငးထြကသယဇာတ တးေပၚထတလပျခငး လပငနးမားတြင ပါ၀ငပတ သကျခငးက တားျမစထားသည။၁၀၄

တေမာႏငငသည ၂၀၀၇ ခႏစတြင EITI အဖြ႔၀ငႏငငအျဖစေလာကထား ျခငျဖင ၂၀၁၀ ခႏစတြင EITI အဖြ႔၀င ႏငငျဖစလာခသည။၁၀၅ သ႔ရာတြင

37

လထအေျခ ျပအဖြ႔စညးမားမ အၾကေပးတငျပထားေသာလညး ေရနရပေငြ အကဥပေဒ သည ကမၸဏမား၏ အစးရသ႔ ေပးေခေသာ ေငြေၾကးမားက ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ တရား၀ငထတျပနရမညဟ ျပဌာနးထားျခငးမရေခ။၁၀၆ EITI ၏ လပငနးစဥ မားအျပင ေရနဘ႑ာေငြမား ႏငစာခပစာတနးမား၊ အေထာကအထားမားက အဂၤလပဘာသာ၊ တေမာဘာသာ၊ ေပၚတဂ ဘာသာတ႔ျဖင သဘာ၀သယဇာတ၊ သတႏင စြမးအင၀နႀကးဌာန အငတာနကစာမကႏာတြင ေဖၚျပထား သည။၁၀၇ ေဒသဆငရာလထအတြက အစးရသည လမးေဘးမားတြင ဆငးဘတ စကထလက ေရနမ ရရသည အခြနဘ႑ာ၊ ေမးျမနးခကမားႏင အေျဖမား ကပါ ေဖၚျပထားသည။၁၀၈

တေမာအစးရသည ေအာကပါအေၾကာငးအရာမားႏင ပတသကၿပးလညး ေတာငးခလႊာမားရလာပါက ျပညသမားသ႔ အသေပးထတျပနရန တာ၀န ရသည။ (က) တးေဖာေတြ႔ရထားေသာေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ပမာဏႏငတးေဖာေရး လပငနးစမကနးမား (ခ) တေမာ ပငလယျပငေရပငနက သေဘာတညခကအရ ၄ငးဧရယာထတြင တးေဖာမႈအေသးစတ

အခကအလကမား(ဂ) ျပဌာနးထားေသာဥပေဒႏငအည ကမၸဏမား၏ အစရငခစာမား ႏင(င) တးေဖာမႈမားႏငဆကစပျပး ေပးေခေငြ အစရငခစာမား ျဖစသည။၁၀၉

ျမနမာႏငငအတြက သငခနးစာ

တေမာႏငင၏ အခြနဘ႑ာစမခန႔ခြမႈႏငပတသတ၍ စနေခၚမႈမားရေနေသာလညး ျမနမာႏငငအတြက အသး၀င ႏငေပသည။ တေမာႏင ျမနမာႏငငသည တညေသာသမငးေနာကခရေသာ ႏငငျဖစသည။ ျပညတြငးစစ၊ အကင ပကျခစားမႈ၊ UNDP ၏ လသားမား ဖြ႔ၿဖးမႈဆငရာ ထတျပနခကတြင ေအာကဆးအဆငတြငရေနျခငး သဘာ၀ သယဇာတသည ျပညသတ႔၏ ေကာငးကးက မျဖစေစဘ ပဋပကၡကသာ ျဖစေပၚေစသည အခကမားသည ျမနမာ ႏင တေမာႏငငတ႔တညၾကသည။ တေမာသည ကလနလကေအာကမ လြတေျမာကလာၿပးေနာက အေျခခအေဆာကအမားကျပနလည တည ေဆာကျခငး၊ လ႔အဖြ႔အစညး ဖရဖရျဖစေနမႈက ျပနလညတညမတေပးျခငးတ႔တြင ဘ႑ာေငြပြငလငးျမငသာ မႈသည အဓကရညမနးခက ျဖစေၾကာငးေတြ႔ရသည။ လြတလပေရး ရၿပးေနာက သးႏစအၾကာတြင ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ ဘ႑ာေငြ စမခန႔ခြမႈႏင အမးသား ေရနဘ႑ာေငြက ဖနတးႏငခသည။ EITI စဥးမဥးစညးကမးက လကနာ ကငသးျခငးျဖင ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏင လြမားျခငးမားက တးတကေအာင လပေဆာငသည။ တေမာႏငင၏အေျခအေနကၾကညပါက ျမနမာႏငငတြငလညး အေစာပငး ကာလကတညးကပင ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔အပါအ၀င တျခားတြငးထြက သယဇာတမားမ ရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ဥပေဒမားျဖင ပြင႔လငးျမငသာစြာ စမခန႔ခြမႈစနစမားက အေကာငအထညေဖၚေဆာငရြက သငသည။ တေမာသည ဆယစႏစတခေကာသာရေသးေသာ ႏငငတချဖစသညႏငအည ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ မားျဖင စနစတက စမခန႔ခြျခငး လပငနးမားက အေကာငထညေဖာ လပကငေနဆျဖစသည။ အဓကက ေသာ ရညမနးခက ေအာငျမငမႈမားရရရန ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာေငြ အသးစရတ မားက စနစက ေကာငမြနေသာ စမခန႔ခြမႈမား၊ ဖြ႔စညးအပခပပအရ ၀ငေငြထြကေငြမားက တကေသခာစြာ စစေဆးျခငးမားျပလပႏငေရးမားႏင တညရဆ လပငနးစဥမားအား ႏငငေခါငးေဆာငမားအေနျဖင အားနညးေအာင မျပလပႏငေအာင တေမာအေနျဖင စြမးေဆာငႏငမႈမား အေပၚတြင မတညေနသည။တေမာႏငင၏အဓက သငယစရာေကာငးေသာစနမနာတခမာ ေရနဘ႑ာ ေငြမားအလးအရငးျဖင မ၀ငေရာကလာမ စမခန႔ခြေရးဆငရာေကာငးမြနေသာ လပထးလပနညးမားႏင ဥပေဒမားက လြယကစြာ အတညျပျပဌာနးႏငခ႔ျခငး မားျဖစသည။ သ႔ရာတြင ဘလယႏငခေသာ ေရနေရာငးရေငြမား ႏငငထ၀င ေရာကလာသညအခါ ၎လပထးလပနညးမားကခးေဖာကၿပး လသညထက ပမသးစြျခငးမားက ႏငငေရးသမားမားက ကငသးေလရသည။ ထလပရပမားမ ေကာငးမြနစနစကေသာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈမားျဖင ဘ႑ာေငြစမခြန႔ခြျခငးက စနစတက လပေဆာငရန အေရးႀကးေၾကာငးက ေထာကျပသည။ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏင စမခန႔ခြျခငးစနစကကငသးျခငးမ ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရေသာဘ႑ာေငြမားက ေရရညအတြကအကးမရသည လပငနးမားတြင သးစြျခငး မားကလညး ေရာငရားႏငမည။ တေမာႏငင၏ အေကာငအထညေဖၚ ေဆာငရြကမႈမားတြင ဥပေဒျပေရး အပငး၊ EITI အဖြ႔၀ငျဖစလာျခငး၊ ပြင႔လငးျမငသာမႈျဖင႔ ဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ခြျခငး စနစမားတြင လထအေျချပ အဖြ႔အစညးမားႏင ညႇႏႈငးေဆြးေႏႊးျခငးမားသည ျမနမာႏငငအတြက အေကာငးဆးေသာ စတချဖစႏငသည။ ျမနမာႏငင အေနျဖငလညး ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈမားျဖင ဘ႑ာေငြ စမခန႔ခြျခငးမားက လကေတြ႔အေကာငထညေဖာ ေဆာငရြကရာတြင ရငဆငရေသာ ျပနာ မားက တေမာကသ႔မျဖစရန သငခနးစာယသငသည။

38

တေမာ၏ ေရနဆငရာဘ႑ာေငြမားက စမခန႔ခြရာတြင ေကာငးမြနေသာ အစးရယႏရား ျဖစေပၚရန ကနဥးခမတေသာ လပငနးစဥမား

ႏငငေရးအခကအခမားႏင တးတကဖြ႔ၿဖးမႈမား အမားအျပားလပေဆာငရန လအပေနခနတြင တေမာေခါငးေဆာငမားသည မးဆကသစမားအတြက ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးသးစြမႈဖလေစရန အေရးပါသည ေျခလမးတရပအေနျဖင သဘာ၀သယဇာတ ဘ႑ာေငြေၾကးစမခန႔ခြျခငးက႑က တာ၀နယမႈမားျဖင လပေဆာငခၾကသည။ ၂၀၀၅ ခႏစတြင တေမာပါလမနသည ေရနအက ဥပေဒ၊ ေရနအခြနေကာကချခငးအကဥပေဒႏင ေရနရပေငြ အကဥပေဒက ျပဌာနးခသည။ ဤဥပေဒသည ေရနထတလပမႈက ႏငငတကာစႏႈနးမားႏင အည ဘ႑ာေငြ စမခန႔ခြမႈမားက ျပလပရနအတြက အဓက အေထာကအက ျဖစသည။

(က) အားလးေသာ ေရန အခြနဘ႑ာမားႏင ရငးႏႈးျမပႏမႈမ ျပနလညရရလာ ေသာ ေငြေၾကးမားအား ေရန ရပေငြ(Petroleum Fund) တြင ထည၀ငရမည ျဖစၿပး၊ ၎ရပေငြက မးဆကသစမားညတညမ အကးခစား ႏငရန ဥပေဒသ မားျဖင အနာဂတမးဆကမားအတြက သမးဆညးထားသည။ ၂၀၀၀ ခႏစ ကတညးက ေျမယာငါးရမးခ (royalty) အျဖစရရလာေသာ အေမရကနေဒၚလာ ၂၀၄.၆ သနးျဖင ၂၀၀၅ ခႏစ၊ စကတငဘာ တြငတညေထာငေသာ ေရန ရပေငြသည လကရအေျခေနတြင အေမရကန ေဒၚလာ ၉.၃ ဘလယ ရလာ သည။ အစးရသည ရပေငြက အဓကအေရးပါသည အေၾကာငးအရာမားတြင အသးျပရနႏင ႏစေပါငးမားစြာလျခ စတခစြာ ထမးသမးထားလသညအတြက ရပေငြမ ရရသည ပမနအျမတေငြမားကသာ သးစြရန ရညရြယသည။ သ႔ရာ တြင ၂၀၀၈ ခႏစက တကလာေသာ အစးရသစသည ဘတဂကက လသည ထက ပမသးစြလကရသည။

(ခ) ေရနရပေငြမ သးစြသညေငြမားက ဘတဂကထ၌ ထညသြငးရသည။ ရပေငြမ ေငြေျပာငးေငြလႊအား သတမတထားေသာ အစးရ၏ ဘဏစာရငးသ႔ သာ လႊေျပာငးႏငၿပး ပါလမနမ သတမတထားသည ေငြပမာဏ ထကမပေသာ ေငြမားကသာ လႊေျပာငးပငခြငရသည။ သးစြမႈအား အစးရ၏ ဘ႑ာေရးဌာနမ တဆင ေဆာငရြကၿပး အစးရမ စစညးအစရငခရသည။ ၀ငေငြႏငအသးစရတ အား ျပညသမား ေလလာႏငေအာင ေဖၚျပထား ရၿပး ဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ ဥပေဒႏင လြတလပေသာ စာရငးစစတ႔မ ရပေငြအား မတရားအသးျပျခငးမ ကာကြယ ေပးရန ရညရြယသည။

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(ဤခေရာငေအာကခရ ေဖာျပ ခကမားသည တေမာႏငင၏ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ စနစမားျဖင အေကာငအထည ေဖာလပ ေဆာငျခငးမား ျဖစသည။ တေမာ၏တဆငခငးစ လပေဆာင ခကမားသည ျမနမာႏငငတြင ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔မရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈ စနစမားျဖင အေကာငအထညေဖာ လပေဆာငရာတြင မညသည အဆငမားက အေကာငထညေဖာ လပေဆာငသငသည ဆသညက အေထာကအက ျဖစေစမည။)

(ဂ) ရပေငြ၏ ပငဆငမႈအား လျခစတခရေသာ စမခန႔ခြမႈေအာကတြငထားရၿပး ျပညပတြငရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈသည ျပညတြငးစးပြားေရးအခကအခက ကာကြယ ေပးရာေရာကသည။ စမကနးႏငဘ႑ာေရး ၀နႀကးဌာနသည တခလအတြက တာ၀နအရဆးျဖစၿပး လပငနးလညပတေရးဆငရာ စမခန႔ခြမႈ ကစၥရပမားက အစးရဘ႑ာေရး ဌာန၏ Banking and Payments Authority ေအာကတြင ေဆာငရြကသည။ ရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈဆငရာ ကြၽမးကင သမားက ရပေငြ၏ ရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈက ၾကပမတေပးသည။ ရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈဆငရာ အႀကေပးအဖြ႔အား ၂၀၀၅ ခႏစတြငထားရၿပး အစးရ၏ ေရနရပေငြမ ရငးႏးျမႇပႏမႈက အႀကေပးရသည။

(ဃ) အပခပေရး ယႏရားသည ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏင တာ၀နခမႈမားက တကစြာလပေဆာငရနႏင အခါအားေလာစြာထတျပနေသာ အစရငခစာမား ႏင ႏစပတလညဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ အစရငခစာမားက ထတျပနရန တာ၀န ရသည။ ရပေငြႏငပတသကသည သးျခားလြတလပေသာ အတငပငခ ေကာငစ၀ငမားက ပါလမနကခန႔အပၿပး ေငြေၾကးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားက အႀကေပးရသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ပါလမနအေနျဖင ၄ငးေကာငစ၏ အၾကျပ ေတာငးဆျခငးမားက လကနာစရာမလေပ။ လြတလပ၍ ႏငငတကာ အသ အမတျပေသာ ျပငပစာရငးစစမားမစစေဆးၿပး စာရငးစစမား၏ ထတျပန ခကက ျပညသမား နားလညလြယမညပစျဖင ထတျပနေပးသည။ အစးရ သည အငတာနကစာမကႏာမ ဥပေဒ ေၾကာငးဆငရာမား၊ ပြငလငးျမငသာ မႈဆငရာ စစဥေဆာငရြကမႈမားႏင ေငြေၾကးဆငရာအစရငခစာမား ထတျပနခကမားက တငျပေပးသည။ ေနာကဆးထတျပနေသာ သတငး အခကအလကမား အငတာနကေပၚတြင အခနမန ေရာကရေနေရးသည အေရးပါသည။

(င) ရပေငြႏငပတသတ၍ တာ၀နရသတ႔၏ လကကငေဆာငရြကမႈမားက လထ၏နားလညမႈ အလြနအေရးပါသညက အသအမတျပျခငးျဖင အစးရ သည ရပေငြႏငပတသတ၍ ႏငငအ၀မး လထႏင ေဆြးေႏြးႏးေႏာမႈမားက တာ၀နယရသည။ ပါလမနသည ဥပေဒေၾကာငးဆငရာကစၥရပမား၊ ပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈႏင ႏငငပငသယဇာတက ႏငငဖ႔ြၿဖးေရးတြင မညကသ႔ အသးျပ မညက အခါေပါငးမားစြာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားျပလပသည။

(စ) တေမာႏငငသည ၂၀၁၀ ခႏစတြင EITI အဖြ႔ ၀ငႏငငျဖစလာသည။

40

နဂးခပ

ျမနမာႏငငသည ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မားကြယ၀ၿပး စစအစးရ၏ ဆယစႏစမားစြာ ႏငငျခားသ႔ တငပ႔ေရာငးခေနျခငးေၾကာင ျပညသမားမာ စြမးအငအလအေလာက သးစြခြငမရရသညသာမက ႏငငအေနျဖငလညး ကမာၻ႕အဆငးရဆးႏငငအျဖစသ႔ ကေရာကလကရသည။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႕မားမရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားကမညသ႔ အသးျပသညကမသရရေပ။ တပမေတာအတြကမား ျပားေသာ အသးစရတမားက ဆကလကသးစြေနခနတြင လမႈဖြ႔ၿဖးတးတကေရးလပငနးမားတြင အနညးအကဥးသာ အသးျပေနသညကေတာ ထငရားစြာေတြ႔ ျမငေနရသည။ သဘာ၀သယဇာတမားမ ရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက တရားမတစြာ ခြေ၀သးစြမႈမရျခငးမားကလညး တငးရငးသားလမးမားႏင ျဖစပြားေနသည ျပညတြငးစစက ဆကလကျဖစေပၚလကရသည။

တပမေတာက ေကာေထာကေနာကခေပးထားေသာ အရပသားအစးရေပၚ ေပါကလာေသာလညး၊ လကရျပဌာနးထားေသာ ဖြ႔စညးပအေျခခဥပေဒအရ၊ တပမေတာသည ဥပေဒ၏အျပငဘကတြင လး၀ ရပတညလကရၿပး ျပညသမား၏ လြမးမးမႈအျပငဘကတြငရသည။ ႏငင၏စးပြားေရးတြင စစတပပင ကမၸဏမား၏ ပါ၀ငပတသကေနေသာ အခနးက႑ႏင ၎ကမၸဏမားက ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားႏင မညသ႔ဆကစပေနသည၊ အသးျပေနသညဆသညက သရႏငျခငးမား မရသလ စစေဆးျခငးမားလညး မျပလပေပ။ႏငငျခားကမၸဏမားကလညး ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ေရာငးရေငြမားအား အစးရသ႔ မညသ႔ေပးသည၊ မညမေပးသညက ထတျပနျခငးမားမရေပ။

ႏငင၏ အႀကးမားဆးႏငငျခား၀ငေငြရရေနသည ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ တငပ႔ မႈမရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြ မားက ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈမားႏင ေကာငးမြနေသာ စမခန႔ခြမႈမားက ထေရာကစြာလပေဆာငရနႏင စစတပပင ကမၸဏမား၏ ႏငငစးပြားေရးက ခပကငထားမႈက ေဖာထတေျပာဆရန အေရးတႀကး လအပေနေသာ အခနကာလ ျဖစသည။ ထသ႔ျပလပျခငးမရပါက တငးျပည၏ဖြ႔ၿဖးတးတကမႈမားက အကးမျပသညသာမက ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရေသာဘ႑ာေငြမားသည သဘာ၀သယဇာတ ကနစာျဖစမႈက အားေပးေနလမမည။

ေရနႏင႔သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ တငပ႔မႈမရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက စနစတကစမခန႔ခြမႈမား ျပလပရနႏင ၎ဘ႑ာေငြသစြမႈမားက စစေဆးႏငမညနညးစနစမား ခမတႏငရန ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ တာ၀နယမႈ မားျဖင ၎ဘ႑ာေငြမားက စမခန႔ခြ႔မည နညးစနစမားလအပသည။ ဤသ႔ျပလပရန ဖြ႕စညးပ အေျခခဥပေဒအရ လပပငခြငမားႏင ပမတကေသာ အမးသားဥပေဒျပျခငး သ႔မဟတ ရးရငးေသာ အမးသားဥပေဒျပျခငးျပလပရမည။ ၎ဥပေဒမားက ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ တငပ႔မႈမရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမား အသးျပျခငးက အဆငေျပေခာေမြ႔စြာ စနစတကလညပတေစသည။ အနမ႔ဆးအဆင အေနျဖင ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ရပေငြဥပေဒကလအပသည။ ၎ဥပေဒတြင ေအာကပါအခက အလကမားပါ ရရမည။

၁။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြအပါအ၀င ေငြေၾကးစးဆငးမႈမားအား အဓပၸါယဖြင ဆျခငး

၂။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔မရရေသာဘ႑ာေငြ အပႏျခငးမားအေပၚလမးညြနျခငးမား၃။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔မရရေသာဘ႑ာေငြက မညသက ထတယသးစြႏင သညမားႏင မညကသ႔

သးစြရမညက တားျမစျခငး၄။ အပႏထားေသာဘ႑ာေငြက လႊေျပာငးျခငးႏငသးစြျခငးက တကေသာလမးညြနခကမား

ထတေပးျခငး၅။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႕မရရေသာဘ႑ာေငြအား ျပညသမား (စမကနး ဧရယာအတြငးရ နစနာ

ဆးရးရေသာ ေဒသခမားႏငသယဇာတမားက ပငဆငေသာ ေဒသႏငျပညနယမား) ခြေ၀ေပးျခငး ၆။ ၀ငေငြ၊ ထြကေငြ၊ သးေငြႏင အျမတေငြမားက ျပညသသ႔ တငျပျခငး၇။ လြတလပေသာ စာရငးစစမား ထားရျခငးႏငႀကးၾကပျခငး တ႔ျဖစသည။

41

အႀကျပတကတြနးခကမား

ကမၻာအရပရပမ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ၾကြယ၀ခမးသာေသာ ႏငငမားတြင လကခကင႔သးေနေသာ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ဘ႑ာေငြ စမခန႔ခြမႈဆငရာ ႏငငတကာစႏႈနးမားႏင လပေဆာငခကမားက သေတသနျပလပၿပးေနာက ရခငေရနေစာငၾကညေရးအဖြ႔မ ေအာကပါအခကအလကမားက အၾကျပ တကတြနးပါသည။

ႏငငတကာအစးရမားႏငဘဏမား

ႏငငတကာအစးရမားႏင ဘဏမားသည စစတပေကာေထာကခအစးရနင စးပြားေရးပးေပါငးေဆာငရြက ျခငးမား ျပလပရာတြင ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏင တာ၀နခမႈမားျဖင ဘ႑ာေငြ စမခန႔ခြေရးစနစက ပထမဥးစြာ မလပမျဖစ လပေဆာငသငသည။

ႏငငတကာကမၸဏမား

ႏငငတကာကမၸဏမားသည ျမနမာႏငင၏ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ စမကနးမားတြင လအခြငေရးႏင သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငက ကာကြယႏငသည ဥပေဒမားႏငလပငနးစဥမား စနစတက လညပတႏငသည အထႏင ဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ခြမႈတြင ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ၊ တာ၀နခမႈမားျဖင ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ စမခန႔ခြသည စနစမားတညေဆာကျပး စနစတကလညပတသညအထ ရငးႏးျမပႏမႈအသစမား ျပလပျခငးက ေရာငၾကဥသငသည။

ျမနမာအစးရ

ႏငငျခားရငးႏးျမပႏမႈအသစမားအား မဖတေခၚမ ျမနမာအစးအေနျဖင ေအာကပါအခကမားက လပေဆာငသငသည၁။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မရရသည ႏငင၏ဘ႑ာေငြပမာဏႏင ၎ဘ႑ာေငြမား မညသညေနရာ

တြင အပႏထားသညႏင မညကသ႔ စမခန႔ခြထားသညက ခကခငးထတျပနရန ၂။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြမားက ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ၊ တာ၀နခမႈမားႏင ရညရည

အကးေကးဇးျဖစထြနးေစရနအတြက ဘ႑ာေငြဆငရာဥပေဒမားက ျပဌာနးၿပး လကနာေဆာငရြက ေစရမည။

၃။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြက သးျခားရနပေငြအျဖစထားရရမည။ ၎သးျခားရနပ ေငြက လထကယစားျပအဖြ႔အစညး ကယစားလယမားပါ၀ငသည လြတလပေသာ အစးရမဟတ သည စမခန႔ခြမႈအဖြ႔တခ၏ ႀကးၾကပမႈေအာကတြငထားရမည။

၄။ စမကနးဧရယာအတြငးေနထငသည ဆးရႈးနစနာခေသာ ေဒသခမားႏင သယဇာတကပငဆငသည ျပညနယႏငေဒသအမားသ႔ ရရသညဘ႑ာေငြမားက စနစတကခြေ၀ေပးသည အကးအျမတခြေဝမႈ စနစက စတငလပေဆာငရမည။

၅။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနးမား စတငအေကာငထညမေဖာမ ေဒသခမားက ၾကတငအသေပး ျခငး၊ ေဒသခမား၏သေဘာထားကရယျခငးႏင ေဒသခမား၏သေဘာထားမားက လြတလပစြာထတ ေဖာခြငအစရသည (FPIC) လပငနးစဥမားက ဥပေဒျပဌာနးၿပး လကနာေဆာငရြကေစရမည။ စမကနးမားေၾကာင ထခကလာႏငမည သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင၊ လမႈအသငးအ၀ငးႏင ကမးမာေရး ဆငရာမားက စမကနးမစတငမ ၾကတငေလလာသးသပမႈမားျပလပၿပး ျပညသမားထသ႔ အသေပး ရမညဆေသာ ဥပေဒမားက ျပဌာနးၿပး လကနာေဆာငရြကေစရမည။

၆။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔အပါအ၀င တျခားတြငးထြကသယဇာတမား တးေဖာထတလပျခငးမား ေၾကာင ျဖစေပၚလာမည လ႔အခြငအေရးႏင သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငပကစးမႈမားက ကာကြယရနႏင နယေျမမားအား ျပနလညအသးျပႏငရနႏင ျပနလညသန႔ရငးျပျပငျခငး လပငနးစဥမားက ဥပေဒမား ျပဌာနးၿပး လကနာေဆာငရြကေစရမည။

42

ေနာကဆကတြ။ ဇယား - ဘ႑ာေငြ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႏင သကဆငသည စႏနးမားႏင လမးညြနမႈမား

တငးတာမႈ ရညမနးခက ပနးတင ဆႏၵျပျခငး (သ႔) စာခပစာတမး အဖြ႔၀ငျဖစႏငေျခ ဆကစပေသာဖြငဆခက (သ႔) မ သကဆငရာစာခပတြင ပါ၀ငသမား

၁။ ကလသမဂၢ ကမၻာလးဆငရာ သေဘာတညခက (UNGC) ၁၁၀

ကလသမဂၢ ကမၻာလးဆငရာ သေဘာတည ခကသည ကမၸဏတ႔၏ တာ၀နယမႈကျမငတင ေပးသည။ ကမၻာလးဆငရာ စနေခၚမႈမာကေျဖ ရငးရာတြင ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖင အစတအပငး တစရပ ျဖစလာႏငသည။

ကလသမဂၢ ကမၻာလးဆငရာ သေဘာတညခကတြင ဆႏၵအေလာက ပါ၀ငႏငသည။ မျဖစမေန လကနာရ မညညြနၾကားခက မဟတေပ။ တရားဥပေဒစးမးေရး အဖြ႔အစညး မားမဟတဘ ကမၸဏမား၏ အျပအမ ႏင လပငနးမားက တငးတာသည။

ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖငကလသမဂၢ ကမၻာလး ဆငရာ သေဘာတည ခက ၏စညးကမး (၁၀) ခကက လကနာ ကငသးႏငသည။

စဥးကမး (၁၀) ခတြင စးပြားေရးလပငနးမားသညအကငပက ျခစားမႈမားက ျဖစေပၚေစသည လပရပမား၊ လာဘေပးျခငးႏင ေငြညႇစျခငးတ႔က ဆန႔ကငရမည။

CNOOCONGC

၂။ ကလသမဂၢ အကငပကျခစားမႈဆန႔ကငေရးည လာခ(UNCAC) ၁၁၁

ကလသမဂၢ အကငပကျခစားမႈ ဆန႔ကငေရး ညလာခ (UNCAC) သည ႏငငတကာ အကင ပကျခစားမႈတကဖကေရး တရား၀ငစာခပတခ ျဖစသည။

ကလသမဂၢ အကငပကျခစားမႈဆန႔ကငေရးညလာခ (UNCAC) သည အဖြ႔၀ငႏငငမားက တာ၀နခသည။

အစးရမား ပဒမ(၉)။ ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာ စမခန႔ခြမႈတြင ပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈႏင တာ၀နခမႈက ျမႇငတငေပးသည။ပဒမ(၉)။ ပဂၢလက လပငနးမား၏ ပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈကျမႇင တင ေပးသည။

ျမနမာႏငငသည ကလသမဂၢ အကငပကျခစားမႈဆန႔ကငေရးညလာခ တြင လကမတေရးထးထားေသာလညး အတညမျပရ ေသးေပ။

၃။ သယဇာတတးေဖၚေရးလပငနးမားပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႀကးပနးခက (EITI)၁၁၂

EITI သညအစးရထသ႔၊ အစးရႏင ဆကစပေသာ သမားထ အခြနေပးေဆာငရမႈ ပြငလငးျမငသာ မႈက တးျမႇငေပးသည။

သယဇာတတးေဖၚ ေရးလပငနးမားပြငလငျမငသာမႈ ႀကးပနးခက (EITI) သည ႏငငမား၏ ဆႏၵအ လာက ျဖစသည။

အစးရမား၊ကမၸဏ မားႏင လထ အေျချပ အဖြ႔အစညးမားသည EITI က ေထာကပေပး ႏငသည။

စညးမဥးစညးကမးအားလးသညအခြနဘ႑ာပြငလငးျမငသာ မႈႏင ဆကစပသည။

ျမနမာ၊တရတ၊ ကးရးယား၊ ထငးႏင အႏၵယ တ႔သည EITI ၏ စညးမဥး မားက လကနာေသာ ႏငငမဟတေပ။

၄။ ႏငငတကာ ေငြေၾကးရပေငြ (IMF)၏ အခြနဘ႑ာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ ဆငရာ လမးညြနခက။၁၁၃

သဘာ၀အရငးအျမစႏငပတသကေသာဘ႑ာ ေငြမာ းပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈဆငရာစမခန႔ခြမႈ ေကာငးမားက သးသတ၍ အသအမတျပေပး သည။

ႏငငတကာေငြေၾကး ရပေငြ (IMF) ၏အခြနဘ႑ာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ ဆငရာ လမးညြနခကမားက ႏငင မားအေနျဖင ဆႏၵအေလာက လကနာႏငသည။

အစးရမား၊ ႏငငတ ကာေငြေၾကး အဖြ႔ အစညးမားႏင လထအေျချပ အဖြ႔မား။

လမးညြနခကမားသည သကဆငရာ အဖြ႔အစညး၊နငငမားႏင သာ သကဆငသည။

၅။ သဘာ၀သယဇာ ပဋညာဥစာတမး။၁၁၄

သဘာ၀သယဇာ ပဋညာဥစာတမးသည သဘာ၀ အရငးအျမစမရရလာသညအခြငအလမးမားက လ႔အဖြ႔အစညးမ အကးရစြာ အသးျပႏငရန ကညသည။

ပဋညာဥစာတမးသည မျဖစမေန လကနာရမည စာခပ (သ႔) သေဘာတညခကမဟတေပ။

အစးရမား၊ ေကာပရတမားႏင အစးရမဟတေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးမား။

စညးမဥး ၂။ တြငးထြကသယဇာတသည ျပညသ မားပင ေသာ အရငးအျမစျဖစသည။ ထတယသးစြမႈကပြငလငးျမငသာ မႈႏင ျပညသမားက စနစတက အသေပးရမည။စညးမဥး ၁၂။ သတတးေဖၚေရး ကမၸဏအားလးသည သေဘာ တညခက၊ ထတယျခငးႏင အခြနေပး ေဆာငရာတြင အေကာငးဆး ကငသးရမည။

၆။ IPIECA စဥဆကမျပတ အစရငချခငး လမးညြနခကမား၁၁၅

ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ကမၸဏတ႔၏သဘာ၀ ပတ၀နးကင၊ကနးမာေရး၊ လျခမႈ၊ လမႈေရး ႏင စးပြားေရးဆငရာ တငျပအစရငခမႈမႈမားက ကညေပးသည။

IPIECA ၏ လမးညြန ခကမားသည မျဖစမေန လက နာရမညအရာမားမဟတ။

ကမၸဏႀကးမား ညြနျပခက ၆။ ကမၸဏမား၏ မ၀ါဒ၊ အခြနေပး ေဆာငျခငး၊ တးေဖၚခြငေပးေဆာငရာတြင ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈရေစရန အားေပးသည။

တရတ ကမၸဏ CNOOC သည IPIECA ၏အဖြ႔၀ငျဖစသည။

၇။ OECD ႏငငတကာ ကမၸဏႀကး မားအတြက လမးညြနခကမား ၁၁၆

OECD လမးညြနခကမားသည တာ၀နယေသာ စးပြားေရးလပငနးမား၏ စညးကမးပငး ဆငရာ အစတအပငး တစရပျဖစသည။

လမးညြနခကမားက ကမၸဏႀကးမား၏လကနာကင သးမႈသည တရား၀ငျဖစေသာလညး မျဖစမေန လကနာ ရမညအခကမားမဟတေပ။ အတငးအကပလပပငခြငမရ။

အစးရမ OECD ၏လမးညြနခကမားက ကမၸဏမားသ႔ ခမတေပးသည။ OECD၏ လမးညြနခကမားကႏငငေပါငး(၃၇)မလကနာသည။

အခနး ၆။ အပဒ ၃။ လာဘေပးမႈတကဖကေရး တြင ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈရေစရနအားေပးသည။ ျပညသမားပးေပါငးလာေစရန အားေပးသည။ ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖင ျပညသမားႏင ပြငလငး စြာညႇႏႈငးေဆြးေႏြးျခငးျဖင လာဘေပးမႈ တက ဖကေရးတြင ပးေပါငးလာ ေစႏငသည။

ျမနမာ၊ တရတႏင အႏၵယတ႔သည လမးညြနခကက လကနာျခငးမရေပ။ေတာငကးရးယားသည OECD အဖြ႔ ၀ငႏငငျဖစသည။

၉။ ကမၻာလးဆငရာ ထတျပနခက လမးညြနမား GRI ၁၁၈

GRI သညကမၻာလးဆငရာလပငနးစဥမားျဖစၿပး လြတလပေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးျဖစသည။အဓကရည ရြယခကမာ အစရငခထတျပနခကႏင ပတ သတသညလမးညြနခကမားထတျပနေပးရန ျဖစသည။

GRI ၏လမးညြနခကမားသည မျဖစမေန လကနာရ မည အခကမား မဟတေပ။

ကမၸဏႀကးမား၊ အစးရမဟတသည အဖြ႔အစညးမား

စးပြားေရးဆငရာ လပေဆာငခက အညြနးကနး မားႏင အခြနဘ႑ာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈတ႔ ပါ၀ငသည။

၁၀။အေကြတာ စညးမဥး စညးကမး (EPs) ၁၁၉

အေကြတာမသည မျဖစမေနလကနာရမည စ မား မဟတဘလမႈေရးႏငသဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ဆငရာ ေငြေၾကးေထာကပမႈမားကခန႔မနးျခငး၊ အကျဖတျခငးႏင စမခန႔ခြျခငး

မျဖစမေန လကနာရမည မမားမဟတေပ ဘဏမား၊ ေငြေၾကးအဖြ႔ အစညးမား

မအမတ (၁၀)။ ေငြေၾကး အစရငခစာႏင ပတသတ ေသာ အေကြတာမ EIPI - EIPI ၏ အဓက အခက သည အေကြတာမကအေကာငအထညေဖၚျခငး ႏင ရရလာသည အေတြ႔အႀကမားက ႏစစဥ အစရငချခငးတ႔ျဖစသည။

တငးတာမႈ ရညမနးခကပနးတင ဆႏၵျပျခငး (သ႔) စာခပစာတမး အဖြ႔၀ငျဖစႏငေျခ ဆကစပေသာဖြငဆခက (သ႔) မ သကဆငရာစာခပတြင ပါ၀ငသမား

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တငးတာမႈ ရညမနးခက ပနးတင ဆႏၵျပျခငး (သ႔) စာခပစာတမး အဖြ႔၀ငျဖစႏငေျခ ဆကစပေသာဖြငဆခက (သ႔) မ သကဆငရာစာခပတြင ပါ၀ငသမား

၁။ ကလသမဂၢ ကမၻာလးဆငရာ သေဘာတညခက (UNGC) ၁၁၀

ကလသမဂၢ ကမၻာလးဆငရာ သေဘာတည ခကသည ကမၸဏတ႔၏ တာ၀နယမႈကျမငတင ေပးသည။ ကမၻာလးဆငရာ စနေခၚမႈမာကေျဖ ရငးရာတြင ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖင အစတအပငး တစရပ ျဖစလာႏငသည။

ကလသမဂၢ ကမၻာလးဆငရာ သေဘာတညခကတြင ဆႏၵအေလာက ပါ၀ငႏငသည။ မျဖစမေန လကနာရ မညညြနၾကားခက မဟတေပ။ တရားဥပေဒစးမးေရး အဖြ႔အစညး မားမဟတဘ ကမၸဏမား၏ အျပအမ ႏင လပငနးမားက တငးတာသည။

ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖငကလသမဂၢ ကမၻာလး ဆငရာ သေဘာတည ခက ၏စညးကမး (၁၀) ခကက လကနာ ကငသးႏငသည။

စဥးကမး (၁၀) ခတြင စးပြားေရးလပငနးမားသညအကငပက ျခစားမႈမားက ျဖစေပၚေစသည လပရပမား၊ လာဘေပးျခငးႏင ေငြညႇစျခငးတ႔က ဆန႔ကငရမည။

CNOOCONGC

၂။ ကလသမဂၢ အကငပကျခစားမႈဆန႔ကငေရးည လာခ(UNCAC) ၁၁၁

ကလသမဂၢ အကငပကျခစားမႈ ဆန႔ကငေရး ညလာခ (UNCAC) သည ႏငငတကာ အကင ပကျခစားမႈတကဖကေရး တရား၀ငစာခပတခ ျဖစသည။

ကလသမဂၢ အကငပကျခစားမႈဆန႔ကငေရးညလာခ (UNCAC) သည အဖြ႔၀ငႏငငမားက တာ၀နခသည။

အစးရမား ပဒမ(၉)။ ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာ စမခန႔ခြမႈတြင ပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈႏင တာ၀နခမႈက ျမႇငတငေပးသည။ပဒမ(၉)။ ပဂၢလက လပငနးမား၏ ပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈကျမႇင တင ေပးသည။

ျမနမာႏငငသည ကလသမဂၢ အကငပကျခစားမႈဆန႔ကငေရးညလာခ တြင လကမတေရးထးထားေသာလညး အတညမျပရ ေသးေပ။

၃။ သယဇာတတးေဖၚေရးလပငနးမားပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႀကးပနးခက (EITI)၁၁၂

EITI သညအစးရထသ႔၊ အစးရႏင ဆကစပေသာ သမားထ အခြနေပးေဆာငရမႈ ပြငလငးျမငသာ မႈက တးျမႇငေပးသည။

သယဇာတတးေဖၚ ေရးလပငနးမားပြငလငျမငသာမႈ ႀကးပနးခက (EITI) သည ႏငငမား၏ ဆႏၵအ လာက ျဖစသည။

အစးရမား၊ကမၸဏ မားႏင လထ အေျချပ အဖြ႔အစညးမားသည EITI က ေထာကပေပး ႏငသည။

စညးမဥးစညးကမးအားလးသညအခြနဘ႑ာပြငလငးျမငသာ မႈႏင ဆကစပသည။

ျမနမာ၊တရတ၊ ကးရးယား၊ ထငးႏင အႏၵယ တ႔သည EITI ၏ စညးမဥး မားက လကနာေသာ ႏငငမဟတေပ။

၄။ ႏငငတကာ ေငြေၾကးရပေငြ (IMF)၏ အခြနဘ႑ာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ ဆငရာ လမးညြနခက။၁၁၃

သဘာ၀အရငးအျမစႏငပတသကေသာဘ႑ာ ေငြမာ းပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈဆငရာစမခန႔ခြမႈ ေကာငးမားက သးသတ၍ အသအမတျပေပး သည။

ႏငငတကာေငြေၾကး ရပေငြ (IMF) ၏အခြနဘ႑ာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ ဆငရာ လမးညြနခကမားက ႏငင မားအေနျဖင ဆႏၵအေလာက လကနာႏငသည။

အစးရမား၊ ႏငငတ ကာေငြေၾကး အဖြ႔ အစညးမားႏင လထအေျချပ အဖြ႔မား။

လမးညြနခကမားသည သကဆငရာ အဖြ႔အစညး၊နငငမားႏင သာ သကဆငသည။

၅။ သဘာ၀သယဇာ ပဋညာဥစာတမး။၁၁၄

သဘာ၀သယဇာ ပဋညာဥစာတမးသည သဘာ၀ အရငးအျမစမရရလာသညအခြငအလမးမားက လ႔အဖြ႔အစညးမ အကးရစြာ အသးျပႏငရန ကညသည။

ပဋညာဥစာတမးသည မျဖစမေန လကနာရမည စာခပ (သ႔) သေဘာတညခကမဟတေပ။

အစးရမား၊ ေကာပရတမားႏင အစးရမဟတေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးမား။

စညးမဥး ၂။ တြငးထြကသယဇာတသည ျပညသ မားပင ေသာ အရငးအျမစျဖစသည။ ထတယသးစြမႈကပြငလငးျမငသာ မႈႏင ျပညသမားက စနစတက အသေပးရမည။စညးမဥး ၁၂။ သတတးေဖၚေရး ကမၸဏအားလးသည သေဘာ တညခက၊ ထတယျခငးႏင အခြနေပး ေဆာငရာတြင အေကာငးဆး ကငသးရမည။

၆။ IPIECA စဥဆကမျပတ အစရငချခငး လမးညြနခကမား၁၁၅

ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ကမၸဏတ႔၏သဘာ၀ ပတ၀နးကင၊ကနးမာေရး၊ လျခမႈ၊ လမႈေရး ႏင စးပြားေရးဆငရာ တငျပအစရငခမႈမႈမားက ကညေပးသည။

IPIECA ၏ လမးညြန ခကမားသည မျဖစမေန လက နာရမညအရာမားမဟတ။

ကမၸဏႀကးမား ညြနျပခက ၆။ ကမၸဏမား၏ မ၀ါဒ၊ အခြနေပး ေဆာငျခငး၊ တးေဖၚခြငေပးေဆာငရာတြင ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈရေစရန အားေပးသည။

တရတ ကမၸဏ CNOOC သည IPIECA ၏အဖြ႔၀ငျဖစသည။

၇။ OECD ႏငငတကာ ကမၸဏႀကး မားအတြက လမးညြနခကမား ၁၁၆

OECD လမးညြနခကမားသည တာ၀နယေသာ စးပြားေရးလပငနးမား၏ စညးကမးပငး ဆငရာ အစတအပငး တစရပျဖစသည။

လမးညြနခကမားက ကမၸဏႀကးမား၏လကနာကင သးမႈသည တရား၀ငျဖစေသာလညး မျဖစမေန လကနာ ရမညအခကမားမဟတေပ။ အတငးအကပလပပငခြငမရ။

အစးရမ OECD ၏လမးညြနခကမားက ကမၸဏမားသ႔ ခမတေပးသည။ OECD၏ လမးညြနခကမားကႏငငေပါငး(၃၇)မလကနာသည။

အခနး ၆။ အပဒ ၃။ လာဘေပးမႈတကဖကေရး တြင ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈရေစရနအားေပးသည။ ျပညသမားပးေပါငးလာေစရန အားေပးသည။ ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖင ျပညသမားႏင ပြငလငး စြာညႇႏႈငးေဆြးေႏြးျခငးျဖင လာဘေပးမႈ တက ဖကေရးတြင ပးေပါငးလာ ေစႏငသည။

ျမနမာ၊ တရတႏင အႏၵယတ႔သည လမးညြနခကက လကနာျခငးမရေပ။ေတာငကးရးယားသည OECD အဖြ႔ ၀ငႏငငျဖစသည။

၉။ ကမၻာလးဆငရာ ထတျပနခက လမးညြနမား GRI ၁၁၈

GRI သညကမၻာလးဆငရာလပငနးစဥမားျဖစၿပး လြတလပေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးျဖစသည။အဓကရည ရြယခကမာ အစရငခထတျပနခကႏင ပတ သတသညလမးညြနခကမားထတျပနေပးရန ျဖစသည။

GRI ၏လမးညြနခကမားသည မျဖစမေန လကနာရ မည အခကမား မဟတေပ။

ကမၸဏႀကးမား၊ အစးရမဟတသည အဖြ႔အစညးမား

စးပြားေရးဆငရာ လပေဆာငခက အညြနးကနး မားႏင အခြနဘ႑ာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈတ႔ ပါ၀ငသည။

၁၀။အေကြတာ စညးမဥး စညးကမး (EPs) ၁၁၉

အေကြတာမသည မျဖစမေနလကနာရမည စ မား မဟတဘလမႈေရးႏငသဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ဆငရာ ေငြေၾကးေထာကပမႈမားကခန႔မနးျခငး၊ အကျဖတျခငးႏင စမခန႔ခြျခငး

မျဖစမေန လကနာရမည မမားမဟတေပ ဘဏမား၊ ေငြေၾကးအဖြ႔ အစညးမား

မအမတ (၁၀)။ ေငြေၾကး အစရငခစာႏင ပတသတ ေသာ အေကြတာမ EIPI - EIPI ၏ အဓက အခက သည အေကြတာမကအေကာငအထညေဖၚျခငး ႏင ရရလာသည အေတြ႔အႀကမားက ႏစစဥ အစရငချခငးတ႔ျဖစသည။

တငးတာမႈ ရညမနးခကပနးတင ဆႏၵျပျခငး (သ႔) စာခပစာတမး အဖြ႔၀ငျဖစႏငေျခ ဆကစပေသာဖြငဆခက (သ႔) မ သကဆငရာစာခပတြင ပါ၀ငသမား

44

လ႔အခြငအေရးႏငလၿခေရးဆငရာ ဆႏၵအေလာကလကနာရနလမးညြနခက ၁၂၀

ဆႏၵအေလာကလကနာရနလမးညြနခကသည ကမၸဏမားအား ၄ငးတ႔၏ စမကနးမားလပငနးစဥအတြငး လၿခေရးလပငနးမားက ထနးသနးလကနာျခငးျဖင လ႔အခြငအေရးႏင အေျခခလြတလပမႈက ေလးစားလကနာရနျဖစသည

မျဖစမေန လကနာရမည မမားမဟတေပ အစးရမား၊ ေကာပရတမားႏင အစးရမဟတေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးမား။

အပဒ (၅) တြင သတငးအခကအလကမား ဖလယျခငးႏင တကေသာသတငးအခကမားသည လၿခေရးႏငလ႔အခြငအေရးအတြက အေရးၾကးေၾကာငးေဖာျပထားသည။

Chevron Corporation

၁၁။ ႏငငတကာ ေငြေၾကးရပေငြအဖြ႔၏ ေငြေၾကးဆငရာ ပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈႏင ပတသကေသာ ကင၀တေကာငးမား၁၂၁

ဗဟဘဏႏင အျခားေသာေငြေၾကးဆငရာအဖြ႔အစညးမား၏ လပငနး ေဆာငရြကမႈ ေပၚလစ ႏင ပတသကေသာႏငငတကာေငြ ေၾကးရပေငြ အဖြ႔၏ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ ဆငရာ ကငထးမား

ေငြေၾကးႏငပတသကသညလကနာရမညကင၀တ မားက အမးသားဥပေဒ ျပေရးတြငထည သြငးထား ရမည။

ဗဟဘဏႏင ေငြေၾကးအဖြ႔အစညးမား

၁၂။ ေဟာငေကာင စေတာေစး ကြက (HKEx)၏ စညးကမး ၁၂၂

ေဟာငေကာငစေတာေစးကြကတြင အေရာငး အ၀ယျပလပလေသာ ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖင ကမၸဏႏငပတသကသညအေရးပါေသာအခကအလကမား ျဖစသည အခြနေပးေဆာငျခငး၊ သကဆငသမားသ႔ေပးေချခငး၊သကဆငရာ အစးရသ႔ေပးရသညအခြနအခမားကတငျပရသည။ ကမၸဏႏင ပတသကသည လမႈေရးႏင သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာကစၥရပမားက တငျပရသည။

ေဟာငေကာငစေတာေစးကြကတြင စာရငးေပါက သည ကမၸဏမားအတြက စာခပပါလကနာရမည စညးကမးမား။

ကမၸဏမား ေအာကပါအခကမားႏငဆကစပသညသတငးအခကအ လကမားကထတျပနျခငး(က) သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင၊ လမႈေရး၊ ကနးမာေရးႏင လျခမႈႏင ပတသကေသာ စြန႔စားရမႈ အေျခအေန(ခ) ရာေဖြေရးစမကနးႏင သဘာ၀အရငးအျမစႏင ပတသက ၍ ထခကနစနာေနသည အစးရမဟတ သည အဖြ႔အစညးမား(ဂ) တးေဖၚထတလပခြငျပသည ႏငင၏ ဥပေဒ လကနာမႈ၊ ထတျပနခကမား၊ ခြငျပခက၊ ၎ႏငငသ႔ ေပးေခရသည အခြန၊ ေျမငားရမးခ၊ အျခားေသာ ေပးေခရမႈမား(ဃ) နစနာေၾကး ႏငပတသကသည လေလာက ေသာ ရပေငြ ေထာကပေရး အစအစဥ၊ ျပနလညေနရာခထားျခငးႏင ေရႊ႕ ေျပာငး မႈႏငပတသက သည ေရရညအေျခအေန(င) စမကနးႏငပတသကသည သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ဆငရာ တာ၀န(စ) ကမၸဏ၏ အတတကာလ သကဆငရာႏငငမား၏ ဥပေဒ မားႏငပတသက၍ ေျဖရငးပ၊ လကနာကင သးပ၊ ႏငငအဆငႏင ေဒသဆငရာ စမခန႔ခြမႈ ကြျပားပ(ဆ) အတတကစမကနးမားႏငပတသကသည ေဒသဆငရာ အာဏာပင၊ ေဒသခမားႏင ေျဖရငးပ၊ ထတလပေရးဆငရာ ပငဆငမႈႏင အျခားေသာ စမခန႔ခြမႈဆငရာ အခက အလက မား(ဇ) စမကနးႏင ပတသကသည နယေျမအျငငးပြားမႈ (တငးရငးသားတ႔၏ ပငဆငမႈဆငရာ အျငငးပြားမႈ)

CNOOC is listed on the HKExCNPC Group

Dodd frank ေ၀ါလမးမ ျပျပငေျပာငး လေရးမၾကမး။ အေမရကန ကြနဂရက လႊတေတာ၏ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈဆငရာ ဥပေဒ။ (၂၀၁၂ ခႏစတြင သကေရာက မႈရမည)၁၂၃

လႊေျပာငးမႈႏင အာမခခက ေကာမရငတြင မတပတငေသာ ကမၸဏမားတြငသဘာ၀အရငး အျမစ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈျပဌာနးခက မားလအပသည။ အေမရကန အစးရသ႔ေပးရ သည ေငြပမာဏႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔၊ေရနႏင တြငးထြကမား အတြကႏငငျခားအစးရသ႔ေပးရ သညမားက အမားသေစရန အစရငခရသည။

အေမရကနႏင ႏငငျခား ေရန၊ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ႏင သတ တးေဖၚေရး ကမၸဏမားသည လႊေျပာငးမႈႏင အာမခခက ေကာမရငတြင တာ၀နခရသည။

ေရန၊ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ႏငသတ တးေဖၚေရး ကမၸဏမားသည လြ ေျပာငးမႈႏငအာမခခကေကာမရင တြင မတပတငရသည။

တြငးထြကထတယသမားအေန ျဖင ေပးေခရသည ေငြမားက ေဖၚျပထားရမည။ လကေအာက ခကမၸဏ (သ႔) လြတလပေသာ သဘာ၀အရငးအျမစ ထတလပသမားအေနျဖင ႏငငျခား အစးရမား (သ႔) အေမရကနအစးရမ စးပြားျဖစ ထတလပ ေသာ ေရန၊ သဘာဓါတေငြ႔(သ႔) တြငးထြက စမကနးတခစ အတြက ကနကမည ေငြပမာဏက ေဖၚျပရမည။

ေအာကေဖၚျပပါ ကမၸဏမားသည နယေယာက စေတာအပခနးတြင ရယယာမားေရာငးခခြငရသည။CNOOC (တရတ)CNPC (တရတ)Total (ျပငသစ)Chevron (အေမရကန)Essar Oil (အေမရကန)

45

လ႔အခြငအေရးႏငလၿခေရးဆငရာ ဆႏၵအေလာကလကနာရနလမးညြနခက ၁၂၀

ဆႏၵအေလာကလကနာရနလမးညြနခကသည ကမၸဏမားအား ၄ငးတ႔၏ စမကနးမားလပငနးစဥအတြငး လၿခေရးလပငနးမားက ထနးသနးလကနာျခငးျဖင လ႔အခြငအေရးႏင အေျခခလြတလပမႈက ေလးစားလကနာရနျဖစသည

မျဖစမေန လကနာရမည မမားမဟတေပ အစးရမား၊ ေကာပရတမားႏင အစးရမဟတေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးမား။

အပဒ (၅) တြင သတငးအခကအလကမား ဖလယျခငးႏင တကေသာသတငးအခကမားသည လၿခေရးႏငလ႔အခြငအေရးအတြက အေရးၾကးေၾကာငးေဖာျပထားသည။

Chevron Corporation

၁၁။ ႏငငတကာ ေငြေၾကးရပေငြအဖြ႔၏ ေငြေၾကးဆငရာ ပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈႏင ပတသကေသာ ကင၀တေကာငးမား၁၂၁

ဗဟဘဏႏင အျခားေသာေငြေၾကးဆငရာအဖြ႔အစညးမား၏ လပငနး ေဆာငရြကမႈ ေပၚလစ ႏင ပတသကေသာႏငငတကာေငြ ေၾကးရပေငြ အဖြ႔၏ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ ဆငရာ ကငထးမား

ေငြေၾကးႏငပတသကသညလကနာရမညကင၀တ မားက အမးသားဥပေဒ ျပေရးတြငထည သြငးထား ရမည။

ဗဟဘဏႏင ေငြေၾကးအဖြ႔အစညးမား

၁၂။ ေဟာငေကာင စေတာေစး ကြက (HKEx)၏ စညးကမး ၁၂၂

ေဟာငေကာငစေတာေစးကြကတြင အေရာငး အ၀ယျပလပလေသာ ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖင ကမၸဏႏငပတသကသညအေရးပါေသာအခကအလကမား ျဖစသည အခြနေပးေဆာငျခငး၊ သကဆငသမားသ႔ေပးေချခငး၊သကဆငရာ အစးရသ႔ေပးရသညအခြနအခမားကတငျပရသည။ ကမၸဏႏင ပတသကသည လမႈေရးႏင သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာကစၥရပမားက တငျပရသည။

ေဟာငေကာငစေတာေစးကြကတြင စာရငးေပါက သည ကမၸဏမားအတြက စာခပပါလကနာရမည စညးကမးမား။

ကမၸဏမား ေအာကပါအခကမားႏငဆကစပသညသတငးအခကအ လကမားကထတျပနျခငး(က) သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင၊ လမႈေရး၊ ကနးမာေရးႏင လျခမႈႏင ပတသကေသာ စြန႔စားရမႈ အေျခအေန(ခ) ရာေဖြေရးစမကနးႏင သဘာ၀အရငးအျမစႏင ပတသက ၍ ထခကနစနာေနသည အစးရမဟတ သည အဖြ႔အစညးမား(ဂ) တးေဖၚထတလပခြငျပသည ႏငင၏ ဥပေဒ လကနာမႈ၊ ထတျပနခကမား၊ ခြငျပခက၊ ၎ႏငငသ႔ ေပးေခရသည အခြန၊ ေျမငားရမးခ၊ အျခားေသာ ေပးေခရမႈမား(ဃ) နစနာေၾကး ႏငပတသကသည လေလာက ေသာ ရပေငြ ေထာကပေရး အစအစဥ၊ ျပနလညေနရာခထားျခငးႏင ေရႊ႕ ေျပာငး မႈႏငပတသက သည ေရရညအေျခအေန(င) စမကနးႏငပတသကသည သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ဆငရာ တာ၀န(စ) ကမၸဏ၏ အတတကာလ သကဆငရာႏငငမား၏ ဥပေဒ မားႏငပတသက၍ ေျဖရငးပ၊ လကနာကင သးပ၊ ႏငငအဆငႏင ေဒသဆငရာ စမခန႔ခြမႈ ကြျပားပ(ဆ) အတတကစမကနးမားႏငပတသကသည ေဒသဆငရာ အာဏာပင၊ ေဒသခမားႏင ေျဖရငးပ၊ ထတလပေရးဆငရာ ပငဆငမႈႏင အျခားေသာ စမခန႔ခြမႈဆငရာ အခက အလက မား(ဇ) စမကနးႏင ပတသကသည နယေျမအျငငးပြားမႈ (တငးရငးသားတ႔၏ ပငဆငမႈဆငရာ အျငငးပြားမႈ)

CNOOC is listed on the HKExCNPC Group

Dodd frank ေ၀ါလမးမ ျပျပငေျပာငး လေရးမၾကမး။ အေမရကန ကြနဂရက လႊတေတာ၏ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈဆငရာ ဥပေဒ။ (၂၀၁၂ ခႏစတြင သကေရာက မႈရမည)၁၂၃

လႊေျပာငးမႈႏင အာမခခက ေကာမရငတြင မတပတငေသာ ကမၸဏမားတြငသဘာ၀အရငး အျမစ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈျပဌာနးခက မားလအပသည။ အေမရကန အစးရသ႔ေပးရ သည ေငြပမာဏႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔၊ေရနႏင တြငးထြကမား အတြကႏငငျခားအစးရသ႔ေပးရ သညမားက အမားသေစရန အစရငခရသည။

အေမရကနႏင ႏငငျခား ေရန၊ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ႏင သတ တးေဖၚေရး ကမၸဏမားသည လႊေျပာငးမႈႏင အာမခခက ေကာမရငတြင တာ၀နခရသည။

ေရန၊ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ႏငသတ တးေဖၚေရး ကမၸဏမားသည လြ ေျပာငးမႈႏငအာမခခကေကာမရင တြင မတပတငရသည။

တြငးထြကထတယသမားအေန ျဖင ေပးေခရသည ေငြမားက ေဖၚျပထားရမည။ လကေအာက ခကမၸဏ (သ႔) လြတလပေသာ သဘာ၀အရငးအျမစ ထတလပသမားအေနျဖင ႏငငျခား အစးရမား (သ႔) အေမရကနအစးရမ စးပြားျဖစ ထတလပ ေသာ ေရန၊ သဘာဓါတေငြ႔(သ႔) တြငးထြက စမကနးတခစ အတြက ကနကမည ေငြပမာဏက ေဖၚျပရမည။

ေအာကေဖၚျပပါ ကမၸဏမားသည နယေယာက စေတာအပခနးတြင ရယယာမားေရာငးခခြငရသည။CNOOC (တရတ)CNPC (တရတ)Total (ျပငသစ)Chevron (အေမရကန)Essar Oil (အေမရကန)

46

ဇယား ၂။ ။ စာခပ ခပဆထားၿပး လကရလပကငေနေသာ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔လပကြကမား*

Operator Company Onshore Block Offshore Block Partner company (project shareholder)

China (13 blocks)

China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC)

IOR-4, IOR-3, AD-1,AD-6,AD-8

China National Offshore Oil Company (CNOOC)

C-1,C-2,M, A-4, M-10

Golden Aaron Pte. Ltd (Burma) China Huanqiu Contracting and Engineering Corporation (China)

EPI Holding Ltd (Hong Kong) RSF-10 Aye Myint Khine (Burma)

Tianjin New Highland MOGE-4 Suntac Co Ltd (Burma)

Sinopec D 100%

India (6 blocks)

Essar Oil L A-2 100%

ONGC Videsh AD-2, AD-3, AD-9

Jubilant India PSC-1 Parami Energy (Burma)

Thailand (7 blocks)

PTTEP PSC-G/EP-2, M-3, M-4, M-7, M-9, M-11

100%

Malaysia (8 blocks)

Petronas Carigali RSF-2/RSF-3 M-12, M-13, M-14 (Yetagun Project), MD-4, MD-5, MD-6

PTTEP (Thailand), MOGE (Burma), Nippon (Japan), UNOG (Singapore)

Rimbunan Retrogas Ltd M-1 IGE (Burma)

France (2 blocks)

Total (E&P) M-5, M-6 (Yadana Project)

Chevron (USA), PTTEP (Thailand), MOGE (Burma), NIPON (Japan)

South Korea (7 blocks)

Daewoo International (Shwe project- A1, A3), AD -7

KOGAS (Korea), ONGC Videsh (INDIA),GAIL (INDIA), MOGE (Burma)

KMDC A-5, A-7, M-15, M-16 Brilliant Oil Corporation Pte. Ltd., subsidiary company of SWE (Silver Wave Energy) (Singapore)

Russia (3 blocks)

Nobel Oil A, B-1, PSC-E 100%/ PSC-E: Alister (Russia)

Australia (1 block)

Danford Equities Corp.(Twinza Oil)

Yetagun East Block 100%

Canada (1 block)

Focus Energy MOGE-2 (S) 100%

Switzerland (1 block)

Geopetrol RSF-9 A-1 Construction

Vietnam (1 block)

PetroVietnam M-2 U Chit Khaing of Eden Group (Burma)

* Table based on MOGE oil and gas block map and media reports

47

ကမၸဏ အမည ႏငင အမည ျမနမာႏငငတြင လပကငေနသည လပငနးမား

UNGC* EITI** ႏငငတကာ ပြငလငး ျမငသာမႈအဖြ႔၏ အဆငသတမတခက

Daewoo International

ကးရးယား ေရႊသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနး မရ မရ N/A

CNPC တရတႏငင တရတ-ျမနမာ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ပက လငး စမကနး၊ ေရႊသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနး

မရ မရ နမ

ONGC Videsh အႏၵယ ေရႊဂတစစမကနး၊ တရတ-ျမနမာ ပကလငးတြငအစ ရယယာ ၈.၃၅ ရာခငႏႈနးပါ၀င

ရ မရ နမ

PTTEP ထငးနငင ရတနာ-ရတခြန ဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနး မရ မရ N/A

CNOOC တရတ ကမးလြန-ကနး တြငးေရနတးေဖၚ ေရးလပငနးငါးခတြငပါ၀င။

ရ မရ နမ

Total ျပငသစ ရတနာ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ စမကနးတြင ရငးႏးျမပႏ

ရ ရ အလယအလတ

Chevron အေမရကန ရတနာ သဘာ၀ဓါတ ေငြ႔သကတြငျမပႏ မရ ရ အလယအလတ

GAIL အႏၵယ ေရႊသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔သက။ တရတ-ျမနမာ သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ပကလငးတြင အစ ရယယာ ၄.၁၇ ရာခငႏႈနးပါ၀ငသည။

မရ မရ N/A

KOGAS ကးရးယား ေရႊသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနး မရ မရ N/A

Essar Oil အႏၵယ ကနးတြငးေရန၊သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ရာေဖြေရး လပကြကအမတ (L)

မရ မရ N/A

*UNGC: ကလသမဂၢ ကမၻာလးဆငရာ သေဘာတညခက** EITI: သယဇာတတးေဖၚေရးလပငနးမားပြငလငးျမငသာမႈႀကးပနးခက*** Transparency International Ranking: High performers disclose information systematically on a country-by-country basis, go beyond existing mandatory regulations applicable to them and have strengths in different areas of transparency. Middle performers mainly disclose information by geographical area and a few selected countries of operation. Low performers disclose only by region and provide almost no information relevant to revenue transparency.

ဇယား ၃။ ။ ျမနမာႏငင ေရနႏင သဘာဓါတေငြ႔တြင ရငးႏးျမပႏေနသည ကမၸဏတ႔၏ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ

Indonesia (3 blocks)

PT Istech Resources Asia EP-5 Smart Technical Services (Burma)

Goldpetrol MOGE-1, IOR-2 100%

Burma (2 blocks)

NGWE M-8 Zarubezhneft (Russia)

MPRL E&P MOGE-2 (N)

Singapore (1 block)

Silver Wave (owned by Burma’s corny Tay Za (General Manager Minn Minn Oung)

B-2 -

48

ေနာကဆကတြ

ျမနမာအစးရ၏ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔စမကနးမ (PSC) စာခပအရ ရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြ

ေအာကေဖၚျပပါ အခကအလကမားသည ျမနမာအစးရ၏ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ စမကနးမားမ ထတလပမႈ မ ခြေ၀ေပးေရး သေဘာတစာခပ (PSC) အရ ရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြႏငပတသကေသာ အေသးစတ အခက အလကမား ျဖစသည။ အသးျပေသာ အေထာကအထားမားသည အစးရႏငခပဆေသာ စာခပမားႏင အခ႕ေသာ တဆငခ အေထာက အထားမားက အသးျပထားျခငး ျဖစသည။ ေအာကေဖာျပပါ တြကခကမႈ မားတြင (၁) ေျမငားရမးခအတြက ရရသညေငြ (royalties) (၂) အစးရထည၀ငထားသည အစရယယာ အျမတအစြနး (government share of profit gas/petroleum) (၃)အစးရ၏ ပးေပါငးမႈမ ရရသညေငြ (government participation) (၄) လကမတေရးထးျခငးအပဆေၾကးေငြ (signature bonus) (၅) ထတလပ ႏငမႈ အေပၚတြင ရရသည အပဆေၾကး (production bonuses) (၆) အခြန (taxes) (၇) ၀နေဆာငမႈအတြက အခေၾကးေငြ (fee) တ႔ျဖစသည။ ေအာကပါအခကမားက ေလလာရာတြင သတထားရန အခကႏစခကရေပသည။ (၁) PSC စာခပအမး အစားသည ေဆြးေႏြးညႏႈငးမႈအေပၚတြင မတညျပး စမကနးတခႏငတခမတညႏငေပ။ (၂) ျမနမာႏငငတြင သတငးအခကအလကမားအား ကန႔သတထားမႈေၾကာင PSC ႏငပတသကေသာ လကရအေျခေနတြင သတငးအခကအလကမားက အကန႔အသတျဖငသာ ရရႏငသည။ ယခအခနးတြင ထတလပမႈမ ခြေ၀ေပး ေရးစာခပ (PSC) အမးအစား သးခႏင တျခားေသာတဆငခ အေထာကအထားမားက အသးျပကာ ျမနမာ အစး၏ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ရရသည ဘ႑ာေငြမားက တြကခကထားျခငးျဖစသည။ ေအာကေဖာျပ ခကမားသည ျမနမာအစးရ၏ ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ ဘ႑ာေငြအား သရလသမားမ သေတသနလပ သညအခါ သရရနလအပသည အခကမားက ဥပမာ အျဖစတငျပထားျခငးျဖစသည။ ျမနမာအစးရႏင ခပဆေသာ (PSC) စာခပမားသည ကြျပားႏငသည။

ေျမယာငားရမးခ (Royalty) အတြက ေပးရေသာ အဖးအချမနမာအစးရသည ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ေျမငားရမးခအျဖစ (၁၀) ရာခငႏႈနးရရမည ျဖစသည။ ေျမယာငား ရမးခအျဖစ ေငြသား သ႔မဟတ တျခားေသာ နညးလမးမားျဖင ႏစ၀ကေရာက ခနတြင ေပးေဆာငရသည။၁၂၄

အစးရ၏ ပးေပါငးပါ၀ငမႈ (government participation) ျမနမာအစးရပင ျမနမာေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ လပငနး (MOGE) သည ထတလပေသာ ကမၸဏမားထမ စမကနး၏အစရယယာ ၁၅ ရာခငႏႈနးက ေတာငးခပငခြငရသည။၁၂၅ ဤကသ႔ ေတာငးခပါက MOGE သည ကမၸဏမားသ႔ လကမတထးျခငးမရရသည အပဆေၾကးႏင ထတလပမႈမရရသည ဆေၾကးေငြ၏ ၁၅ ရာခငႏႈနးက ျပနလညေပးအပရမည။၁၂၆ လပကြကအမတ ေအဒ-၁ ႏင ေအဒ-၈ တ႔တြင ျမနမာေရနႏငစြမးအင လပငနး ဌာနသည ထတလပမႈ ခြေ၀ျခငးစာခပ (PSC) အရ အစရယယာ၏ ၂၀ ရာခငႏႈနးက ရယပငခြငရသည။ အကယ၍ ဓါတေငြ႔သက၏ ပမာဏသည ၅ ထရလယ ကဗေပ ထကမားေနပါက ၂၅ ရာခငႏႈနးအထ ေတာငးဆပငခြင ရသည။၁၂၇

အခြနေငြ (taxes)ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ထတလပမႈတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖင အစရယယာပါ၀ငမႈ အခးကက အေျခခကာ ျမနမာအစးရထသ႔ ၀ငေငြခြန ေပးေဆာငရသည။၁၂၈ ၀ငေငြခြန ကငးလြတခြင သးႏစရရၿပးေနာက အျမတေငြ၏ ၃၀ ရာခငႏႈနးက အခြနေပးေဆာငရသည။၁၂၉ သ႔ရာတြင လပကြက အမတ ေအဒ-၁ ႏင ေအဒ-၈ တ႔အတြက ၀ငေငြခြန ေပးေဆာငရမႈက ေဖာျပထားျခငးမရေပ။

၀နေဆာငမႈအတြက ရရေငြ (fee)၀နေဆာငခအတြက ျမနမာအစးရ ရရေငြမာ မတေသာ စခနျဖစသည။ ရာေဖြေနဆကာလတြင အကးတ ပးေပါငးထားေသာ ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖင သငတနးႏင နညးပညာအတြက ႏစစဥေဒၚလာ ၅၀၀၀၀ ေပးေဆာင ရသည။ တးေဖၚမႈအၿပး ထတလပမႈ စတငေသာအခနတြင သငတနးႏင နညးပညာေၾကးမာ ေဒၚလာ (၁) သနးအထ ျမငတကတးျမႇငထားသည။၁၃၀ အကးတပးေပါငးထားေသာ ကမၸဏမားအေနျဖင ျမနမာေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ လပငနးဌာနေအာကတြင သေတသန ႏငဖြ႕ၿဖးေရး ရပေငြက တညေထာငၿပး ကမၸဏမား၏ အျမတေငြ ၀.၅ ရာခငႏႈနးကသးခြင ရသည။၁၃၁

49

(အမးအစား) ခန႔မနးခကပမာဏ

ေျမယာငားရမးခ (Royalties) ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔မ ၁၀ ရာခငႏႈနးထ ရရႏငသည။

အစးရထည၀ငထားသည အစရယယာ အျမတအစြနး (government share of profit gas/petroleum)

အခကအလကမားေပၚတြငတညကာ ၄၀ ရာခငႏႈနးမ ၉၀ ရာခငႏႈနးထရ ရႏင သည။ ဥပမာ ထတလပမႈပမာဏ၊ ကမးလြနေရအတမအနက ပမာဏ၊ ေစးႏႈနး တြကခကမႈ တ႔ပါ၀ငသည။

အစးရ၏ ပးေပါငးမႈမ ရရသညေငြ (government participation)

အစးရသည ၁၅-၂၅ ရာခငႏႈနးအထ ရယယာပါႏငသည။

လကမတေရးထးျခငးအပဆေၾကးေငြ (Signature bonuses)

ညႏႈငးမႈအေပၚတြင မတညၿပး ေဒၚလာ ၂ သနးမ ၁၅ သနးထရႏငသည။

ထတလပႏငမႈ အေပၚတြင ရရသည အပဆေၾကး (production bonuses)

ထတလပမႈအတညျပျခငးမ စတငကာ ေဒၚလာ ၁ သနးထ ရရႏငၿပး ေန႔စဥ ထတလပမႈႏႈနးက အေျခခကာ ေဒၚလာ ၁၅ သနးအထ ရရႏငသည။

အခြနေငြ (taxes) အခြနသးႏစ ကငးလြတခြငရရၿပးေနာက အျမတေငြ၏ ၃၀ ရာခငႏႈနးက ရရႏငသည။*

၀နေဆာငမႈအတြက ရရေငြ (fee)

ရာေဖြေနစဥအတြငး သငတနးႏင နညးပညာေၾကး အတြက တႏစလင ေဒၚလာ ၅၀၀၀၀ ရရသည။ ထတလပေနစဥအတြငး သငတနးႏင နညးပညာေၾကး အတြက တႏစလင ေဒၚလာ ၁၀၀၀၀၀ ရရသည။ သေတသနႏင ဖြ႔ၿဖးေရး ရပေငြ အတြက အစရယယာ၏ ၀.၅ ရာခငႏႈနးရသည။

အထကပါေဖာျပပါ ကနးဂဏနးမားသည ၂၀၀၅ ခႏစတြင အစးရ အငတာနကစာမကမာတြင ေဖာျပထား ေသာ ကမးလြနတးေဖၚမႈမားအတြကျဖစသည။ ကနးတြငးထတလပမႈအတြက တႏစေပးေဆာငရေသာ ပမာဏမာ အတညျပခနတြင ေဒၚလာ ၂၅၀၀၀ ရၿပး စတငထတလပခနတြင ေဒၚလာ ၅၀၀၀၀ ရသည။၁၃၂

လကမတေရးထးျခငးအပဆေၾကးေငြ (Signature bonuses)ျမနမာႏငငတြင လကမတေရးထးျခငးမ ရရသည အပဆေၾကးသည (PSC)စာခပတြင စခနစညြနး အျဖစ ေဖၚျပထား ေသာလညး စမကနးတခခငးစ အတြကေဆြးေႏြး ညႏႈငးျခငးျဖစသည။၁၃၃ ေပါကၾကားထားေသာ PSC စာခပ သးခ အရ လကမတေရးထးျခငးမ အစးရ၏ Signature Bonus အတြက ရရသညပမာဏမာ ေဒၚလာသနး ၂ သနးမ ၁၅ သနး အထရသည။ လပကြကအမတ ေအဒ-၈ အတြက ေဒၚလာ ၂ သနးရရၿပး လပကြကအမတ ေအဒ-၁ အတြက ေဒၚလာ ၁၀ သနးရရကာ၊ ရတနာ လပကြကအတြက ေဒၚလာ ၁၅ သနးရရသည။၁၃၄

ထတလပႏငမႈအေပၚတြင ရရသည အပဆေၾကး (production bonuses)သရရေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားအရ ထတလပမႈအေပၚတြင ရရသည အပဆေၾကးေငြသည မတေသာ စခန ျဖစသည။ စမကနးလပငနး စတငထတလပျခငးက အသအမတျပၿပးသညႏင အစးရအား ေဒၚလာ (၁) သနး ေပးေဆာငရၿပး ထတလပမႈအဆင႔ဆငတြင အစးရအား အပဆေၾကးေငြမား ေပးေဆာငရသည။

အစးရထည၀ငထားသည အစရယယာ အျမတအစြနး (government share of profit gas/petroleum)ျမနမာအစးရအေနျဖင ေျမယာငားရမးခႏင စမကနးျပျပငအဖးခမားက ရယၿပးေနာက၊ အစးရသည ၾကြငးကနေသာအစ ရယယာသ႕မဟတ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔၏ အကးအျမတက ရယသည။ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔၏ အကး အျမတေငြမ အစးရ ရယမႈသည အျခားေသာ အခကအလကမားေပၚတြင မတညေနသည။ ၎တ႔မာ ေန႔စဥထတလပမႈ ပမာဏ၊ ေရျပငအတမအနကေပၚတြငရာေဖြမႈႏင ေစးႏႈနးတြကခကမႈမားျဖစသည။(၁၉၉၂) ခႏစတြင ရတခြန သဘာ၀ ဓါတေငြ႔သက ထတလပမႈမ ခြေ၀ယသည စနစသည ရႈပေထြးလေသာ တြကခကမႈ အေပၚတြင အေျခခထားသည။ ေရနႏင သဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔တငပ႔မႈအား သးလတၾကမ ေစးကြကေစးႏႈနးအေျပာငးအလေပၚတြင တြကခကယျခငးႏင တေန႔တာ ထတလပနငမႈ ႏႈနးထားအေပၚတြင ရယျခငးျဖစသည။ ရလဒမားက အေျခခကာ ျမနမာအစးရ၏ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔ ခြတမးသည (၄၀) ရာခငႏႈနးႏင (၉၀) ရာခငႏႈနးထရႏငသည။၁၃၅ (၂၀၀၇) ခႏစ တြင ခပဆေသာ (PSC) စာခပအရ လပကြက အမတ ေအဒ-၁၊ ေအဒ-၈ တြင ျမနမာအစးရ အကးအျမတရရမႈသည ကမးလြနပငလယေရျပင အနကႏင ေန႔စဥ ထတလပႏငမႈ အေပၚတြင အေျခခထားသည။၁၃၆ အစးရအေနျဖင ျပညတြငးသးစြရနအတြက ကမၸဏမားထမ ေရနႏငသဘာ၀ဓါတေငြ႔၏အျမတမားမ (၂၀) ခငႏႈနးအထကက (၁၀) ရာခငႏႈနး ေလာ႔ေစးျဖငရယႏငသည။၁၃၇

TABLE: Breakdown of government revenues

50

Revenue estimates on export of natural gas from the Shwe Gas project (USD)

Total Value of Available Gas = 37.53 billion 10% Royalties = 3.75 billionOperation and Construction Costs (Cost Gas) = 5.23 billionProfit Gas = 28.55 billion56% Burma Government share of Profit Gas = 16.27 billion44% Consortium share of Profit Gas = 12.28 billionDiscount for domestic gas = 246 millionConsortium share-discount = 12.03 billionMOGE take as consortium member = 1.80 billionAmount of Profit Gas to non-MOGE Consortium = 10.23 billionTaxes to Burma Government on non-MOGE Consortium Profit Gas = 2.76 billionFees for training and technology = 3 millionProduction bonuses = 6 millionPipeline Transit fee = 4.5 billion

Total sales revenue of available gas: US$ 37.53 billion (1.25 billion/year)

Burma Government revenues (w/out signing bonus) = US$ 29.09 billion (970 million/year)Burma Government in kind for domestic gas = US$ 7.26 bn (242 million/year)Cash profit for Burma Government: US$ 21.83 bn (728 million/year)

51

Revenue estimates on export of natural gas from the M9 block (USD):

Total Value of Available Gas = 9.91 billionBurma Government 10% Royalties = 991 millionOperation and Construction Costs (Cost Gas) = 3.28 billionProfit Gas = 6.63 billion56% Burma Government share of Profit Gas = 3.71 billion44% Consortium share of Profit Gas = 2.92 billionDiscount for domestic gas = 58 millionConsortium share-discount = 2.8596 billionMOGE take as consortium member = 429 millionAmount of Profit Gas to non-MOGE Consortium = 2.43 billionTaxes to Burma Government on non-MOGE Consortium Profit Gas = 642 millionFees for training and technology = 2.5 millionProduction bonuses = 6 million

Total sales revenue of available gas: US$ 9.91 billion (396 million/year)

Burma Government revenues (w/out signing bonus) = US$ 5.78 billion (231 million/year)Burma Government in kind for domestic gas = US$ 1.92 bn (77 million/year)Cash profit for Burma Government: US$ 3.86 bn (154 million/year)

52

Endnotes

1 U.S. Policy Recommendations to Combat Natural Resource Conflict and Corruption, submitted for the “Poorly Governed Resource Dependent States: Policy Options for the New Administration” Workshop, Stanford University, Global Witness, March 13, 2009.

2 The First Law of Petropolitics, Friedman, Thomas L., April 25, 2006.3 Dutch Disease: Too much wealth managed unwisely, Finance &

Development, Christine Ebrahim-Zadeh, March 2002.4 “We need EITI in Burma,” Burma Digest, December 23, 2006.5 Resource Abundance and Economic Development: Improving

the Performance of Resource-Rich Countries, Richard M. Auty, Research for Action 44, United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research, 1998.

6 “Natural Resources Now Burma’s Top Exports,” The Irrawaddy, June 4, 2007.

7 The Economy of Burma/Myanmar on the eve of the 2010 elections, United States Institute of Peace, 2010.

8 Invitation For Bids To Conduct Petroleum Operations in Myanmar Onshore Areas 2011, Ministry of Energy, July 2011 at http://www.myanmarembassy.com/documents/Invitation%20for%20Bids.pdf

9 The official agreement was signed between the China Development Bank Cooperation and Burma Foreign Investment Bank. http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/business/news/article_1605067.php/China-loans-Myanmar-2-4-billion-dollars-for-gas-pipeline-project

10 “Gas Deal signed in Burma”, The Nation, July 30, 2010. 11 “PTT seeks M9 Delivery Delay”, Bangkok Post, May 30, 2009.12 Burma’s Democratic Prospects After Elections, Thitinan Pongsudhirak,

Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University November 23, 201013 “India mulls further investment into Burmese energy sector,”

Mizzima, August 24, 2010. 14 http://in.reuters.com/article/2011/06/09/myanmar-investment-

idINL3E7H90ZW2011060915 “FDI jumps by more than half in July, says CSO,” Myanmar Times

October 18-24, 2010. 16 http://www.look4leaks.net/showCable.php?id=07RANGOON1069

&title=FRENCH+COMPANY+TO+CONTINUE+OIL+AND+GAS+OPERATIONS+IN+BURMA&lang=en

17 “Burmese Army on Internal Alert,” The Irrawaddy, May 22, 2009.18 http://www.earthrights.org/campaigns/burma-project/new-

report-oil-companies-fueling-nuclear-proliferation-burma-myanmar-complic

19 SPDC, State Peace and Development Council, the name of the military junta ruling Burma from 1990-2010 under General Than Shwe, Sean Turnell, May 12, 2009 at http://www.e-ir.info/?p=1266/Burma after Nargis

20 http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/may/04/burmasmissingbillions

53

21 Burma’s Economy 2008: Current Situation and Prospects for Reform, Sean Turnell, May 2008.

22 Natural Gas Revenue, Fiscal Balance, and Inflation in Myanmar, IDE Discussion Paper No. 225, March 2010, and Burma Economic Watch, May 2008.

23 Total Impact, EarthRights International, 2009.24 PSC on file with EarthRights International.25 PSC on file with author.26 http://www.asiapacificms.com/papers/pdf/burma_dprk_military_

cooperation.pdf27 Security analyst William Ashton in 2004 at http://www.irrawaddy.

org/article.php?art_id=4216&page=528 Take-off magazine, June 2011 (www.take-off-ru), http://yaleglobal.

yale.edu/content/trade-and-security-trump-democracy-burma-%E2%80%93-part-i

29 “Russia, Burma sign arms deal”, Mizzima, December 23, 2009.30 See www.energy.gov.mm/upstreampetroleumsubsector.htm. 31 Burmese Military Government: Crony Capitalists in Uniform, Virginia.

Review of Asian Studies 6 (2004): 27-41, Win Min, 2004.32 Ibid.33 The rumour among Burma’s business circles is that Burma’s military

leader Than Shwe and his right hand Lieutenant General Tin Aye, former Union of Myanmar Economic Holding Limited (UMEHL) chairperson, are the only two persons who have access and control over gas export revenues. See “Tin Aye: A Military Tycoon”, Irrawaddy News, December 25, 2009.

34 Sanctioning State-Owned Enterprises, Rangoon embassy cable , 2008-09-29 (wiki leaks)

35 The Tatmadaw in Myanmar since 1988: An Interim Assessment, Myoe Maung Aung, Working Paper No. 342. Canberra: Strategic and Defense Studies Centre, Australian National University. p.13, 1999.

36 Burmese Military Government: Crony Capitalists in Uniform, Virginia. Review of Asian Studies 6 (2004): 27-41, Win Min, 2004.

37 Many of the 38 businesses have sub-businesses, bringing the total number of UMEHL-affiliated firms to 74. Additionally, UMEHL has joint ventures with seven additional Burmese and foreign companies that are either under liquidation or temporarily closed. According to UMEHL’s FY07-08 Annual Report, 10 military officials sit on the Board of Directors and report to the Adjutant General, Major General Thura Myint Aung.

38 http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=2048839 “Tin Aye: A Military Tycoon,” Irrawaddy News, December 25, 2009. 40 Ibid.41 See http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/KH15Dg01.html42 See http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/19/opinion/19iht-edaung.

html. The article also stressed that Burma has worked for almost a decade to expand its production of missiles and chemical warheads.

43 “Burma Suspected of Nuclear Link with North Korea”, The Guardian,

54

July 21, 2009 and “Why Burma May be North Korea’s Best Friend”, Time, June 26, 2009.

44 http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/SEAsia/Story/STIStory_709631.html

45 “Burma Allocates 1/4 of New Budget to Military,” Associated Press, March 2, 2011.

46 “Health, education in line for increase,” Myanmar Times, February 6 - 12, 2012.

47 Maplecroft Rule of Law Index, February 2012.48 http://www.total.com/en/corporate-social-responsibility/Ethical-

Business-Principles/Financial-transparency; see also http://www.chevron.com/GlobalIssues/CorporateResponsibility/2006/socioeconomic/stakeholder_engagement/revenue_transparency.asp.

49 Websites and the annual reports of the companies have been consulted. Some companies did mention annual revenue payments, but not per country or region. See PTTEP Annual Report 2008 at: http://www.pttep.com/en/InvestorRelations_Presentation.aspx?CatID=1 and CNOOC Annual Report 2008 at: http://www.cnoocltd.com/encnoocltd/tzzgx/dqbd/nianbao/images/2009410578.pdf; ONGC Videsh Annual Report 2008-2009, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (2008) at sec. 4.3, 5.4, 5.12, 5.21 (Director’s Report) and Schedules 7 &26 (Profit and Loss Account). ONGC Videsh publishes financial information related to its investments in Burma, though thus far the information provided is in the form of general investment and exploration expenditures rather than revenue streams to Burma’s government. It should be noted that ONGC’s Burma projects are in the early stages of exploration and development and have likely not provided much revenue. Signing bonuses, however, are conspicuously missing from ONGC’s disclosures.

50 Report of Total in reaction to EarthRights International’s report Total Impact, September 2009. Total in Myanmar, update September 2009.

51 http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-01/myanmar-sees-west-easing-sanctions-soon-as-clinton-to-visit.html

52 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-1406908253 Peace Zones In Aceh A Prelude to De-militarisation, Pushpa Iyer,

Research Paper 3, April 2003 at http://icar.gmu.edu/Aceh_PZs.pdf54 Profits, and Peace: Does Business Have a Role in Peacemaking?, Jill

Shankleman & Joanne J. Myers, United States Institute of Peace, p. 45 March 2007.

55 Guide on Resource Revenue Transparency, International Monetary Fund, 2007.

56 Extractives Industry Transparency Initiative (EITI) Factsheet, 20 October 2009.

57 EITI Principles and Criteria. See http://www.eiti.org/eiti/principles.58 Energy Security: Security for Whom?, Matthew Smith & Naing Htoo,

Yale Human Rights & Development Law Journal, Volume 11, 1 January 2008.

55

59 See United Nations Convention Against Corruption, Chapter II, 2005.60 List of signatures and ratifications of UNCAC. See http://www.

unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CAC/signatories.html61 Natural Resource Charter. See http://www.naturalresourcecharter.org/62 See Sao Tome and Principe Model Oil Revenue Management Law,

Columbia University Oil Advisory Group, June 2004.63 See Division of Oil and Gas, Department of Natural Resources,

http://www.dog.dnr.state.ak.us/oil/index.htm. 64 Alaska Statute at sec. 38.05.180.65 The Constitution of the State of Alaska (1959) at sec. 15.66 Alaska Statutes at sec. 37.13.140 &37.13.145.67 Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation. See: http://www.apfc.org/

home/Content/dividend/dividend.cfm68 Alaska Statutes at sec. 37.13.040.69 Alaska Statutes at sec. 37.13.050.70 Alaska Statutes at sec. 37.13.170, see www.apfc.org.71 See http://omb.alaska.gov/. The comprehensive annual financial

report is published by the Division of Finance. 72 See http://dog.dnr.alaska.gov/ 73 Saving Ghana from its Oil: The Case for Direct Cash Distribution,

Todd Moss & Lauren Young, Center for Global Development, Working Paper 186, October 2009, Models and Policies for Oil Production, Revenue Collection, and Public Expenditure: Lessons in Iraq, Ariel Cohen, March 2004. Available at http://www.heritage.org/research/iraq/bg1730.cfm

74 The Alaska Permanent Fund: A Model of Resource Rents for Public Investment and Citizen Dividends, Allana Hartzok, Geophilos, a publication of the Land Research Trust, Spring 2002.

75 Norway Energy Profile, Energy Information Administration (last updated May 2009).

76 The Fund’s income consists of the cash flow from petroleum activities and the return on the Fund’s capital. The Management of the Government Pension Fund, available at http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Selected-topics/the-government-pension-fund/The-Management-Model.html?id=429362

77 Act no. 36 of 22 June 1990 relating to the Government Petroleum Fund [Petroleum Fund Act] at sec. 2.

78 Act no. 72, November 29, 1996 relating to petroleum activities [Petroleum Act] at sec. 1-1 &1-2.

79 Petroleum Fund Act at sec. 3.80 Regulation relating to the Management of the Government

Petroleum Fund at sec. 2, 3 October 1997.81 See Norges Bank at http://www.norges-bank.no/82 See The World Factbook: Brazil, Central Intelligence Agency (last

updated June 2009).83 See Country Brief: Brazil, World Bank (April 2009). 84 2008 (oil) and 2007 (gas) estimates. Brazil Country Profile, Energy

Information Administration (last updated May 2009).

56

85 These amount to amount ten percent of the production of oil or gas. Law No. 9478 of August 6, 1997, Article 47.

86 Analysis from Matteo Morgandi, Extractive Industries Revenue Distribution at the Sub-National Level: The experience in seven resource rich countries, Revenue Watch Institute (June 2008) at sec. 3.3. The distribution of revenues in Brazil is guided largely by the Law No. 7990 of 1989 and Law No 9478 of 1997.

87 Ownership and control of mineral resources: Can the Brazilian Model be used to douse resource control agitation in Nigeria’s oil producing states?, Madaki O. Ameh, available at http://www.dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/car/html/CAR10_ARTICLE37.PDF

88 Sunrise LNG in Timor-Leste: Dreams, Realities, and Challenges, La’o Hamutuk: Timor-Leste Institute for Reconstruction Monitoring and Analysis, February 2008, at Appendix 1.

89 Sunrise LNG in Timor-Leste at sec. 1.2. See also www.laohamutuk.org/econ/OGE12/OilRevenuesTotalDec2011En900.gif

90 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor (entry into force 20 May 2002) at art. 139.

91 Petroleum Taxation Act. See http://www.laohamutuk.org/Oil/PetRegime/Petrol%20tax%20law%20050705.pdf

92 Law No. 9/2005 of 3 August, Petroleum Fund Law (Aug. 2005).93 Ibid. at art. 6.94 These include the annual Estimated Sustainable Income (ESI), which

is prepared by the government. Transfers from the Fund should not exceed the ESI, although they have every year since 2008. Ibid. at arts. 8-10.

95 Ibid. at arts. 25-26. 96 https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/49322/9/05c

hapter04.pdf97 Id. at arts. 13 & 23. To date annual reports are published only on the

internet.98 Petroleum Fund of Timor Leste: Quarterly Report, Volume 7, Issue

XX, 31 December 2011. All these reports available from the Central Bank and at http://www.laohamutuk.org/Oil/PetFund/05PFIndex.htm

99 Irin News Asia, 16 July 2009.100 See Sunrise LNG in Timor-Leste and http://www.laohamutuk.org/

econ/OGE12/LHSubComCPNOJE2012En.pdf101 Asia Pacific: Timor Leste Tests Revenue Transparency, Ethical

Corporation, 26 July 2005.102 Preamble Petroleum Act, August 2005. See http://www.laohamutuk.

org/Oil/PetRegime/PetrolActPassedJul05En.pdf103 Strengthening Accountability and Transparency in Timor Leste,

Cheema et al, 2006 and http://www.laohamutuk.org/econ/corruption/11AnticorruptionLaw.htm

104 Petroleum Act, August 2005, at art. 7. See http://www.timor-leste.gov.tl/EMRD/LAP%20_ENG_%20-%20Vers%C3%A3o%20Final.pdf

105 Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. See http://eiti.org/TimorLeste

57

106 Several civil society groups suggested in the consultation of the draft Petroleum Fund Act to include such a provision.

107 The availability and accessibility of information is not systematic, civil society groups work to provide information where the government does not.

108 See http://www.timor-leste.gov.tl/EMRD/roadshow.htm109 http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=85299110 United Nations Global Compact. http://www.unglobalcompact.

org/111 United Nations Convention Against Corruption. See www.

unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CAC/index.html112 Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. See http://eiti.org/113 Guide on Resource Revenue Transparency. See www.imf.org/

external/np/pp/2007/eng/051507g.pdf114 Natural Resource Charter at http://www.naturalresourcecharter.

org/115 IPIECA Guidance on Voluntary Sustainability Reporting. See

http://www.ipieca.org/publication/oil-and-gas-industry-guidance-voluntary-sustainability-reporting

116 OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. http://www.oecd.org/department/0,3355,en_2649_34889_1_1_1_1_1,00.html

117 Transparency International’s Business Principles for Countering Bribery. See http://www.transparency.org/global_priorities/private_sector/business_principles

118 Global Reporting Initiative Guidelines. See http://w w w. g l o b a l r e p o r t i n g . o r g / R e p o r t i n g F r a m e w o r k /ReportingFrameworkDownloads/

119 Equator Principles. See http://www.equator-principles.com/120 Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights. http://www.

voluntaryprinciples.org/files/VPs_FactSheet_June2010_US.pdf121 IMF Code of Good Practices on Transparency in Monetary and

Financial Policies. See http://www.imf.org/external/np/mae/mft/code/index.htm

122 Hong Kong Stock Exchange to Require Greater Transparency. See http://www.revenuewatch.org/news/news-article/china/hong-kong-stock-exchange-require-greater-transparency

123 Senate Adopts Wall Street Reform Including Cardin-Lugar Provision to Increase Transparency and Attack Corruption. http://csce.gov/index.cfm?FuseAction=ContentRecords.ViewDetail&ContentRecord_id=928&ContentType=P&ContentRecordType=P

124 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 10.1 & 10.2; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 10.1 & 10.2; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 10.1 & 10.2; “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract”; Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

58

125 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 19.1; Memorandum of Understanding [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 5(b) “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract”; Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

126 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 19.6; Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contract In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

127 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 19.1 & 19.6; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 19.1 & 19.6.

128 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 9.11; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.11; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.11.

129 Memorandum of Understanding [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 4(c); Side Letter No. 3/23/92 (1620) to Memorandum of Understanding [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992); Union of Myanmar Foreign Investment Law (30 Nov. 1988) at sec. 21; Commercial Tax Law (SLORC Order No. 8/90, 31 Mar. 1990) at sec. 8; “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract” [addy].

130 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 15.2 & 15.3; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 15.2 & 15.3; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 15.2 & 15.3.

131 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 15.7; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 15.7; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 15.7.

132 “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract” [addy]; see also Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

133 Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

134 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 11.1; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 11.1; Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 11.1.

135 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 11.2 & 11.3; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 11.2 & 11.3. Similar bonuses, though with slightly different rates of production are included in the Yadana PSC and noted in secondary sources. See Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 19.1; “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract” [addy]; Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

136 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul 1992) at sec 9.7.137 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.7;

Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.7.

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138 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.7. See Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing

Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).139 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.7. Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 14.1;

Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 14.1; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 14.1; “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract

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Burma’sResouRce cuRseThe case for revenue transparency in the oil and gas sector

Burma’s Resource CurseThe case for revenue transparency in the oil and gas sector Published in March 2012

What is Arakan Oil Watch?Arakan Oil Watch (AOW) is an independent, community-based, non-governmental organization operating in Burma. Founded in 2006, the organization’s mission is to ensure that community rights, livelihoods, and environments are guaranteed and protected, and to monitor the activities of multinational oil and gas projects and their human rights, environmental, and financial impacts in Arakan State and the country of Burma. AOW is an active member of Oilwatch Southeast Asia, and networks with a variety of Burma-based organizations and international NGOs that monitor resource extraction and impact.

Contact:

Email: info@arakanoilwatch.org

Phone: +66 (0) 82 184 1335

www.arakanoilwatch.org

Executive Summary......................................................................................................................................4

What is a resource curse?.............................................................................................................................7

The oil and gas sector: Burma’s largest source of foreign income..................................................................7Map: Oil and gas exploration blocks................................................................................................................8Table: Burma’s gas export revenues................................................................................................................8Upcoming oil and gas exports..........................................................................................................................9Shwe gas export to China: 2013......................................................................................................................9Block M9 gas export to Thailand: 2013...........................................................................................................9Gas export to India in the near future...........................................................................................................10Foreign Direct Investment in the oil and gas sector.......................................................................................10Profit shares, signing bonuses, royalties, taxes and fees...............................................................................10

Burma’s revenue black hole........................................................................................................................11Where is the gas money?................................................................................................................................11

Revenue streams unknown.......................................................................................................................11Missing billions: dual exchange rates under-calculate revenue value.......................................................12Corruption.................................................................................................................................................12Pocket money: contracts and bonuses worth millions undisclosed.........................................................12

Gas money and military control....................................................................................................................13Gas revenues: A boon for weapons purchase and military build up..........................................................13Military enterprises controlling gas revenues?...........................................................................................14Burma’s arms dealer and links to North Korea..........................................................................................15

Winds of change?..........................................................................................................................................16Former military officers control key cabinet positions in new government.............................................16Budgetary process not transparent...........................................................................................................16Management of gas revenues and role of military enterprises remain opaque......................................17Budgetary autonomy of defense expenditures.........................................................................................17Tax exemption for military enterprises......................................................................................................17

No disclosure by investing companies..........................................................................................................18Lack of revenue sharing................................................................................................................................19

Exploitation of ethnic areas......................................................................................................................19Income gap and lack of spending on social development ........................................................................19Benefit sharing ends conflicts: Sudan and Aceh.......................................................................................20

Fighting the resource curse: revenue transparency ....................................................................................21International standards of revenue transparency.........................................................................................22Case Studies from oil and gas reach countries.............................................................................................24

Alaska, United States................................................................................................................................24Norway.....................................................................................................................................................26Brazil........................................................................................................................................................27Timor Leste..............................................................................................................................................28

Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................32Recommendations.....................................................................................................................................33Appendices................................................................................................................................................34Endnotes...................................................................................................................................................44

4

execuTive summaRy

Burma is rich in natural resources, particularly natural gas and oil. Yet instead of using these resources for the country’s development through industry and job growth, military leaders have been exporting them for over a decade. This has generated huge revenue flows, but a lack of transparency and mismanagement of these revenues has left Burma with some of the worse development indicators in the world, creating a resource curse.

Sales revenues of natural gas exports alone amounted to US$ 2.5 billion in 2010-11. It is estimated that this amount will increase by over 60% to US$ 4.1 billion starting from 2013 as three additional production blocks come on line. Further revenues will be generated from over 40 additional oil and gas blocks that are currently under exploration.

Despite this enormous wealth, Burma remains extremely poor and its people live with chronic energy shortages. It is a country crippled by corruption, with its major businesses controlled by military companies and cronies. Burma is censured for major human rights violations, and continues to suffer from a decades-old civil war between the ruling government and ethnic peoples. Due to Burma’s lack of protection laws, projects which extract and export natural resources have directly led to human rights abuses such as forced labor, land confiscation, rape and displacement, as well as severe environmental degradation. The projects also fuel armed conflict as government and ethnic troops clash in order to access and control project areas. The revenues from resource extraction projects have in turn helped prop up authoritarian rule and enrich top military generals.

The report analyzes the previous Than Shwe regime and new military-dominated government’s lack of transparency around oil

Photo Daewoo International

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and gas revenues, lack of an accountable system to manage revenue, corruption, and a lack of equitable benefit sharing of resource revenues. Although a new “civilian” government is now in place, under Burma’s new constitution, the military remains firmly outside the law and beyond civilian control. The role of military companies in Burma’s economy and in accessing and managing Burma’s massive oil and gas revenues remain unknown and unregulated. The government does not disclose how much it receives in gas revenues, or how those revenues are managed or spent. Foreign oil companies engaging in Burma’s oil and gas sector also refuse to publish how much and how they pay the military regime.

There is therefore an urgent need for Burma to manage oil and gas revenues with greater transparency and accountability as well as to reform its military-dominated economy to ensure that the benefits of the country’s resources are shared more equitably among its people and for the country’s sustainable development. If Burma prioritizes the protection of peoples and the environment in extraction projects and manages the revenues from the sale of its resources transparently, the country’s non-renewable resources can be used sustainably for the benefit of current and future generations, decreasing the pace and need to extract resources from additional areas.

Mechanisms and systems for public disclosure of money flows, independent revenue management and auditing, civil society input, and equal benefit sharing currently exist in international standards of revenue transparency and are put into practice in oil and gas producing countries around the world. This report provides key lessons from these countries that Burma can draw on to improve the management of its oil and gas revenues and work toward ending its resource curse.

Natural gas from the offshore Shwe fields (at left) will not benefit the over 90% of households in Arakan State that use wood for cooking fuel (above)

Photo AOW

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Oil, gas and minerals are a source of great wealth in resource-rich nations. The domestic use of such resources can spur the development of industries and contribute to better social conditions through energy production. On the other hand, the extraction and export of such resources can generate enormous revenues which, if used properly, could also be a catalyst for development in these nations. Unfortunately, however, many resource-rich countries are not benefiting from this wealth but instead are experiencing great poverty and unstable living conditions. This phenomenon is commonly known as the “resource curse” or “paradox of plenty.” The resource curse describes a situation where, instead of boosting a country, natural resource wealth actually leads to further corruption, repressive conditions, poverty and conflict.

Many countries that are rich in natural resources are badly governed. Revenues generated from the sale of resources are often stolen or squandered through corruption and a lack of government accountability.1 The authority of sitting governments or power structures within a country can therefore be maintained through the accumulation of resource revenues into the hands of a few. Consolidation of revenues by sitting governments, particularly those that rely on military means to maintain power, can exacerbate repressive conditions. There is a correlation between the rise and fall in the price of petroleum with the rise and fall in the protection of human rights in major oil-producing countries.2

A lack of accountability and corruption allows enormous financial opportunity for a select few at the expense of average persons,

Studies have shown that when governance is good in resource-rich countries, resources can generate large revenues to foster economic growth and reduce poverty. However, when governance is weak, they may instead cause poverty and conflict.4

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What is a resource curse?

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The folly of exportEvidence shows that between 1960 and 1990, per capita incomes in resource-deficient countries grew at rates two to three times faster than those of countries with a dominant export-driven non-renewable resources sector.5

Pipeline that will take gas to China being built in Shan State, Burma

intensifying the gap between rich and poor; this coupled with a resulting lack of effective social spending, leads to increased rates of poverty. The extraction and export of resources without investment in the domestic economy and human resources also contributes to long term poverty of a nation, particularly as most resources are non-renewable.

Natural resources can also provoke and prolong existing conflict due to a lack of equitable benefit sharing. Populations in the regions that produce resources must bear the costs of resource extraction – such as environmental damage, livelihood destruction, and pollution – but do not necessarily receive fair compensation and benefits from the resources – such as jobs or other forms of benefit sharing.

Another consequence of abundance of natural resources is Dutch Disease. This concept refers to the harmful consequences that arise when the income of a country drastically increases. This is usually due to the sale of natural resources but can also occur from any large inflow of foreign currency (such as development aid). The inflow of foreign currency increases the value of the national currency compared to other nations, creating serious repercussions on other segments of a country’s economy.3 For example, an too-rapid increase in a national currency’s value decreases the competitiveness of that country’s exports, causing declines in the manufacturing sector which can in turn create massive unemployment.

Photo tab

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Sales revenues from gas exports

2010 2013

US$2.5 billion

US$1.6 billion

Current annual gas revenues (fiscal year April-March)

Estimated upcoming gas revenues US $1.65 billion/year*

Yadana/Yetagun** Shwe Gas Block M9

2011-2012 US$ 2.94 billion US$ 1.25 billion(expected to begin selling in 2013)

US$ 0.4 billion(expected to begin selling in 2013)

2010-2011 US$ 2.52 billion

2009-2010 US$ 2.91 billion

2008-2009 US$ 2.38 billion

2007-2008 US$ 2.53 billion

2006-2007 US$ 2.03 billion

Newly discovered reserves

Current exports

Oil pipeline

Gas pipeline

Upcoming exports

Currently under exploration

Oil and gas fields: Money in the pipeline

Global Corruption Ranking 2011

180

180

182

182

Myanmar

Afghanistan

Korea (North)

Somalia

* ranked out of 183 countries worldwide

TABLE: Burma’s gas export revenues

US$2.5 billion

* See appendix for full calculations

** http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/NG-561.pdf. The figures for

2011-2012 fiscal year are until February 10 2012 and were published in Eleven News on February 22 2012.

Map by AOW

AD-6

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The oil and gas sector: Burma’s largest source of foreign income

Burma is considered one of Asia’s most resource rich countries and earns billions of dollars per year from the export of natural resources such as oil and gas, teak, gems, and minerals.6 Export of natural gas alone accounted for 45% of total exports in 2008 and is Burma’s single largest source of foreign income.7 Burma has been exporting gas to Thailand from the Yetagun and Yadana offshore blocks located in Mottama Gulf since 1998 and 2000 respectively. In 2008 BP ranked Burma as the largest gas exporter via pipeline in the Asia-Pacific with gas exports totalling 9.7 bcm in 2007, making it the 11th largest gas exporter in the world that same year.

Sales of gas amounted to US$ 2.5 billion in 2010-11 and it is estimated that this amount will increase by over 60% to US$ 4.1 billion in the coming years (see table on page 8). It is estimated that Burma’s government receives 70% of these amounts in the form of payments for gas, royalties, taxes, and bonuses.

With over 100 new onshore and offshore oil and gas blocks open for exploration, revenues have the potential to rise exponentially. Burma currently has 65 onshore blocks and 53 offshore blocks in total.8 More than 22 foreign oil companies are operating in 31 offshore blocks, while onshore, 13 contracts are active in 13 blocks with 11 foreign companies. Eighteen new onshore oil and gas blocks were opened for exploration in 2011.

Upcoming oil and gas exports

Shwe gas export to China: 2013Massive natural gas reserves of 4.5 trillion cubic feet (tcf) off Burma’s western Arakan State will be piped across the country and exported to China beginning in 2013. Sale of the gas will bring in an estimated US$29 billion over the next 30 years. In November 2010 China loaned Burma US$2.4 billion to speed up construction of dual pipelines to send the gas and oil transfers from Africa and the Middle East. See appendix for the full calculation.9 Terms of the loan were not publicly disclosed. In addition to loans for the project and payments for the gas, China will pay an annual transit fee of US$150 million to Burma’s military regime over 30 years, a total of US$4.5billion.

In conjunction with the Shwe gas and pipelines project, the development of a deep sea port and special economic zone to facilitate oil transfer to China and service foreign industries will bring in additional revenues; these will also not be managed transparently under current conditions.

Block M9 gas export to Thailand: 2013In July 2010 the Petroleum Authority of Thailand (PTT) signed a gas sales agreement (GSA) with the Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) to import gas from the Zawtika (M9) offshore block for a period of 30

cHaPTeR 2

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years. The Zawtika block has proven gas reserves of 1.4 tcf. Under the gas sales agreement, PTT will produce 300 mcf a day, of which 240 mcf will be sent to Thailand. The remaining 60 mcf will remain in Burma.10

PTT’s subsidiary PTTEP is the operator of the Zawtika block with 100% stakes. Scheduled to start production in 2013, Thailand will build a new 63 km pipeline along the existing Thai-Burma Yadana gas pipeline, infamous for its rights abuses, to transfer gas from the Zawtika field.11 More than 70% of Thai electricity generation is derived from natural gas, and nearly half of that is imported from the Yadana and Yetagun gas pipelines.12 Thailand’s PTTEP is also the sole operator of Blocks M-3, M-4, M-7, and M-11.

Gas export to India in the near futureIndia is planning to import gas from its offshore Block A-2 in Arakan State through an inland pipeline passing through Bangladesh. Operated by India’s Essar Group, the block has an estimated 13 trillion cubic feet (tcf) gas reserve. Essar also owns the onshore Block L located in Sittwe, which has an estimated recoverable reserve of 330 million barrels of oil equivalent.13 Indian companies are also exploring offshore Block A.

Foreign Direct Investments in oil and gas sectorRevenues are streaming into the country not only from the sale of natural resources, but in the form of foreign direct investment (FDI) funds. Since the opening of Burma to foreign investors in 1989, FDI has been directed almost exclusively toward the extraction of natural resources, especially in the oil and gas, hydropower and mining sectors. These funds are ostensibly for the development of infrastructure and facilities to enable the extraction and export of resources. According to official data, US$10.18 billion of FDI for 12 oil and gas projects accounted for more than half the country’s total FDI in the 2010/2011 fiscal year.14 As of May 2010, China invested US$8.173 billion into oil and gas, mining and two hydropower projects. China’s total investment in the period was recorded US$10.48 billion.15 Thailand follows in second place with US$2.49 billion total investment.

Profit shares, signing bonuses, royalties, taxes and fees The most common form of contract for the development of a natural gas or petroleum block by a foreign company in Burma is the production sharing contract (PSC). Under a PSC, the government continues to own the oil and natural gas, while sharing profits with a company or consortium of companies that conduct exploration, development, and production activities. The contract generally involves payment of a royalty to the government, bonuses to the government upon signing an agreement and reaching certain production levels, and sharing profits from the sale of the gas/petroleum with the government. Each signed PSC contract is therefore worth millions of dollars.

Pipeline to take Shwe gas to ChinaPhoto tab

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Burma’s Revenue Black Hole

Section 1: Where’s the gas money?

Although revenues from the export of natural gas are the largest source of foreign income in Burma, there has been no revenue transparency under both the previous Than Shwe regime and the current Thein Sein regime. How the government receives, manages, or uses oil and gas revenues is not publicly disclosed, the role that military enterprises play in revenue management and use remains unaccountable, and a total lack of benefit sharing is prolonging Burma’s resource curse.

Revenue streams unknownSince receiving its first payments for the export of gas in 2001 until today, both the military junta led by Than Shwe and the current Thein Sein regime have not disclosed how gas revenues enter the country or how they are managed. The gas money is not entered into public accounts or the national budget, so where is it? Most analysts speculate that payments are deposited into foreign bank accounts which are accessed by military generals for arms purchases and personal expenses.

For decades, Than Shwe’s military regime ruled Burma without any revenue transparency or accountability, never publishing where it keeps gas export revenues or how these revenues are managed. Until today, people of Burma, including most senior military officers, do not know where the gas revenues are and how they are managed.

According to a former official of the state-owned Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE), income from the sale of the Yadana gas never even enters Burma. The payments are disbursed by Thailand through a third party to bank accounts in foreign countries such as Singapore, Dubai, and China. Use of gas revenues for such purchases as military weapons, equipment, or personal items can be then directly transferred from the foreign banks to relevant countries and companies.

There have also been allegations that gas revenues are controlled by Burma’s military enterprises. Major Aung Linn Htut, a former intelligence officer who currently lives in the United States, has also written that payments for Burma’s gas exports to Thailand are not transferred to the Ministry of Finance and Revenue, but deposited in a bank account in an unknown foreign country which is run by the Union of Myanmar Economic Holding Limited (UMEHL), a military enterprise (see below).17 A 2009 investigative report uncovered that generals keep payments from the gas sales in two Singaporean banks (OCBC and DBS Group).18

One economic analyst explained in 2009 that “Burma currently receives between $1 and $2 billion a year from its sales of natural gas to Thailand, but these funds are kept far from the country’s public accounts. They are squirreled away offshore and in local banks accessible only to the top leadership of the SPDC.”19

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“Than Shwe and his crowd of generals are unwilling to use their significant revenues from oil and GAS sales to address Burma’s humanitarian problems. Instead, they buy arms or send their families on shopping trips to Singapore, while the vast majority faces an increasingly difficult struggle to survive.”16

12

Missing billions: dual exchange rates under-calculate revenue value

“As well as violating their own citizens’ human rights, Burma’s military rulers are robbing their people blind by hiding billions in energy revenues.”20

Gas revenues in Burma are recorded at the ‘official’ exchange rate of 6 kyat: US$1 while the market exchange rate ranges from 800-1,000 kyat: US$1, leaving billions of dollars worth of gas payments completely unaccounted for.21 Burma’s top military generals have therefore hidden billions of gas export dollars since 1998 due to the dual exchange rate system in Burma.22

Based on this exchange rate system, the military regime has hidden 99% of the Yadana gas exports from 2000 to 2008 (an estimated US$4.80 of US$ 4.83 billion). The unrecorded gas export revenue in the national budget from the Yadana project alone could build more than 200,000 schools for 30 million children.23

CorruptionThe secrecy and lack of accountability mechanisms around oil and gas revenues provides a perfect enabling environment for corruption. Burma was ranked 180 of 183 countries for corruption by Transparency International in 2011. According to the Wikileaks cables, in early 2009 military regime leader Than Shwe considered a US$ 1 billion bid to buy Manchester United FC, one of the most expensive football clubs in the world, yet where the General got the funds to consider such a bid is unknown.

Pocket money: contracts and bonuses worth millions undisclosedIn addition to the secrecy around and unknown whereabouts of revenues from the sale of natural gas, there is no public information on how much companies pay to the military regime as signature bonuses for each PSC contract to explore and produce oil and gas. Since 1988 Burma has signed over 40 such contracts, each worth millions of dollars. Yet how much, how, and to whom companies pay for these contracts, and how the revenues are utilized, are a complete secret.

According to a PSC contract between MOGE and Total of France, In 1992, Total Myanmar Exploration and Production paid US$15 million to the Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) for a PSC to explore the Yadana gas field.24 China’s CNPC paid US$10 million to MOGE as a signature bonus for exploration and production in block AD-1 and US$2 million for block AD-8 in 2007, three days after China vetoed a draft UN Security Council Resolution calling on Burma to cease military attacks against civilians in ethnic regions and start political dialogue.25

Visiting Chinese Vice President Xi Jin-ping (L) meets with Than Shwe, chair-man of Myanmar’s State Peace and Development Council, in Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar, Dec. 20, 2009. [Xinhua]

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Section 2: Gas monies and military control

Gas revenues: A boon for weapons purchase and military build upAlthough Burma has no external enemies, its Army has almost doubled since 1988, and with an estimated 492,000 soldiers, it is considered the largest in the region. Human rights abuses of civilians, including killing, torture and rape, are being committed by the Burma Army and continue today.

Revenues from the export of gas are the country’s biggest foreign income source and keep the armed forces equipped. Military purchases since gas revenues have started to flow include armored personnel carriers, tanks, fighter jets, aircraft, radar systems, surface-to-air missiles and short-range air-to-air missile systems.26 Following the production of gas from the Yadana fields in 1998 and the payment for the export of that gas to Thailand, the Than Shwe regime sped up military purchases, spending billions for weapons and equipment from China, Russia, India, Singapore, Pakistan, North Korea, Ukraine and Israel.27 Shortly after receiving the first payment of US$100 million for the Yadana gas, the Than Shwe regime purchased 12 MiG-29 aircraft at a cost of about US$ 130 million from Russia.28 In May, 2007, the Than Shwe regime also signed an agreement with Russia to build a 10-megawatt nuclear-research reactor in Burma. In 2009, while the Tripartite Core Group (UN, ASEAN, and Burma’s Junta) was seeking emergency funds of US$ 693 million for urgent humanitarian assistance for the more than 100,000 people affected by Cyclone Nargis, the military regime made a US$630 million purchase of twenty MiG-29 fighter jets and Mi-35 attack helicopters from Russia.29

MOGE: The state’s oil and gas enterprise

The 100% state-owned Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) is the only company authorized to partner with foreign companies for oil and gas exploration and production in Burma. As it is the company responsible for signing contracts worth millions of dollars with foreign companies, MOGE is one of the country’s biggest money-makers. The company is also responsible for undertaking initial domestic oil and gas exploration, and for constructing domestic pipelines, though these may be undertaken with a foreign partner.30 MOGE is under the Ministry of Energy which is currently ministered by U Than Htay, a former Brigadier General.

It appears that MOGE officially receives the revenues from the sale of oil and gas but the company does not disclose payments received or how the money is managed. According to available gas payment contracts until 2003 for the Yadana gas export to Thailand, MOGE kept gas payment dollars in a bank account in Singapore. Whether MOGE or military companies UMEHL and MEC manage this bank account is also unknown.

Military parade in the new capital which cost over US$200 million to build Photo Nic Dunlop

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Military enterprises controlling gas revenues?UMEHL, the Union of Myanmar Economic Holding Limited (known in Burmese as “U Pai”) is a military-run enterprise that manages the Armed Forces’ pension fund. Formed in 1990 by the military and run by military officials, UMEHL was the first military-run business enterprise after the crackdown on student uprisings in 1988.

The company is well known as a major arms dealer for the military regime as 40% of the company’s shares are owned by the Directorate of Procurement at the War Office and a major shareholder is the Ministry of Defence.31 The remaining 60% of shares are held by regional commands and active and retired military officers, in-service military personnel, 1,467 military units, 6,069 military personnel, and 89 veteran organization committees.32 As oil and gas revenues are the single largest income source for the regime, it is widely believed that UMEHL has access to these revenues for the purchase of weapons.33

In Burma the exploration, extraction, sale, and production of oil and natural gas, as well as other natural resources, are undertaken by State Owned Enterprises which are commonly chaired by active or former military generals. There are 46 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in Burma which provide revenues for the regime from the sale of timber, gems, oil and gas, and minerals. In 2007, according to the Burmese Business Investment Group, SOEs earned more than US$ 3 billion in profits.34 UMEHL, together with the Myanmar Economic Corporation (MEC), another military enterprise, have been involved in a majority of business activities in Burma for over twenty years in sectors ranging from gem production and garment factories to wood industries, food and beverages, supermarkets, banking, hotels and tourism, telecommunications, steel production, transportation, construction, the cement industry, automobiles, cosmetics, and trade.35 Many major foreign investments are channelled through UMEHL, which since 1999 has set up 50 joint ventures with foreign firms.36 UMEHL currently owns a total of 38 businesses and maintains interest in nine joint ventures with foreign companies.37

UMEHL has enjoyed the privilege of tax exemption since it was formed. In January 2011, Burma’s Internal Revenue Department announced a new law targeting companies that evade taxes. However, UMEHL and several other government enterprises remain exempt from this regulation and are not required to pay taxes.38

In this 2010 photo, Tin Aye, former Chairman of UMEHL (right), discusses cooperation with Chairman Chung Joon-yang of POSCO company (left), which recently bought control of Daewoo International of South Korea. Many foreign investments are channelled through the military enterprise.Photo er.asia.co.kr

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Burma’s arms dealer and links to North KoreaLieutenant General Tin Aye, chairperson of UMEHL from 2002-2010 and ranked Number 5 in Burma’s armed forces, has made official visits to China, North Korea, Russia and Ukraine to buy arms and military equipment. In 2008 he travelled with the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces to formalize military cooperation between Burma and North Korea.39 In early 2010 he was responsible for the purchase of 20 MiG-29 fighter jets from Russia.

Tin Aye retired from the military just before the military-dominated election in November 2010 to become the chairman of the Union Election Commission (EC). UMEHL is now formally chaired by Lieutenant General Khin Zaw Oo who is on England’s sanctions list and is reportedly loyal to General Than Shwe. Tin Aye remains an influential figure over the company.41

UMEHL has transferred money to North Korea’s Korea Kwangson Banking Corporation, blacklisted by the US Treasury Department, and identified as a prime suspect for expediting sales of arms to Burma and other countries.41 By 2010, with a huge revenue bonanza from sales of natural gas to Thailand, Burma was able to pay North Korean weapons experts that came to Burma posing as South Korean businessmen cash for missile technology.42 Burma is allegedly acquiring knowledge about nuclear weapons from North Korea and it has been reported that North Korean engineers assisted Burma’s military junta in building 600 to 800 underground tunnels and facilities beneath the new capital of Naypyidaw.43 According to a US diplomatic cable released by the anti-secrecy website WikiLeaks, UMEHL has exported rice and other agricultural commodities to North Korea in exchange for arms.44

Tin Aye, chairman of UMEHL and described by Chinese media as “chief of defense industries of Myanmar,” meets with Chinese Defense Minister Liang Guanglie in Beijing, China, in August 2008. Photo Xinhua

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Section 3: Winds of change?

Former military officers control key positions in new governmentFollowing Burma’s military-controlled elections in November 2010, a new parliament opened in March 2011. Former military officers, including President Thein Sein and 28 out of 35 high level cabinet ministers, control key positions in this new regime. All 28 former military officers resigned their military posts just weeks before the election.

Under the new government, Burma’s largest money-making sectors - energy, mining, and electricity - are ministered by former military generals. The Ministry of Finance and Revenue, critical in managing import and export revenues, is now ministered by U Hla Tun, head of the Finance and Revenue department under the Than Shwe regime.

The following laws and practices enacted since the election have cemented the military’s position, legalizing the advantages and protections that the armed forces and its companies enjoy.

Budgetary process is not transparentIn 2011 the national budget was publically disclosed for the first time in decades.45 The budget was enacted by the military before the new legislature opened its first session on January 31, giving the Parliament no oversight of expenditures.

In 2012, a budget drafted by the president was submitted to Parliament for some debate on allocation decisions, which was an improvement over the previous year. However, the source of budget revenues, including revenues from the sale of oil and gas, remain undisclosed. This makes it impossible to calculate whether all gas payments have been entered into the budget and, if so, at what exchange rate. This lack of transparency makes it impossible to allocate gas revenues for specific expenses, such as social spending. The budgetary process for state budgets also remains opaque.

Given the limited nature of debates within the Parliament thus far, how much genuine input into or control over budget allocation decisions MPs will have remains unclear. It must be remembered that 25% of seats in Parliament are held directly by military personnel and a further 58% are held by the military-backed USDP party. According to the Myanmar Times, the military will receive about US$2.3 billion in the 2012 budget, a 36% increase from the 2011 fiscal year.46

Leading members of Burma’s previous junta are in leading positions in the new government (left to right: Senior General Than Shwe, Vice Senior General Maung Aye, General Thura Shwe Mann (now speaker of the House) and General Thein Sein (now Prime Minister) in October 2007. Photo Reuters

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Management of gas revenues/role of military enterprises remain opaqueUnder the new regime, there continues to be no public information on which ministry manages and oversees the current gas export revenues from Thailand and how this process works. Whether gas revenues are managed by the Ministry of Finance and Revenue or whether gas accounts continue to be accessed by military enterprises such as UMEHL and MEC remains unknown.

In March 2011 a Public Accounts Committee was formed to “scrutinize the budget of the Union Government” yet it is uncertain how or if this committee will be able to manage oil and gas revenues. According to the laws and rules establishing the committee, proceedings of committee meetings should “not be leaked out” and meeting minutes “shall not be handed out.”

The public accounts committee is chaired by U Thurein Zaw of the military-backed USDP party; the Secretary U Maung Toe is also from USDP. U Thurein Zaw was the former Deputy Minister of National Planning and Economic Development under the Than Shwe regime and U Maung Toe is the retired managing director of the Myanmar Pearl Enterprise.

Budgetary autonomy of defense expenditures: The Special Fund LawOn January 27, 2011, just four days before the newly elected parliament opened, General Than Shwe enacted The Special Fund Law. This law established reserve funds which are to be allocated for “defending the Constitution and the State from external and internal threats.” According to the law, the commander of the Armed Forces has free rein to determine expenditures from the fund which cannot be audited:

“The Tatmadaw Commander-in-Chief is allowed to freely use the Special Fund in both local and foreign currencies for the expenditures incurred in carrying out the duties for non-disintegration of the Union, non-disintegration of the Solidarity of National Races, and the Perpetuation of State Sovereignty.”

Tax exemption for military enterprises On January 1, 2011 the “Withholding Tax” law came into effect. The law stipulates that all businesses, traders, NGOs and individuals with assets higher than 300,000 kyat (US $300), must pay taxes between 3 and 20 percent of their profits or earnings. According to the law, government enterprises and military owned companies are exempt from the law and are therefore not required to pay taxes.

The Special Fund: Untouchable“No individual person or organization is allowed to scrutinize or audit the usage of the Special Fund.”

25% of seats in Parliament are held directly by military personnel and a further 58% are held by the military-backed USDP party. Photo AFP

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Section 4: No disclosure by investing companies

Companies operating in Burma face significant financial, reputational and legal risks. According to a 2012 study on respect for the rule of law, Burma is rated Number 1 among 197 countries for “extreme risk” to investments, offering the least legal protection for foreign companies and investors and being least transparent in implementing policies and regulations.47

In addition, extraction projects are proceeding in active conflict zones and increasing foreign presence coupled with the lack of local benefits from such projects is contributing to rising local resentment, putting investments under threat of retaliatory attacks. For example in 2007 a group of local residents outraged at the confiscation of their land by a Chinese company exploring for oil in Arakan State entered the company’s facility and destroyed equipment on the site. The abuses associated with such projects have also led to lawsuits, consumer boycotts, and withdrawal of shareholders, ruining the reputation of investing companies.

Companies can reduce risks, safeguard their business, and attract more investors by adhering to international revenue transparency guidelines and corporate social responsibility standards. In turn, shareholders are more likely to invest in a company that operates in a country where revenue transparency is practiced rather than in corrupt nations such as Afghanistan, Somalia and Burma.

Despite this, a brief analysis of the 10 major oil and gas companies currently operating and/or investing in Burma’s oil and gas sector reveals that participation in international initiatives encouraging business transparency is extremely limited and only half are – or have major subsidiaries that are – listed on a major international stock exchange (see appendix). The majority of the companies are from Asia and relatively new to international exploration. Only two of the ten major companies operating in Burma have public disclosure policies. These are Chevron and Total, which have both publicly endorsed the EITI and pledged to implement its principles through country by country disclosure of revenue payments.48

With the exception of Total, none of the 10 companies provide detailed data on revenue payments to Burma’s government. Some companies publish revenue payments per region (South East-Asia or ‘others’) but do not disclose how much money is paid specifically to Burma’s government.49 After pressure to practice revenue transparency, Total published a portion of the revenues it paid to the Burma’s junta in 2008 (US$ 254 million).50

“Companies that make legitimate, but undisclosed, payments to governments may be accused of contributing to the conditions under which corruption can thrive. This is a significant business risk, making companies vulnerable to accusations of complicity in corrupt behaviour, impairing their local and global ‘licence to operate’, rendering them vulnerable to local conflict and insecurity, and possibly compromising their long-term commercial prospects in these markets.” (Investors’ Statement on Transparency in the Extractives Sector)

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Section 5: Lack of revenue sharing

“If Burma receives one kyat, you will also get one kyat”

Exploitation of ethnic areasBurma was born as an independent country in 1948 after being colonized by the Japanese and British. However, just one year after independence, civil war broke out between the new government and ethnic states. Denial of self autonomy and governance in ethnic regions was the major spark of the war. The famous slogan of General Aung San above became a rally call of the Karen revolution in 1949. This simple slogan encapsulates the root of conflict still today: the need for the equal sharing of resources and revenues. Decisions about the ownership and use of natural resources in ethnic areas – i.e. the equal sharing of benefits - remains a key reason for the continuation until today of armed conflict in Burma.

The majority of lucrative resources such as jade, timber, oil, gas, and hydropower potential, are found in the ethnic states of Burma and exported to neighboring countries. The revenues from the export of these resources are not shared back to the resource owner states. These states also do not receive compensatory social or environmental funds although they bear the burden of environmental destruction and human rights abuses that accompany the extraction and export of resources.

Income gap and lack of spending on social development Misuse of revenues, as well as pervasive corruption, have led to the elevation of the country’s military rulers – and those connected to them – while the economic situation of the majority of the country’s citizens continues to deteriorate. Burma’s 62 million people are among Asia’s poorest, earning an estimated $2.20 per day on average, about seven times less than the per capita income in neighboring Thailand, according to IMF statistics.51 High ranking officials in the military, their family members, and cronies are the richest people in the country, able to afford luxuries unimaginable to average citizens. In 2006, guests gave an estimated US $50 million in gifts to the dictator’s daughter at her lavish wedding ceremony that enraged ordinary citizens.

Shwe gas exported to China- Arakan State remains dark A campaign demanding 24-hour electricity in gas-producing Arakan State before any gas is exported highlights the continuing lack of equitable benefit sharing under Burma’s new government. The campaign group is highlighting the lack of electricity, high electricity prices in Arakan state, human rights abuses, environmental damage, and lack of revenue sharing from the Shwe gas project.

The project is expected to produce 500 million cubic feet (mcfd) of gas per day for 30 years. While 400 mcfd is planned for transport to China, the remaining 100 mcf is intended for domestic use. This remaining amount will be supplied to more than fifty factories owned by the government and military cronies including arms dealer Tay Za’s Htoo Cement Factory, drug lord Lo Hsing Han’s Asia World Cement Factory, Zaw Zaw’s IGE Cement Factory, and Aung Ko Win’s Kanbawza Cement Factory.

Photo AOW

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BenefiT sHaRing ends conflicTsSouth Sudan: Lessons for conflict-ridden BurmaBloody civil wars and conflict are common in resource rich countries around the world where there is unfair or no benefit sharing to the resource producing states and communities. The case of Sudan is such an example. Struggles for autonomy and a federalist system led to protracted civil war which eventually ended with the creation of the new nation of South Sudan on July 9, 2011.

While an estimated 75% of Sudan’s oil reserves are in the south, oil refineries and other oil infrastructure, along with the associated jobs, are located in the north. Resulting economic

disparities were one of the key issues driving the two-decade long civil war in Sudan. Under the Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005 which ended the conflict, the south was granted regional autonomy along with guaranteed representation in a national power-sharing government and provision of 50% of Sudan’s oil proceeds.52

A fair benefit sharing system can decrease, stop or prevent conflicts. Lack of benefit sharing with resource producing areas is one of the major reasons for Burma’s long standing civil war, it is crucial to ensure the resource rights of the producing region and/or communities.

One way to ensure that producing regions and communities are fairly compensated for the exploitation of their resources and the burdens of production is to allocate a share of oil and gas revenues directly for use in the producing region. A second option is to provide a share of revenues directly to the local communities whose lands are exploited and to ensure that they receive a percentage of jobs created by the project. However, this will prove difficult as extractive industries by nature create few jobs.

Aceh: Sharing oil and gas revenues key to ending armed struggleIndonesia is one of the most oil and gas rich countries in ASEAN, with the province of Aceh yielding significant oil and gas resources. Aceh was an independent sultanate that fought Dutch colonization for over one century but was made a special region of the Republic of Indonesia in 1949. The Acehnese demanded independence from Indonesia and their separatist movement quickly turned into an armed struggle that lasted over fifty years.

A peace agreement signed in 2005 between the Indonesian government and the Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (GAM) stipulated autonomy for Aceh state as well as sharing 70% of oil and gas revenues (as compared to 5% under the Suharto regime). This was a key demand of the GAM in finalizing the peace agreement.53

As the example of Aceh illustrates, ensuring equitable benefit sharing of oil and gas revenues can end conflicts and stabilize regions. It thus provides an important case for Burma to consider.

Sudan ended civil war with an agreement to share oil revenues equitably Photo AFP

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fighting the resource curse: revenue transparency

One way for countries to address the resource curse is by instituting accountable and transparent revenue management systems that ensure equitable benefit sharing. If citizens can freely access information about how much revenue is paid to a government, and how that revenue is used by the government, then there will be less opportunity for corruption and misuse and a higher potential for revenues to be used in a manner that benefits a broader spectrum of people. This builds on the experience in non-oil rich countries where the public dissemination of information about government resources and their allocation has reduced corruption and improved policies.54 In order to avoid the resource curse and create a sustainable economy, natural resource revenues must be used to improve the living conditions of citizens, protect the environment, and invest for the future.

Revenue transparency seeks to increase public knowledge of the scale and scope of revenues gained from extractive industries in order to reduce corruption and better manage revenues for equal benefit. This includes enhancing public information about the amount of money going to governments as well as of existing oversight systems. In a transparent system, host governments publish how much money they are receiving from companies for the sale of resources, companies publish how much they are paying, and home governments of companies regulate and enforce the disclosure of this information. Civil society, particularly media, plays a critical a role in revenue transparency initiatives by monitoring revenue flows and ensuring that information is publicly and widely available to all involved stakeholders.

If revenues are transparent and managed in accordance with an accountable management system, there is less opportunity for powerful interests to keep the money directly for themselves or to squander it as they wish. Instead, the country’s laws, citizens, and civil society should ensure that revenues from the sale of natural resources are used fairly for development, environmental protection, and for the benefit of current and future generations.

A system of benefit sharing for producing regions, affected communities, and future generations can address inequities caused by the extraction of resources, thus avoiding conflict and future impoverishment. For example, revenues from the sale of nonrenewable resources can be invested in special funds for sustainable development projects and/or disbursed to local populations.

Revenue transparency is important for the prevention of the resource curse. This chapter will outline global standards of revenue transparency and provide specific case studies from oil and gas producing countries.

cHaPTeR 4

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International standards of revenue transparency

International Monetary Fund (IMF) Guide on Resource Revenue TransparencyThe International Monetary Fund (IMF) has addressed the public financial implications of extractive industries in resource-rich countries by urging greater transparency and accountability for financial flows from extractive industries projects to government budgets. The IMF’s Guide on Resource Revenue Transparency, published in 2005 and updated in 2007, outlines best practices in four key areas: clarity of roles and responsibilities; public availability of information; open budget preparation, execution, and reporting; and assurances of integrity. Notably, the Guide argues for contract transparency in addition to revenue transparency. The International Monetary Fund specifies four elements of revenue transparency:55

1 Clarity of Roles and Responsibilities. This includes having a legal revenue management system, where there are specific laws that govern where revenues are deposited, who has access to them, and how they are spent.

2 Open Budget Process. Information about how resource revenues are spent and how they are used in the national budget should be open and clear.

3 Public Availability of Information. Information related to natural resource revenues should be available to the public. This includes the estimated value of reserves, the amount of money paid by companies to the government, how much of that money is kept and/or used by the government, contracts between the government and companies, and other relevant information.

4 Assurances of Integrity. Internationally-recognized systems of accounting systems should be used, and regular audits should be conducted and released to the public.

Burma is a member of the IMF but following the IMF’s Guide is not required of member governments

The EITI The most widely used global standards for revenue transparency are contained in the voluntary protocol Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), which currently has 30 Candidate and Compliant Countries from different parts of the world. The EITI promotes revenue transparency through monitoring and reconciling company payments and government revenues at the country level. The process is overseen by participants from the government, companies and civil society.56 As applied to states, the EITI Principles encourage several factors related to revenue transparency, including 1) the use of revenue wealth for sustainable growth; 2) public understanding and participation;

Burma is currently not following any international standards on revenue transparency

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3) greater financial transparency, management, and accountability; 4) and government accountability for extractive industry revenue streams and expenditures.

The criteria for meeting these principles include 1) regular publication of extractive industry revenues received by governments; 2) independent auditing of revenues and budgets, and 3) the active engagement of civil society.57

Thus far Burma has not shown any promising signs for participation in EITI58

UN Convention Against Corruption Anti-corruption standards are also relevant to revenue transparency, as transparency itself is aimed at stemming government corruption and misuse of funds. In addition to the anti-corruption principle directed towards businesses in the UNGC, states adhere to international anti-corruption standards through the UN Convention Against Corruption. The Convention contains rules for, among others, the implementation of state anti-corruption policies and regulating the conduct of public officials, including those who manage public funds.59

Though Burma signed the Convention in 2005, it is one of the few countries that has not yet become a party to the convention60

Natural Resource CharterAnother initiative to promote revenue transparency is the Natural Resource Charter, a set of economic principles for governments and societies on how to use the opportunities created by natural resources effectively. The Natural Resource Charter seeks to provide guidelines and standards to inform and improve natural resource management.

As an international convention still in the making, Burma has not signed on61

A Model Oil and Gas Revenue Management Law The Oil Revenue Management team of the Colombia University Consulting Group has outlined essential elements to oil and gas fund laws. These include:

1 Definition of the revenue streams included in general oil and gas revenues; 2 Instructions for deposit of oil and gas revenues;3 Restrictions on who can access revenues and how they are used;4 Detailed instructions for removing and using deposited funds;5 Sharing and distribution of oil and gas revenues with affected communities and owner states; 6 Public reporting on inflows received, expenditures and interest earned;7 Oversight, including independent auditing.62

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Case studies from oil and gas rich countries

Alaska, United States: Public information, oversight, and benefitThe State of Alaska, one of the most resource rich areas in the United States, receives considerable revenues from the sale of its oil and natural gas reserves. In April 2009 alone, Alaska produced 21 million barrels of oil and over 34 bcf of natural gas.63 Alaska receives revenues through proceeds from the direct leasing of its own lands for resource development, as well as revenue sharing arrangements with the United States national government.64

The Alaska state constitution claims common heritage rights of ownership of oil and other minerals for the people of the state as a whole and establishes a permanent fund for oil and natural gas revenues. At least 25% of the revenues received by the State of Alaska are deposited into the Alaska Permanent Fund, which is then invested.65 Natural resource revenues that are not deposited into the Fund are used in the state budget. Investment money from the Fund is either used in Alaska’s budget or divided equally among its citizens in an annual dividend payment.66

From 1982 through 2009, the dividend program paid out about $17.5 billion to Alaskans through the annual distribution of dividend checks (in 2008 each individual received roughly US$2,000). Dividends represent an important source of income for some Alaskans, particularly those in rural Alaska and have a significant impact on the state’s economy.67

A quasi-state body, the Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation, manages the fund.68 It is overseen by a Board of Trustees, which consists of 2 members from government and 4 persons from the public.69 Each year, the Board must produce and publish a report with information about the fund’s holdings, activities, and audits; annual holdings must also be published in the media and made available on the Corporation’s website.70 Anyone can email questions and receive a direct reply from a knowledgeable Fund trustee or employee.

General information regarding oil and natural gas reserves, budgets, the use of revenues, and block development and production is also made available to the public. Alaska’s Office of Management and Budget publishes budget information on its website, along with a comprehensive annual finance report and revenue forecasts.71 Monthly oil and gas production rates and royalty revenues are published on the homepage of the Division of Oil and Gas of the Alaska Department of Natural Resources. The website also publishes information regarding the development of individual reserves.72

Residents of the state of Alaska in the United States receive dividends from oil revenues Photo Rolf Hicks

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Although Alaska publishes fairly comprehensive information regarding its oil and gas revenues, finding that information can be challenging because it is published in many different places. For example, to find royalty payments one must go to the Department of Natural Resources, but for total revenues one must contact the Office of Management and Budget. Nevertheless, there is a strong citizen interest in the Fund’s operation and investment activities. The Alaskan model of a public dividend fund based on oil revenues is gaining popularity in several countries such as Iraq and Ghana, which are exploring revenue management models.73

Lessons for BurmaAlthough all information on revenues is not available in one place, the Alaska Permanent Fund is a well-managed, transparent and democratic institution. The Alaskan model is a fair and effective way to secure wealth benefits for the people as a whole, which could be replicated in Burma.74

The cornerstone of revenue transparency is the publication and accessibility of revenue payments and budgetary information (such projected revenues, payments received, the holdings of national oil accounts, and national budgets) to the public in multiple fora. This could include the internet or newspapers; ideally a public information office would ensure that relevant timely information is accessible. Particularly for Burma, publishing information in multiple languages for the general public as well as affected communities is also critical.

When considering methods to ensure revenue transparency in Burma, the option of creating a public information office should be explored. The office would gather information related to revenues from all the different government agencies and departments and then publish it in one central location. The information should be easily obtainable by the public and available in physical form as well, thus lessening confusion over an already complex topic.

Another important component of revenue transparency is oversight. In addition to regular, publicly available auditing, different bodies should be responsible for overseeing different aspects of revenue management. For example, the legislature may be responsible for overseeing the use of oil and gas revenues, while a body comprised of government and civil society representatives may be in charge of reviewing audit reports and advising the legislature on spending priorities.

Whatever the ultimate makeup, it is important for Burma to consider oversight, particularly independent auditing, as an indispensable component of any revenue management plan.

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Norway:Revenue management system & national oil account

A developed country with health, education, and welfare indicators consistently among the world’s best, Norway depends largely on subsea oil and natural gas reserves. It is the world’s third-largest exporter of oil, with estimated reserves of nearly 7 billion barrels as of 2008. Similarly, Norway is among the world’s top ten natural gas producers, with estimated 2008 reserves of 82 tcf.75

Worried about long-term economic stability once its petroleum reserves are exhausted, Norway created a separate savings fund for oil and natural gas revenues in 1990. Under its national laws, all revenues76 from the sale of Norway’s substantial petroleum reserves are placed into the national petroleum fund, also known as the Norwegian Pension Fund.77 The state, which owns all subsea petroleum deposits, is obligated to manage its resources “in a long-term perspective for the benefit of the Norwegian society as a whole.”78 The purpose of the petroleum Fund is to provide a long-term budgetary cushion, with conservative investments increasing the value of the Fund’s holdings. When Norway’s resources are depleted, the Fund will provide the financing necessary for the economy to transition to new sources of revenue.

In order to safeguard the use of the Petroleum Fund, several restrictions are placed on the use and management of the Fund. Money from the Fund may only be transferred to the government budget by order of the Parliament; it may not be used for credit or for the private sector.79 Norges Bank is responsible for managing the Fund, which is carried out by a separate unit of the Bank.80 Regular reports detailing the Fund’s holdings, deposits, and investments are provided to the Ministry of Finance and published for the public.81

Lesson for BurmaIn Burma, a national oil account could help provide the same financial security sought by Norway. It is not necessary for all revenues to be placed into a savings account but some sort of national fund should be considered in order to ensure longer-term economic stability and to save for future generations.

Today there are 48 fields in produc-tion on the Norwegian Continental Shelf

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Brazil: Revenue shares for producing regions and environmental protection

Brazil gained independence in the early 19th century after centuries as a Portuguese colony. Following further decades of political upheaval, the country’s last military regime ended in 1985.82 Though Brazil still struggles to overcome income inequality and to maintain sustained economic growth, in recent years the country has managed to expand social services and improve several key development indicators in the fields of health, education, and welfare.83 Oil reserves of 12 billion barrels and natural gas reserves of over 10 tcf84 form a comparatively small portion of Brazil’s national economy, which has strong agriculture and industry sectors.

While the central government earns oil and gas revenues largely from taxes on oil companies and profits of state-owned Petrobras, producing regions are allocated a share of royalties and so-called “special participations” or extra royalties on higher yielding fields.85 Under Brazil’s legal revenue management framework, producing states receive approximately 50% of royalties and 40% of special participations, while producing municipalities receive approximately 17% of royalties and 10% of special participations. A share of the royalties is also allotted to all municipalities within the producing state. Brazil’s Ministry of the Environment receives 10% of special participations for environmental mitigation. Private landowners are also provided a small royalty rate.86

Lesson for BurmaThe Brazilian example of sharing/distributing oil and gas revenues among national, state and municipal entities as well as between producing and non-producing regions could be applied to Burma. One main difference is in amount of government revenues derived from oil and gas. In Brazil, oil and gas revenues account for less than four percent of the country’s GDP, whereas in Burma oil and gas accounts for most of the government’s revenue. The distribution of revenue in Brazil does not generate the sort of controversy it would do in Burma.87

Brazil shares oil and gas revenues with states and municipalities

People of Rio in Brazil protest to keep gas revenues for the benefit of their state Photo Bloomberg

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Timor Leste:Revenues used for social development and environmental protection

After a turbulent history of colonization and occupation by Portugal, Japan, and Indonesia, Timor Leste, previously known as East Timor, became an independent state in 2002. Though nearly all of the country’s infrastructure was destroyed by departing Indonesian forces in 1999, the resource rich country has worked to rebuild and to establish a working democracy. Part of this challenge includes decisions over the use and development of Timor Leste’s considerable natural gas and oil resources.

Timor Leste boasts estimated natural gas reserves of around 10 tcf and estimated oil reserves of 959 million barrels (though approximately 40% may be taken by other countries under treaties and agreements).88 Thus far, the country’s largest reserve is the Greater Sunrise natural gas field, which is roughly comparable in size to Burma’s Shwe reserves. The offshore gas field is located within the Joint Petroleum Development Area, which is shared by Timor Leste and Australia according to the 2002 Timor Sea Treaty. While revenues from the Greater Sunrise gas are to be shared with Australia, Timor Leste will receive an estimated 10 to 16 billion USD over several decades.89

Three main legislative devices have been instituted to ensure the management of resource revenues in Timor Leste: the Petroleum Mining Code, the Petroleum Tax Law and the Petroleum Fund Law. The Petroleum Mining Code for the Joint Petroleum Development Area grants ownership of natural resources to the state, while declaring that they should be “used in a fair and equitable manner in accordance with national interests.” This includes creating “mandatory financial reserves” as well as environmental preservation.90

The Petroleum Tax Act sets out a specific taxation regime for petroleum activities in Timor Leste. The purpose is to provide maximum social economic benefit to Timor Leste and its people from petroleum resources.91 Although this law has been established, enforcement is equally important as oil companies may not pay their taxes in full.

The structure to manage the financial reserves mandated by the constitution was created in 2005 by the Petroleum Fund Law.92 The Law’s preamble emphasizes both the objective of benefiting future, as well as current, generations and the goal of transparent management. Revenues from the development and sale of natural resources are to be deposited into the Petroleum Fund,93 and money from the Fund is to be transferred only for use in the state budget, subject to yearly limits.94 Advice on the use of the Fund is provided by the Petroleum Fund Consultative Council, which contains representatives from civil society.95 Before the Petroleum Fund Act was promulgated in 2005, several public consultations were held, reaching thousands of Timor

oil and gas drilling in Timor’s sea

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Leste’s 950,000 people.96 Quarterly and annual reports on the Fund, including deposits, withdrawals, and investments, are to be provided to the government and published for public access.97 As of the end of 2011, the balance of the Fund was 9.32 billion USD.98

Although Timor Leste has enacted official standards, the country still faces difficulties in applying its resource wealth to promote the lives of its peoples. Health, education, and economic indicators still need much improvement. As an extractive industry, the oil sector provides very few jobs and petroleum revenues have yet to contribute to job creation. An estimated 20 percent of the country’s 1.1 million inhabitants and half the men aged between 20 and 24 in Timor Leste’s largest city Dili are unemployed.99 Several civil society groups recommend developing the country’s key governance and infrastructure and focusing on developing human resources and agriculture for several more years before moving forward with large scale natural resource development.100

Timor Leste: Information disclosure and anti-corruption measuresAll agreements between Timor-Leste’s government and mining companies are not separately negotiated. Signature bonuses are forbidden. All royalties and other payments are published and are held in a separate fund, and are therefore not part of the national budget for possible political spending purposes. Withdrawals of any funds by government administrators are enforced by stringent legislative checks.101

Timor Leste has also included several further provisions related to transparency and the publication of information in its national laws and practices. Though lacking a concrete definition, transparency is recognized as a fundamental principle in the 2005 Petroleum Act.102 The former Prime Minister, Mari Alkatiri, placed particular emphasis on this objective and there have been several additional initiatives to prevent corruption.103 In an attempt to promote transparency and discourage corruption, the laws of Timor Leste prohibit public officers (including members of parliament and parliamentarians) and their immediate families from holding interests in exploitable petroleum reserves.104

Timor Leste became an EITI Candidate Country in 2007 and was accepted as an EITI compliant country on 1 July 2010.105 However, the Petroleum Fund Law does not provide any legal requirement for companies to publish their payments, despite suggestions of civil society groups.106 In addition to the EITI workplan, several documents regarding oil revenues and contracts are provided on the websites of government ministries in multiple languages.107 The previous government also gave information sessions to local communities through road shows, where they provide explanations about oil revenues and questions are answered.108

Students at the East Timor National University protest against the purchase of luxury cars for each National Parliament member

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Original framework for ensuring good governance of Timor Leste’s oil revenues

Despite the political difficulty of setting aside savings in the face of Timor-Leste’s many development needs, Timor-Leste’s first leaders demonstrated commitment to ensuring the sustainability of revenue use for future generations and took several important steps to promote prudent management of the country’s natural resource revenues.

In 2005 the Parliament passed the Petroleum Act, the Petroleum Taxation Act, and, unanimously, the Petroleum Fund Act. These laws provide the essential framework for petroleum production and the management of revenues consistent with international good practice:

a) All petroleum revenues and returns on investment will be deposited in the Petroleum Fund and saved for future generations, keeping with the principle of intergenerational equity. The Petroleum Fund was established in September 2005, with USD 204.6 million of royalties accumulated since 2000, and has since grown to $9.3 billion. Government planned to use only sustainable income in order to preserve the real value of petroleum wealth by spreading expenditures over an infinite time horizon, safeguarding a sustainable budget in perpetuity. However since the new government in 2008, budgets have been overspent.

b) Expenditures from the Fund will be integrated into the budget process. Transfers from the Fund can only be made to a designated Government account, and total transfers in a fiscal year cannot exceed a ceiling set by Parliament as part of the approval of the regular budget. Expenditures are executed through the Treasury and recorded as part of the Government’s consolidated reporting. Revenue and expenditure figures are publicly available, and the Budget Law and regular external audits are intended to guard against the misappropriation of funds.

c) Assets are managed prudently in safe, offshore investments sheltered from domestic economic risks. While the Ministry of Planning and Finance has overall responsibility, operational management falls under the Banking and Payments Authority (BPA). Professional investment managers oversee investments made by the Fund. An Investment Advisory Board was set up in late 2005 to advise the Government on Fund investments.

d) Governance mechanisms have been put in place to ensure transparency and accountability, including the timely publication of quarterly reports and annual financial statements. An independent Consultative Council is nominated by the Parliament to advise it on matters related to the Fund, although there is no requirement for Parliament to follow the Council’s recommendations. Independent external audits are carried out by an internationally recognized accounting firm, and audit reports are adapted into a format accessible to the public. The Government launched a website to publicize the legal regime, transparency arrangements, and financial reports; keeping these information portals updated and maintained is essential.

e) Recognizing the importance of citizen understanding of the savings regime and governance measures, Government undertook a series of public consultations throughout the country on the Petroleum Fund. Parliament also held a number of seminars for its members on the legal regime and the transparent and sustainable management of the country’s petroleum resources.

f) Timor Leste became an EITI compliant country in 2010.

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The government is also obligated to make several items publicly available upon request, including: 1) details about exploitable reserves and development plans; 2) details of operations in areas covered under the Timor Sea Treaty; 3) reports of company compliance with relevant laws; and 4) reports on payments made regarding petroleum operations.109

Lessons for BurmaDespite the challenges, Timor Leste’s efforts at transparent revenue management are instructive for Burma. Timor Leste and Burma have many things in common: a long history of oppression, conflict and corruption, they are amongst the least developed countries on the UNDP Human Development Index, and hold vast reserves of oil and gas which could be a curse instead of a blessing for its people.

After years of occupation, Timor Leste is working to rebuild its infrastructure and societal structures, and has shown that revenue transparency can be a key goal even as a country recovers from years of war and struggles to create a sustainable democracy. The country created a legal revenue management system and national oil account only three years after its independence. Timor Leste has also worked to improve transparency and oversight, using the EITI as a benchmark. This shows that a country like Burma can begin to implement transparent revenue management even through its early struggles.

Timor-Leste is a young country still establishing working systems of revenue transparency. The ultimate success will depend on a well-functioning public expenditure management system, on the effectiveness of all the checks and balances set out in the Constitution and on the ability of Timor Leste to prevent its politicians from subverting the existing framework.

A major lesson from Timor-Leste is that it was relatively easy to pass good legislation and set up good processes before large oil revenues started coming in. However, once billions of dollars from oil sales started to flow in to the country, the temptation to undercut these processes and overspend the money was too great for many politicians to resist. This highlights the critical importance of implementing a good revenue transparency system quickly to avoid unsustainable spending of oil and gas revenues.

Timor Leste’s example of an implementing legislature, becoming a member of EITI, and consulting civil society in the process of building a revenue transparency system are all good practices that could be modelled in Burma. Yet Burma should also learn from Timor Leste’s pitfalls in putting the revenue management system into practice in order to avoid similar problems.

The adjacent box describes how Timor Leste implemented its revenue management system. This step-by-step list can serve as an example of what steps Burma can undertake toward a well-functioning revenue transparency management system.

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Conclusion

Although Burma is rich in oil and gas, military leaders have been exporting these resources for over a decade, leaving the people to suffer from chronic energy shortages and some of the lowest development indicators in the world.

How revenues from the sale of gas resources are spent is not known, yet it is clear that government spending for social development is paltry while the military continues to expand. Inequitable sharing of resource benefits is also contributing to ethnic conflicts.

Although a new “civilian” government is now in place, under Burma’s new constitution, the military remains firmly outside the law and beyond civilian control. The role of military companies in Burma’s economy and in accessing and managing Burma’s massive oil and gas revenues remain unknown and unregulated. Foreign oil companies engaging in Burma’s oil and gas sector also refuse to publish how much and how they pay the military regime.

It is urgently needed to ensure transparency and sound management of the country’s largest source of foreign income - revenues from the export of oil and gas - and address military dominance in the economy. Without this, instead of contributing to a sustainable development, oil and gas resources in Burma will simply prolong the country’s resource curse.

In order to ensure that oil and gas revenues are managed properly, and to provide a benchmark for tracking the use of those revenues, an accountable revenue management system is needed. This could take the form of a constitutional mandate followed by more specific national legislation, or simply national legislation that comprehensively regulates the use of funds. At minimum, there must be oil and gas fund laws that clearly cover the following elements:

1 Definition of the revenue streams included in general oil and gas revenues;

2 Instructions for deposit of oil and gas revenues;3 Restrictions on who can access revenues and how they are used;4 Detailed instructions for removing and using deposited funds;5 Sharing and distribution of oil and gas revenues with people

(affected communities and owner states) of Burma; 6 Public reporting on inflows received, expenditures and interest

earned;7 Oversight, including independent auditing.

Photo AOW

33

Recommendations

After analyzing international revenue transparency standards and mechanisms from oil and gas producing countries throughout the world, Arakan Oil Watch makes the following recommendations:

• The establishment of functioning mechanisms for revenue transparency and accountability should be a prerequisite for any economic engagement with the new military-backed government in Burma by international governments and banks.

• Corporations should refrain from any new investments in Burma’s oil and gas sector until legitimate laws and mechanisms to implement proper protection of human rights and the environment, as well as to ensure revenue transparency, are established and functioning.

Prior to inviting further foreign investments, Burma’s government should:

1 Immediately disclose the full amount of gas revenues, where the revenues are, how they are managed, and how they have been spent

2 Establish and enforce revenue laws in order to manage oil and gas revenues transparently, accountably and sustainably, including requirements for corporations to disclose payments, production, and project costs

3 Establish a separate oil and gas revenue fund which is overseen by an independent management body that includes members from civil society

4 Establish a benefit sharing system whereby affected communities and producing regions receive a portion of oil and gas revenues

5 Establish and enforce laws that require Free, Prior and Informed Consent before project implementation and to conduct and publish mandatory Environmental, Social and Health Impact Assessments for all oil and gas projects before implementation

6 Establish and enforce laws to protect human rights and the environment from resource extraction projects, including requirements for de-commissioning and clean-up procedures

34

Appendix: Standards and guidelines relevant to revenue transparency in Burma

Instrument Mission Statement Voluntary or binding? Who can become a party? Relevant article/principle Relevant signatories

United Nations Global Compact (UNGC)110

The UN Global Compact promotes responsible corporate citizenship so that business can be part of the solution to the challenges of globalization

The UNGC is a voluntary initiative. It is not a regulatory instrument - it does not police, enforce or measure the behavior or actions of companies

Corporations can adhere to the 10 principles of the UN Global Compact

Principle 10: Businesses should work against corruption in all its forms, including extortion and bribery.

CNOOCONGC

United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC)111

The UNCAC is a legally binding international anti-corruption instrument

The UNCAC is a binding convention to state parties

Governments Article 9: promotes transparency and accountability, including reporting on revenue within the management of public finances. Article 12: promotes transparency in the private sector.

Burma has signed the Convention but not yet ratified it

Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)112

EITI increases transparency of payments by companies to governments and to government-linked entities, as well as transparency over revenues by host country governments

The EITI is a voluntary initiative for states

Governments, Corporations & Civil Society can support the Initiative

All principles are relevant to Revenue Transparency

Burma is not an EITI implementing country. Neither is China, Korea, or India.

IMF Guidelines for Revenue Transparency113

The Guidelines provide an overview of recognized good practices for transparency of resource revenue management

The IMF Guidelines are voluntary for governments

Governments, international financial institutions and civil society organizations

All guidelines are relevant

The Natural Resource Charter (NRC)114

The NRC is a global initiative to help governments and societies harness the opportunities created by natural resources effectively.

The Charter is not a binding agreement or protocol.

Governments, Corporations and NGOs

Precept 2: Extractive resources are public assets and decisions around their exploitation should be transparent and subject to informed public oversight.Precept 12: All extraction companies should follow best practice in contracting, operations and payments.

IPIECA Guidance on Voluntary Sustainability Reporting115

The Guidance is a voluntary reference to assist oil and gas companies interested in reporting on their environmental, health and safety, social and economic performance

The IPIECA Guidance are voluntary guidelines

Corporations Indicator 6: The reporting company is encouraged to indicate its policy and steps taken to promote transparency of tax, royalty and other payments made to host governments related to extraction of its natural resources.

CNOOC is a member of the IPIECA Guidance

OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises116

The OECD Guidelines are a set of principles for responsible business conduct.

Observance of the Guidelines by enterprises is voluntary and legally not enforceable.

Governments address the guidelines to corporations. Currently 37 countries adhere to the guidelines.

Chapter VI - 3: Enhance transparency of activities in the fight against bribery. Make public commitments against bribery. Enterprises should foster openness and dialogue with the public so as to promote awareness of and co-operation with the fight against bribery.

Burma, China and India do not adhere to the Guidelines. South Korea is a member of the OECD.

Transparency International’s Business Principles for Countering Bribery117

The Business Principles for Countering Bribery provide a framework for companies to develop comprehensive anti-bribery programs.

TI’s Business Principles are voluntary guidelines

Corporations

35

Instrument Mission Statement Voluntary or binding? Who can become a party? Relevant article/principle Relevant signatories

United Nations Global Compact (UNGC)110

The UN Global Compact promotes responsible corporate citizenship so that business can be part of the solution to the challenges of globalization

The UNGC is a voluntary initiative. It is not a regulatory instrument - it does not police, enforce or measure the behavior or actions of companies

Corporations can adhere to the 10 principles of the UN Global Compact

Principle 10: Businesses should work against corruption in all its forms, including extortion and bribery.

CNOOCONGC

United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC)111

The UNCAC is a legally binding international anti-corruption instrument

The UNCAC is a binding convention to state parties

Governments Article 9: promotes transparency and accountability, including reporting on revenue within the management of public finances. Article 12: promotes transparency in the private sector.

Burma has signed the Convention but not yet ratified it

Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)112

EITI increases transparency of payments by companies to governments and to government-linked entities, as well as transparency over revenues by host country governments

The EITI is a voluntary initiative for states

Governments, Corporations & Civil Society can support the Initiative

All principles are relevant to Revenue Transparency

Burma is not an EITI implementing country. Neither is China, Korea, or India.

IMF Guidelines for Revenue Transparency113

The Guidelines provide an overview of recognized good practices for transparency of resource revenue management

The IMF Guidelines are voluntary for governments

Governments, international financial institutions and civil society organizations

All guidelines are relevant

The Natural Resource Charter (NRC)114

The NRC is a global initiative to help governments and societies harness the opportunities created by natural resources effectively.

The Charter is not a binding agreement or protocol.

Governments, Corporations and NGOs

Precept 2: Extractive resources are public assets and decisions around their exploitation should be transparent and subject to informed public oversight.Precept 12: All extraction companies should follow best practice in contracting, operations and payments.

IPIECA Guidance on Voluntary Sustainability Reporting115

The Guidance is a voluntary reference to assist oil and gas companies interested in reporting on their environmental, health and safety, social and economic performance

The IPIECA Guidance are voluntary guidelines

Corporations Indicator 6: The reporting company is encouraged to indicate its policy and steps taken to promote transparency of tax, royalty and other payments made to host governments related to extraction of its natural resources.

CNOOC is a member of the IPIECA Guidance

OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises116

The OECD Guidelines are a set of principles for responsible business conduct.

Observance of the Guidelines by enterprises is voluntary and legally not enforceable.

Governments address the guidelines to corporations. Currently 37 countries adhere to the guidelines.

Chapter VI - 3: Enhance transparency of activities in the fight against bribery. Make public commitments against bribery. Enterprises should foster openness and dialogue with the public so as to promote awareness of and co-operation with the fight against bribery.

Burma, China and India do not adhere to the Guidelines. South Korea is a member of the OECD.

Transparency International’s Business Principles for Countering Bribery117

The Business Principles for Countering Bribery provide a framework for companies to develop comprehensive anti-bribery programs.

TI’s Business Principles are voluntary guidelines

Corporations

36

Instrument Mission statement Voluntary or binding? Who can become a party? Relevant article/principle Relevant signatories

Global Reporting Initiative Guidelines (GRI)118

The GRI is a multi-stakeholder process and independent institution whose mission is to develop and disseminate globally applicable Sustainability Reporting Guidelines

The GRI Guidelines are voluntary guidelines

Corporations/ NGOs The Economic Performance Indicator includes a section on Revenue Transparency:

Equator Principles (EP)119 The Equator Principles (EPs) are a voluntary set of standards for determining, assessing and managing social and environmental risks in project financing.

Voluntary Principles Banks/ Financial Institutions Principle 10: Equator Principles Financial Institutions (EPFI) Reporting: Each EPFI commits to report publicly at least annually about its Equator Principles implementation processes and experience.

Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights120

The Principles provide guidance to extractives companies on maintaining the safety and security of their operations within an operating framework that ensures respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

The Principles are voluntary Governments, Extractive indusrty companies and NGOs

Principle 5 states the importance of sharing useful and credible information vital to security and human rights.

Chevron Corporation

IMF Code of Good Practices on Transparency in Monetary and Financial Policies121

The Code identifies desirable transparency practices for central banks in their conduct of monetary policy and for central banks and other financial agencies in their conduct of financial policies

The Code should be implemented in national legislation

Central Banks/ Financial Institutions

Hong Kong Stock Exchange (HKEx) Revenue Transparency Rules122

The revised rules require companies listed on the HKEx to include in their listing request information that should result in significantly more detail on tax, royalty and other payments to host governments. Companies are also required to provide material information on social and environmental issues, liabilities, and mitigation practices.

Binding rules for those companies listed on the HKEx

Corporations Disclosure of “material” information regarding: (c) compliance with host country laws, regulations and permits, and payments made to host country governments in respect of taxes, royalties and other significant payments on a country by country basis

CNOOC is listed on the HKExCNPC Group

Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform Bill: US Congress Transparency Legislation123

(Will take effect in 2012)

The resource transparency provision requires companies registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to publicly report how much they pay the U.S. and foreign governments for access to oil, gas, and minerals

Binding for US and foreign oil, gas and mining companies registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission

Oil, gas and mining companies registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission

Each resource extraction issuer shall disclose any payment made by the issuer, a subsidiary or an entity under the control of the resource extraction issuer to a foreign government or US government for the purpose of the commercial development of oil, natural gas or minerals, including the type and total amount made for each project

The following companies are listed on the NYSE:CNOOCTotalChevronEssar Oil

37

Instrument Mission statement Voluntary or binding? Who can become a party? Relevant article/principle Relevant signatories

Global Reporting Initiative Guidelines (GRI)118

The GRI is a multi-stakeholder process and independent institution whose mission is to develop and disseminate globally applicable Sustainability Reporting Guidelines

The GRI Guidelines are voluntary guidelines

Corporations/ NGOs The Economic Performance Indicator includes a section on Revenue Transparency:

Equator Principles (EP)119 The Equator Principles (EPs) are a voluntary set of standards for determining, assessing and managing social and environmental risks in project financing.

Voluntary Principles Banks/ Financial Institutions Principle 10: Equator Principles Financial Institutions (EPFI) Reporting: Each EPFI commits to report publicly at least annually about its Equator Principles implementation processes and experience.

Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights120

The Principles provide guidance to extractives companies on maintaining the safety and security of their operations within an operating framework that ensures respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

The Principles are voluntary Governments, Extractive indusrty companies and NGOs

Principle 5 states the importance of sharing useful and credible information vital to security and human rights.

Chevron Corporation

IMF Code of Good Practices on Transparency in Monetary and Financial Policies121

The Code identifies desirable transparency practices for central banks in their conduct of monetary policy and for central banks and other financial agencies in their conduct of financial policies

The Code should be implemented in national legislation

Central Banks/ Financial Institutions

Hong Kong Stock Exchange (HKEx) Revenue Transparency Rules122

The revised rules require companies listed on the HKEx to include in their listing request information that should result in significantly more detail on tax, royalty and other payments to host governments. Companies are also required to provide material information on social and environmental issues, liabilities, and mitigation practices.

Binding rules for those companies listed on the HKEx

Corporations Disclosure of “material” information regarding: (c) compliance with host country laws, regulations and permits, and payments made to host country governments in respect of taxes, royalties and other significant payments on a country by country basis

CNOOC is listed on the HKExCNPC Group

Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform Bill: US Congress Transparency Legislation123

(Will take effect in 2012)

The resource transparency provision requires companies registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to publicly report how much they pay the U.S. and foreign governments for access to oil, gas, and minerals

Binding for US and foreign oil, gas and mining companies registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission

Oil, gas and mining companies registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission

Each resource extraction issuer shall disclose any payment made by the issuer, a subsidiary or an entity under the control of the resource extraction issuer to a foreign government or US government for the purpose of the commercial development of oil, natural gas or minerals, including the type and total amount made for each project

The following companies are listed on the NYSE:CNOOCTotalChevronEssar Oil

38

Appendix: Current contracts for oil and gas exploration*

Operator Company Onshore Block Offshore Block Partner company (project shareholder)

China (13 blocks)

China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC)

IOR-4, IOR-3, AD-1,AD-6,AD-8

China National Offshore Oil Company (CNOOC)

C-1,C-2,M, A-4, M-10

Golden Aaron Pte. Ltd (Burma) China Huanqiu Contracting and Engineering Corporation (China)

EPI Holding Ltd (Hong Kong) RSF-10 Aye Myint Khine (Burma)

Tianjin New Highland MOGE-4 Suntac Co Ltd (Burma)

Sinopec D 100%

India (6 blocks)

Essar Oil L A-2 100%

ONGC Videsh AD-2, AD-3, AD-9

Jubilant India PSC-1 Parami Energy (Burma)

Thailand (7 blocks)

PTTEP PSC-G/EP-2, M-3, M-4, M-7, M-9, M-11

100%

Malaysia (8 blocks)

Petronas Carigali RSF-2/RSF-3 M-12, M-13, M-14 (Yetagun Project), MD-4, MD-5, MD-6

PTTEP (Thailand), MOGE (Burma), Nippon (Japan), UNOG (Singapore)

Rimbunan Retrogas Ltd M-1 IGE (Burma)

France (2 blocks)

Total (E&P) M-5, M-6 (Yadana Project)

Chevron (USA), PTTEP (Thailand), MOGE (Burma), NIPON (Japan)

South Korea (7 blocks)

Daewoo International (Shwe project- A1, A3), AD -7

KOGAS (Korea), ONGC Videsh (INDIA),GAIL (INDIA), MOGE (Burma)

KMDC A-5, A-7, M-15, M-16 Brilliant Oil Corporation Pte. Ltd., subsidiary company of SWE (Silver Wave Energy) (Singapore)

Russia (3 blocks)

Nobel Oil A, B-1, PSC-E 100%/ PSC-E: Alister (Russia)

Australia (1 block)

Danford Equities Corp.(Twinza Oil)

Yetagun East Block 100%

Canada (1 block)

Focus Energy MOGE-2 (S) 100%

Switzerland (1 block)

Geopetrol RSF-9 A-1 Construction

Vietnam (1 block)

PetroVietnam M-2 U Chit Khaing of Eden Group (Burma)

* Table based on MOGE oil and gas block map and media reports

39

Company Country of origin

Major projects in Burma UNGC* EITI** Transparency International Ranking***

Daewoo International

Korea Shwe Natural Gas Project No No N/A

CNPC China Trans-Burma China pipelines; Shwe Natural Gas Project

No No Low

ONGC Videsh India Shwe Natural Gas Project and 8.35% stake in Trans-Burma China pipelines

Yes No Low

PTTEP Thailand Yadana and Yetagun Natural Gas Project

No No N/A

CNOOC China Onshore and offshore oil blocks Yes No Low

Total France Yadana Natural Gas Project Yes Yes Mid

Chevron USA Yadana Natural Gas Project No Yes Mid

GAIL India Shwe Natural Gas Project and 4.17% stake in Trans-Burma China pipelines

No No N/A

KOGAS Korea Shwe Natural Gas Project No No N/A

Petronas Carigali

Malaysia Yetagun Natural Gas Project and offshore blocks

No No Low

*UNGC: the United Nations Global Compact encourages businesses to work against corruption ** EITI: the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) calls on extractive industry companies to disclose revenue pay-ments. *** Transparency International Ranking: High performers disclose information systematically on a country-by-country basis, go beyond existing mandatory regulations applicable to them and have strengths in different areas of transparency. Middle performers mainly disclose information by geographical area and a few selected countries of operation. Low per-formers disclose only by region and provide almost no information relevant to revenue transparency.

Appendix: Transparency of oil and gas companies operating in Burma

Indonesia (3 blocks)

PT Istech Resources Asia EP-5 Smart Technical Services (Burma)

Goldpetrol MOGE-1, IOR-2 100%

Burma (2 blocks)

NGWE M-8 Zarubezhneft (Russia)

MPRL E&P MOGE-2 (N)

Singapore (1 block)

Silver Wave (owned by Burma’s corny Tay Za (General Manager Minn Minn Oung)

B-2 -

40

Appendix: Sources of government revenuesThe following is a breakdown of general sources of government revenues from the sale of oil and natural gas. Using available production sharing contracts (PSCs) and secondary sources, estimated calculations are provided for 1) royalties; 2) government share of profit gas/petroleum; 3) government participation; 4) signature bonus; 5) production bonuses; 6) taxes; and 7) fees.

Two caveats should be kept in mind when reading estimated amounts: 1) PSC provisions are negotiable, and are not exactly the same for each project or contract; and 2) due to restrictions on information inside Burma, only a limited amount of information regarding PSCs is currently available. This section uses three PSCs plus secondary sources to estimate general revenue sources from natural gas and petroleum operations. It is meant to provide general examples and highlight the types of revenues that activists should be aware of when researching an oil or gas project. It is by no means representative of every PSC in Burma, as each contract will be somewhat different.

RoyaltiesThe government takes royalties of 10% of Available Gas/Petroleum. Royalties can be taken in cash or in kind, and are to be paid at the end of each quarter. They are not cost recoverable.124

Government Share of Profit Gas/PetroleumAfter gas/petroleum is taken for royalties and cost recovery, the government takes a share of what is left, or the Profit Gas/Petroleum. The amount of gas/petroleum taken by the government depends on several factors, including daily rate of production, depth of offshore discovery, and price calculations. In the older Yadana PSC (1992), the government share of Profit Gas/Petroleum is calculated according to a complex formula based on the average quarterly export market gas price and daily rate of production. Depending on the results, the government share of gas/petroleum is between 40% and 90%.135 In the more recent Block AD-1 and AD-8 PSCs (2007), the government share of Profit Gas/Petroleum is calculated according to depth of offshore discovery and daily rate of production.136

The government is also entitled to a domestic gas/petroleum supply requirement of up to 20% of the Consortium’s Profit Gas/Petroleum. The gas/petroleum must be provided to the government at a 10% discount.137

Government ParticipationThe 100% government-owned Myanma Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) has the right to demand a 15% stake in the project Consortium.125 If so, MOGE will reimburse the Consortium 15% of the signature and production bonuses and provide a share of the costs.126 In the more recent Block AD-1 and AD-8 PSCs, MOGE has the right to demand a

41

TYPE ESTIMATED AMOUNT

Royalties 10% of Available Gas/Petroleum.

Government Share of Profit from Gas/Petroleum

Between 40% and 90% depending on a number of factors such as rate of production, depth of offshore discovery, and price calculations.

Government Participation Between 15% and 25% stake in the Consortium.

Signature Bonus Negotiable; Examples range from 2 million to 15 million USD

Production BonusesStarting at 1 million USD for approval of development plan, and increasing incrementally until 10 million USD based on daily rates of production.

Taxes 30% on Profit Gas/Petroleum after a 3 year tax holiday.*

Fees

50,000 USD per year for training and technology during exploration/appraisal; 100,000 USD per year for training and technology during development/production; Research and Development Fund in the amount of 0.5% of the Consortium’s share of Profit Gas/Petroleum.

20% stake, which can be increased to 25% if reserves prove greater than 5 tcf.127

Signature BonusThough the signature bonus appears to be a standard part of the PSC in Burma, it is clearly negotiable on a project by project basis.133 In the three examples available to the authors, the signature bonus has varied from 2 million to 15 million, with 2 million for Block AD-8, 10 million for Block AD-1, and 15 million for Yadana.134

Production BonusesProduction bonuses appear to be fairly standard according to available information. The government is generally given US$ 1 million upon approval of the project development plan, with a series of escalating bonuses as production begins and increases.

TaxesThe Consortium partners must pay income taxes to the government on their share of Profit Gas/Petroleum.128 The general tax rate appears to be 30% after a 3 year tax holiday,129 though the tax rate for the more recent Block AD-1 and AD-8 PSCs is not available.

FeesFees to the government for training and technology also appear fairly standard. During the exploration/appraisal period, the Consortium must spend 50,000 per year for training and technology. After development/production begins, training and technology fess increase to 100,000 per year.130 The Consortium must also establish Research and Development Fund at the discretion of MOGE in the amount of 0.5% of the Consortium’s Profit Gas.131 According to information in a 2005 article posted on a Burma government website, the above fees are for offshore development; for onshore development, the yearly fees are 25,000 during exploration/appraisal and 50,000 during development/production.132

* According to Wikileaks, In June 2006, the Ministry of Finance and REVENUE issued a notification for levying tax on profits gained

by transferring assets of the companies conducting business in oil and GAS sector as following rates: Profit Tax rate (a) up to

US$100 million 40% (b) Between US$100 and $150 million 45% (c) Over US$150 million 50%

TABLE: Breakdown of government revenues

42

Revenue estimates on export of natural gas from the Shwe Gas project (USD)

Total Value of Available Gas = 37.53 billion 10% Royalties = 3.75 billionOperation and Construction Costs (Cost Gas) = 5.23 billionProfit Gas = 28.55 billion56% Burma Government share of Profit Gas = 16.27 billion44% Consortium share of Profit Gas = 12.28 billionDiscount for domestic gas = 246 millionConsortium share-discount = 12.03 billionMOGE take as consortium member = 1.80 billionAmount of Profit Gas to non-MOGE Consortium = 10.23 billionTaxes to Burma Government on non-MOGE Consortium Profit Gas = 2.76 billionFees for training and technology = 3 millionProduction bonuses = 6 millionPipeline Transit fee = 4.5 billion

Total sales revenue of available gas: US$ 37.53 billion (1.25 billion/year)

Burma Government revenues (w/out signing bonus) = US$ 29.09 billion (970 million/year)Burma Government in kind for domestic gas = US$ 7.26 bn (242 million/year)Cash profit for Burma Government: US$ 21.83 bn (728 million/year)

Add together the items highlighted in bold, which all go to the government, for an estimate of project revenues

43

Revenue estimates on export of natural gas from the M9 block (USD):

Total Value of Available Gas = 9.91 billionBurma Government 10% Royalties = 991 millionOperation and Construction Costs (Cost Gas) = 3.28 billionProfit Gas = 6.63 billion56% Burma Government share of Profit Gas = 3.71 billion44% Consortium share of Profit Gas = 2.92 billionDiscount for domestic gas = 58 millionConsortium share-discount = 2.8596 billionMOGE take as consortium member = 429 millionAmount of Profit Gas to non-MOGE Consortium = 2.43 billionTaxes to Burma Government on non-MOGE Consortium Profit Gas = 642 millionFees for training and technology = 2.5 millionProduction bonuses = 6 million

Total sales revenue of available gas: US$ 9.91 billion (396 million/year)

Burma Government revenues (w/out signing bonus) = US$ 5.78 billion (231 million/year)Burma Government in kind for domestic gas = US$ 1.92 bn (77 million/year)Cash profit for Burma Government: US$ 3.86 bn (154 million/year)

44

Endnotes

1 U.S. Policy Recommendations to Combat Natural Resource Conflict and Corruption, submitted for the “Poorly Governed Resource Dependent States: Policy Options for the New Administration” Workshop, Stanford University, Global Witness, March 13, 2009.

2 The First Law of Petropolitics, Friedman, Thomas L., April 25, 2006.3 Dutch Disease: Too much wealth managed unwisely, Finance &

Development, Christine Ebrahim-Zadeh, March 2002.4 “We need EITI in Burma,” Burma Digest, December 23, 2006.5 Resource Abundance and Economic Development: Improving

the Performance of Resource-Rich Countries, Richard M. Auty, Research for Action 44, United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research, 1998.

6 “Natural Resources Now Burma’s Top Exports,” The Irrawaddy, June 4, 2007.

7 The Economy of Burma/Myanmar on the eve of the 2010 elections, United States Institute of Peace, 2010.

8 Invitation For Bids To Conduct Petroleum Operations in Myanmar Onshore Areas 2011, Ministry of Energy, July 2011 at http://www.myanmarembassy.com/documents/Invitation%20for%20Bids.pdf

9 The official agreement was signed between the China Development Bank Cooperation and Burma Foreign Investment Bank. http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/business/news/article_1605067.php/China-loans-Myanmar-2-4-billion-dollars-for-gas-pipeline-project

10 “Gas Deal signed in Burma”, The Nation, July 30, 2010. 11 “PTT seeks M9 Delivery Delay”, Bangkok Post, May 30, 2009.12 Burma’s Democratic Prospects After Elections, Thitinan Pongsudhirak,

Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University November 23, 201013 “India mulls further investment into Burmese energy sector,”

Mizzima, August 24, 2010. 14 http://in.reuters.com/article/2011/06/09/myanmar-investment-

idINL3E7H90ZW2011060915 “FDI jumps by more than half in July, says CSO,” Myanmar Times

October 18-24, 2010. 16 http://www.look4leaks.net/showCable.php?id=07RANGOON1069

&title=FRENCH+COMPANY+TO+CONTINUE+OIL+AND+GAS+OPERATIONS+IN+BURMA&lang=en

17 “Burmese Army on Internal Alert,” The Irrawaddy, May 22, 2009.18 http://www.earthrights.org/campaigns/burma-project/new-

report-oil-companies-fueling-nuclear-proliferation-burma-myanmar-complic

19 SPDC, State Peace and Development Council, the name of the military junta ruling Burma from 1990-2010 under General Than Shwe, Sean Turnell, May 12, 2009 at http://www.e-ir.info/?p=1266/Burma after Nargis

20 http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/may/04/burmasmissingbillions

45

21 Burma’s Economy 2008: Current Situation and Prospects for Reform, Sean Turnell, May 2008.

22 Natural Gas Revenue, Fiscal Balance, and Inflation in Myanmar, IDE Discussion Paper No. 225, March 2010, and Burma Economic Watch, May 2008.

23 Total Impact, EarthRights International, 2009.24 PSC on file with EarthRights International.25 PSC on file with author.26 http://www.asiapacificms.com/papers/pdf/burma_dprk_military_

cooperation.pdf27 Security analyst William Ashton in 2004 at http://www.irrawaddy.

org/article.php?art_id=4216&page=528 Take-off magazine, June 2011 (www.take-off-ru), http://yaleglobal.

yale.edu/content/trade-and-security-trump-democracy-burma-%E2%80%93-part-i

29 “Russia, Burma sign arms deal”, Mizzima, December 23, 2009.30 See www.energy.gov.mm/upstreampetroleumsubsector.htm. 31 Burmese Military Government: Crony Capitalists in Uniform, Virginia.

Review of Asian Studies 6 (2004): 27-41, Win Min, 2004.32 Ibid.33 The rumour among Burma’s business circles is that Burma’s military

leader Than Shwe and his right hand Lieutenant General Tin Aye, former Union of Myanmar Economic Holding Limited (UMEHL) chairperson, are the only two persons who have access and control over gas export revenues. See “Tin Aye: A Military Tycoon”, Irrawaddy News, December 25, 2009.

34 Sanctioning State-Owned Enterprises, Rangoon embassy cable , 2008-09-29 (wiki leaks)

35 The Tatmadaw in Myanmar since 1988: An Interim Assessment, Myoe Maung Aung, Working Paper No. 342. Canberra: Strategic and Defense Studies Centre, Australian National University. p.13, 1999.

36 Burmese Military Government: Crony Capitalists in Uniform, Virginia. Review of Asian Studies 6 (2004): 27-41, Win Min, 2004.

37 Many of the 38 businesses have sub-businesses, bringing the total number of UMEHL-affiliated firms to 74. Additionally, UMEHL has joint ventures with seven additional Burmese and foreign companies that are either under liquidation or temporarily closed. According to UMEHL’s FY07-08 Annual Report, 10 military officials sit on the Board of Directors and report to the Adjutant General, Major General Thura Myint Aung.

38 http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=2048839 “Tin Aye: A Military Tycoon,” Irrawaddy News, December 25, 2009. 40 Ibid.41 See http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/KH15Dg01.html42 See http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/19/opinion/19iht-edaung.

html. The article also stressed that Burma has worked for almost a decade to expand its production of missiles and chemical warheads.

43 “Burma Suspected of Nuclear Link with North Korea”, The Guardian,

46

July 21, 2009 and “Why Burma May be North Korea’s Best Friend”, Time, June 26, 2009.

44 http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/SEAsia/Story/STIStory_709631.html

45 “Burma Allocates 1/4 of New Budget to Military,” Associated Press, March 2, 2011.

46 “Health, education in line for increase,” Myanmar Times, February 6 - 12, 2012.

47 Maplecroft Rule of Law Index, February 2012.48 http://www.total.com/en/corporate-social-responsibility/Ethical-

Business-Principles/Financial-transparency; see also http://www.chevron.com/GlobalIssues/CorporateResponsibility/2006/socioeconomic/stakeholder_engagement/revenue_transparency.asp.

49 Websites and the annual reports of the companies have been consulted. Some companies did mention annual revenue payments, but not per country or region. See PTTEP Annual Report 2008 at: http://www.pttep.com/en/InvestorRelations_Presentation.aspx?CatID=1 and CNOOC Annual Report 2008 at: http://www.cnoocltd.com/encnoocltd/tzzgx/dqbd/nianbao/images/2009410578.pdf; ONGC Videsh Annual Report 2008-2009, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (2008) at sec. 4.3, 5.4, 5.12, 5.21 (Director’s Report) and Schedules 7 &26 (Profit and Loss Account). ONGC Videsh publishes financial information related to its investments in Burma, though thus far the information provided is in the form of general investment and exploration expenditures rather than revenue streams to Burma’s government. It should be noted that ONGC’s Burma projects are in the early stages of exploration and development and have likely not provided much revenue. Signing bonuses, however, are conspicuously missing from ONGC’s disclosures.

50 Report of Total in reaction to EarthRights International’s report Total Impact, September 2009. Total in Myanmar, update September 2009.

51 http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-01/myanmar-sees-west-easing-sanctions-soon-as-clinton-to-visit.html

52 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-1406908253 Peace Zones In Aceh A Prelude to De-militarisation, Pushpa Iyer,

Research Paper 3, April 2003 at http://icar.gmu.edu/Aceh_PZs.pdf54 Profits, and Peace: Does Business Have a Role in Peacemaking?, Jill

Shankleman & Joanne J. Myers, United States Institute of Peace, p. 45 March 2007.

55 Guide on Resource Revenue Transparency, International Monetary Fund, 2007.

56 Extractives Industry Transparency Initiative (EITI) Factsheet, 20 October 2009.

57 EITI Principles and Criteria. See http://www.eiti.org/eiti/principles.58 Energy Security: Security for Whom?, Matthew Smith & Naing Htoo,

Yale Human Rights & Development Law Journal, Volume 11, 1 January 2008.

47

59 See United Nations Convention Against Corruption, Chapter II, 2005.60 List of signatures and ratifications of UNCAC. See http://www.

unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CAC/signatories.html61 Natural Resource Charter. See http://www.naturalresourcecharter.org/62 See Sao Tome and Principe Model Oil Revenue Management Law,

Columbia University Oil Advisory Group, June 2004.63 See Division of Oil and Gas, Department of Natural Resources,

http://www.dog.dnr.state.ak.us/oil/index.htm. 64 Alaska Statute at sec. 38.05.180.65 The Constitution of the State of Alaska (1959) at sec. 15.66 Alaska Statutes at sec. 37.13.140 &37.13.145.67 Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation. See: http://www.apfc.org/

home/Content/dividend/dividend.cfm68 Alaska Statutes at sec. 37.13.040.69 Alaska Statutes at sec. 37.13.050.70 Alaska Statutes at sec. 37.13.170, see www.apfc.org.71 See http://omb.alaska.gov/. The comprehensive annual financial

report is published by the Division of Finance. 72 See http://dog.dnr.alaska.gov/ 73 Saving Ghana from its Oil: The Case for Direct Cash Distribution,

Todd Moss & Lauren Young, Center for Global Development, Working Paper 186, October 2009, Models and Policies for Oil Production, Revenue Collection, and Public Expenditure: Lessons in Iraq, Ariel Cohen, March 2004. Available at http://www.heritage.org/research/iraq/bg1730.cfm

74 The Alaska Permanent Fund: A Model of Resource Rents for Public Investment and Citizen Dividends, Allana Hartzok, Geophilos, a publication of the Land Research Trust, Spring 2002.

75 Norway Energy Profile, Energy Information Administration (last updated May 2009).

76 The Fund’s income consists of the cash flow from petroleum activities and the return on the Fund’s capital. The Management of the Government Pension Fund, available at http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Selected-topics/the-government-pension-fund/The-Management-Model.html?id=429362

77 Act no. 36 of 22 June 1990 relating to the Government Petroleum Fund [Petroleum Fund Act] at sec. 2.

78 Act no. 72, November 29, 1996 relating to petroleum activities [Petroleum Act] at sec. 1-1 &1-2.

79 Petroleum Fund Act at sec. 3.80 Regulation relating to the Management of the Government

Petroleum Fund at sec. 2, 3 October 1997.81 See Norges Bank at http://www.norges-bank.no/82 See The World Factbook: Brazil, Central Intelligence Agency (last

updated June 2009).83 See Country Brief: Brazil, World Bank (April 2009). 84 2008 (oil) and 2007 (gas) estimates. Brazil Country Profile, Energy

Information Administration (last updated May 2009).

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85 These amount to amount ten percent of the production of oil or gas. Law No. 9478 of August 6, 1997, Article 47.

86 Analysis from Matteo Morgandi, Extractive Industries Revenue Distribution at the Sub-National Level: The experience in seven resource rich countries, Revenue Watch Institute (June 2008) at sec. 3.3. The distribution of revenues in Brazil is guided largely by the Law No. 7990 of 1989 and Law No 9478 of 1997.

87 Ownership and control of mineral resources: Can the Brazilian Model be used to douse resource control agitation in Nigeria’s oil producing states?, Madaki O. Ameh, available at http://www.dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/car/html/CAR10_ARTICLE37.PDF

88 Sunrise LNG in Timor-Leste: Dreams, Realities, and Challenges, La’o Hamutuk: Timor-Leste Institute for Reconstruction Monitoring and Analysis, February 2008, at Appendix 1.

89 Sunrise LNG in Timor-Leste at sec. 1.2. See also www.laohamutuk.org/econ/OGE12/OilRevenuesTotalDec2011En900.gif

90 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor (entry into force 20 May 2002) at art. 139.

91 Petroleum Taxation Act. See http://www.laohamutuk.org/Oil/PetRegime/Petrol%20tax%20law%20050705.pdf

92 Law No. 9/2005 of 3 August, Petroleum Fund Law (Aug. 2005).93 Ibid. at art. 6.94 These include the annual Estimated Sustainable Income (ESI), which

is prepared by the government. Transfers from the Fund should not exceed the ESI, although they have every year since 2008. Ibid. at arts. 8-10.

95 Ibid. at arts. 25-26. 96 https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/49322/9/05c

hapter04.pdf97 Id. at arts. 13 & 23. To date annual reports are published only on the

internet.98 Petroleum Fund of Timor Leste: Quarterly Report, Volume 7, Issue

XX, 31 December 2011. All these reports available from the Central Bank and at http://www.laohamutuk.org/Oil/PetFund/05PFIndex.htm

99 Irin News Asia, 16 July 2009.100 See Sunrise LNG in Timor-Leste and http://www.laohamutuk.org/

econ/OGE12/LHSubComCPNOJE2012En.pdf101 Asia Pacific: Timor Leste Tests Revenue Transparency, Ethical

Corporation, 26 July 2005.102 Preamble Petroleum Act, August 2005. See http://www.laohamutuk.

org/Oil/PetRegime/PetrolActPassedJul05En.pdf103 Strengthening Accountability and Transparency in Timor Leste,

Cheema et al, 2006 and http://www.laohamutuk.org/econ/corruption/11AnticorruptionLaw.htm

104 Petroleum Act, August 2005, at art. 7. See http://www.timor-leste.gov.tl/EMRD/LAP%20_ENG_%20-%20Vers%C3%A3o%20Final.pdf

105 Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. See http://eiti.org/TimorLeste

49

106 Several civil society groups suggested in the consultation of the draft Petroleum Fund Act to include such a provision.

107 The availability and accessibility of information is not systematic, civil society groups work to provide information where the government does not.

108 See http://www.timor-leste.gov.tl/EMRD/roadshow.htm109 http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=85299110 United Nations Global Compact. http://www.unglobalcompact.

org/111 United Nations Convention Against Corruption. See www.

unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CAC/index.html112 Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. See http://eiti.org/113 Guide on Resource Revenue Transparency. See www.imf.org/

external/np/pp/2007/eng/051507g.pdf114 Natural Resource Charter at http://www.naturalresourcecharter.

org/115 IPIECA Guidance on Voluntary Sustainability Reporting. See

http://www.ipieca.org/publication/oil-and-gas-industry-guidance-voluntary-sustainability-reporting

116 OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. http://www.oecd.org/department/0,3355,en_2649_34889_1_1_1_1_1,00.html

117 Transparency International’s Business Principles for Countering Bribery. See http://www.transparency.org/global_priorities/private_sector/business_principles

118 Global Reporting Initiative Guidelines. See http://w w w. g l o b a l r e p o r t i n g . o r g / R e p o r t i n g F r a m e w o r k /ReportingFrameworkDownloads/

119 Equator Principles. See http://www.equator-principles.com/120 Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights. http://www.

voluntaryprinciples.org/files/VPs_FactSheet_June2010_US.pdf121 IMF Code of Good Practices on Transparency in Monetary and

Financial Policies. See http://www.imf.org/external/np/mae/mft/code/index.htm

122 Hong Kong Stock Exchange to Require Greater Transparency. See http://www.revenuewatch.org/news/news-article/china/hong-kong-stock-exchange-require-greater-transparency

123 Senate Adopts Wall Street Reform Including Cardin-Lugar Provision to Increase Transparency and Attack Corruption. http://csce.gov/index.cfm?FuseAction=ContentRecords.ViewDetail&ContentRecord_id=928&ContentType=P&ContentRecordType=P

124 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 10.1 & 10.2; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 10.1 & 10.2; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 10.1 & 10.2; “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract”; Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

50

125 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 19.1; Memorandum of Understanding [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 5(b) “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract”; Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

126 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 19.6; Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contract In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

127 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 19.1 & 19.6; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 19.1 & 19.6.

128 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 9.11; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.11; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.11.

129 Memorandum of Understanding [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 4(c); Side Letter No. 3/23/92 (1620) to Memorandum of Understanding [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992); Union of Myanmar Foreign Investment Law (30 Nov. 1988) at sec. 21; Commercial Tax Law (SLORC Order No. 8/90, 31 Mar. 1990) at sec. 8; “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract” [addy].

130 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 15.2 & 15.3; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 15.2 & 15.3; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 15.2 & 15.3.

131 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 15.7; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 15.7; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 15.7.

132 “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract” [addy]; see also Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

133 Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

134 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 11.1; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 11.1; Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 11.1.

135 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 11.2 & 11.3; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 11.2 & 11.3. Similar bonuses, though with slightly different rates of production are included in the Yadana PSC and noted in secondary sources. See Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 19.1; “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract” [addy]; Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).

136 Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul 1992) at sec 9.7.137 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.7;

Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.7.

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138 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.7. See Alec Christie, “Myanmar: Overview of Production Sharing

Contracts In Oil And Gas In Myanmar” (7 Apr. 2000).139 Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 9.7. Production Sharing Contract [Yadana] (9 Jul. 1992) at sec. 14.1;

Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-1] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 14.1; Production Sharing Contract [Block AD-8] (15 Jan. 2007) at sec. 14.1; “General Terms and Conditions of Production Sharing Contract

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China’s oil drilling in Arakan State