اجهزة المعايرة الطبية عملي

אאאא

220220

א א 220

،،אא،אW

א אאא א א א אאאא،אאאאאאא

א אאאאאאאא؛אאא

אאK

אאאאאאא א ،א אא

א א אא א א ، א א،אאאא

אאאאאאאאאאאאאא،אאאא،אK

א א ? אא ??א א?

אאאאאאאK

אאאאאאא،א،אאאא

אאאאאK

אא א؛ אאK

אאאא

אא

אא

א

1

א אאFE אא אא

- 1 -

אא א

Calibration of Pressure Measuring Equipment

אאאאWWאאאאאאKK

אאאאWWאאאאאאWW

11KK אא

22KK אאאא

33KK אאאא

44KK אא

55KK אא

אאאאאאWWאאאאאא8585٪٪

אאאאWW 44

אאאאWWאאאאאאאא

אאאאWWאאאא

א אאFE אא אא

- 2 -

אא

א Calibration of Pressure Measuring Equipment

WW א א א א א א א א א א

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאFF((SSIIאא א א א א א א KK א אא א אא

אאאאאאאאKKFFCCaalliibbrraattiioonnEEאאאאאאאאאא،،

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאKK

אא אא אאאאאא אאאאאא

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא

11JJאאWWCCaalliibbrraattiioonn ooff PPrreessssuurree MMeeaassuurriinngg EEqquuiippmmeenntt

א،אא،א؟א،אא،א؟

אאWWאאאאאאאאKK א א FFNNeewwttoonnEE،، F FNNEE،،אאא א

אאאאאאאאאאKK

א אאFE אא אא

- 3 -

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאFFPPaassccaall EEFFPPaaEEאאאאאאאא

FFKKiilloo PPaassccaall EEFFkkPPaaEE10001000KK

אאאאאא אא אא אא אאא אאאא אאאאאאא F FSSppeecciiffiicc WWeeiigghhtt E Eאאאאאא

אאFFmmmm HHggEEFFmmmmEEאאאאאאFFHHggEEאאאאאאאאKK

אאאאFFAAttmmoosspphheerriicc PPrreessssuurree EEא،א،7878٪٪אא2121٪٪אא

11٪٪אאאאאאKK

א א א א א א F F א א E E א א7676100.000100.000FF100100EEאאאא??אאאא??

))AAbbssoolluuttee PPrreessssuurree EEאאאאFF1515EEאאאא??אא??אאאאאאאאאאFFAA EEאאFFBBEEאאFFCCEE

אאאאWWPPCC ,, PPBB ,, PPAA אאאאKK

الضغط المطلق والضغط الالجوي) 1 (الشكل

א אאFE אא אא

- 4 -

אאאאאאאאFFAAEEPPAA،، א א א א FFAA E E א א א א

אאאאFFGGaauuggee PPrreessssuurreeEEאאאאאאאאאאאאאאK Kאא

אאFFBBEEPPbbאאאאFFEEHFHFEEאאFFPPcc EEאאאאFFEEFFJJKEKE

א א א א FF EE א א FFVVaaccuuuumm

PPrreessssuurreeKEKE

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא K K

אאאאאאאאKK

؟א؟א

א א FFMMaannoommeetteerr E E FFBBoouurrddoonn ggaauuggee E EאאאאFFPPrreessssuurree ggaauuggeeEEאאFFAAnneerrooiidd MMaannoommeetteerrEE

אאFF22KEKE

א אאFE אא אא

- 5 -

FF22EEאאאאאא

אאאאFFYYFEFE YY--SSeeccttiioonnEEאאאאאאאאאאFFאאEEאאאאאאFFYYEEאא

FFVVaallvvee--AAEEאאאאאאאאאאאאFFPPEEאאאאאאאאאאאא

אאאאאאאאKKא אאאאאאא אאאאאא

אאאאKK

אאאאאאאאFFPPEEאאאאאא א א אא א א אא א א אא א א אא

אאאאKK

א אאFE אא אא

- 6 -

אאFFאאEEFFPPEEאאאאאאEEbb -- bbEEאא

FFaa -- aaEEא،אאאאאא،אאאאאFFPPEEאאאאאאאאאאFFHHEEאאאאאא

א א אא א א F Fhh E Eא א F FPP E EאאאאאאFFmmmm HHgg EEאאאאKK

FFאאEEאאFFPPEEאאאאאאFFPPooiinntteerr E E אאא אאאא אF FPP E Eאאאא

אאFFMMeettaall TTuubbee EEאא??אאאאF?F?RRaattcchheett EEאאאאFFCCooggwwhheeeell EEאאאאאאאא

אאאאFFSSccaallee KEKE

22JJאאWW

א א אא א א א א א אא א א א ? ? ??)) SSttoopp--WWaattcchh E E א א א א

אאאאאאאאFFאאEEאאFFEEאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא

KK

אא،אאאאאא،אאאא))OOrriiffiiccee MMeetteerrEEא،א،FF33KEKE

א אאFE אא אא

- 7 -

FF33EEאאאא

אא אא אא א אא א FFEEאאאאאא

אאאאאאאאאאאאFFBBEEאאאאאאFFCCEEאאאאאאKK

אאאאאאFFhhEEאאאאאא

אאKK

אאאאאאFFhhEEאאFFAAFEFEאאאאEEאאאאאאאאאאKK

א אאFE אא אא

- 8 -

אאאאWW

11JJ؟אאא؟אאא

22JJWWJJ

???? PPaa.. 22 kkPPaa.. ==

???? kkPPaa..55000000 PPaa.. ==

33JJאאאאאאאאאא330000 mmmm HHgg KKאאאאאא

אא؟אא؟

44JJ؟אאאא؟אאאא

55JJ؟אאא؟אאא

אא

אא

א

א

2

א אאFE אא אא

- 9 -

אא א

Defibrillator Analyzer


אאאאWWאאאאאאWWאאאא

אאאא

אא


אאאאWW 44KK

אאאאWWאאאאאאאאKK

אאאאWWאאאאKK

א אאFE אא אא

- 10 -

א

Defibrillator Analyzer

אאאאWW

א א א א אא אא אאKK

א א א א א אא א א א א א א אא אאאKK

אאאאא،אאאאאאאא،אאאאא،אאאא،אא

אאאאKK

אאאאאאאאFFkkVVEEאא،אא،אא،אאאאאא،אאאאFFmmssKEKE

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאKK


אאLLCC،אאא،אאאאאאאKK

אאאאאאאאKK

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא א FFאאאא،אאאאאא،אאKEKE

א ،אא ،אFFQQRRSSEEא،א، א א א א

א אאFE אא אא

- 11 -

אאאאRRKK

א،אא،אאאא،אא،אאאאאאאא א ،א ،א

אאKK

אאאאאאאאFF11EEKK

אאCCאאאאאאאאVVooKK

אאLLאאKK

אאRRiiאאאאאאKK

אאRRאאאאאאאאKK

، ، אא א א ،א א א ،א،א،אא،א،אא

אאRRLLCCאאאאKK

א אאFE אא אא

- 12 -

אאאאאאאאFF22EEKK

FF22EE

אאאאאאWW

W = C.Vo 2

2

אאאאאאWW

W = R

R-Ri

KKאאאאאאאא

א אאFE אא אא

- 13 -

אאא،אאאא،אKKאאאאאא331010KK

אאאאWW

JJאא،אאאאאא،אאאא553030،،

JJא،אאאאא،אאאא5050200200،،

JJא،אאאא،אאא200200360360،،

אאאאW

אאאאאאאאאאFFאאאאאאEEאאאאאאאאFFאאאאאאKEKE

א ،א א א ، ،א ،א א א ، ،אאאאKK

א،א،FFאאאאEEאאKK

אאאאאא4488KK

אאאא881313KK

א،אאאאאא،אאאאא20204040KK

אאאאאאאאאא2525150150KK

،א،א،א،א،א،א


א אאFE אא אא

- 14 -

אאWW

DDeeffiibbrriillllaattoorr AAnnaallyyzzeerr

אאאאאאאאאא??אאאאאא ? ?אא אא K KאאFFאא

אאDDeeffiibbrriillllaattoorr א א אא א ،א א א אא א ،א אאEEאאאאאאאאאאאא

אאFFPPaaddddlleessEEאאKKאאאאאאFFCCaappaacciittoorrEEאא

א א ، א א א א ، א א א אאאFF33KEKE

א אאFE אא אא

- 15 -

FF33EEאאאא

א א AA ، ،BB ، ،אאאאא5050אK?K?

אאאאאאאא

U

1

2CV2

UUWWאאאאאאFFJJoouulleessEEאאJJ

WWaatttt--SSeeccoonnddss KKCCWWאאFFCCaappaacciittaanncceeEEאאאאאאFFaarraaddssKKVVWWאאאאאאאאאאאאKK

א א א א א א 1616 א א

אא50005000WWU

1

2CV

1

2 (16 10 ) (5000) 200 Joules

2

-6 2

אאאאאאאאאאFFEEאאאאKK

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאFF44EEKKא א א א א א א א ،،א א א א

אאKK

אאאאאאאאאא5050??360360??KKאאאאאאאאאאא،אאא،

אאאאאאאאאא

א אאFE אא אא

- 16 -

אאאאKK

FF44EEאאאאאאאא

אאא א א א א א א א א א

אאאאאאאאאאFF55KEKE

جهاز معايرة جهاز إنعاش القلب ) 5 (شكل

אאא אאא5050 ? ?

א אאFE אא אא

- 17 -

א א،אא א،אאאאאאאאאאאJJאאKK

א א FFOOsscciilllloossccooppee E E

אאאאאאKK

אא א א א א א אא א א א א א א א FF E Eא א א א א א

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא אא אKKאא אאאא אא


אאאאאא،،אא

אאKK

א אאFE אא אא

- 18 -

אאאאWW

11JJאאאאאא؟אאא؟אאא

22JJ؟א؟א

33JJ؟אאאאא؟אאאאא

44JJ؟אאאאאא؟אאאאאא

55JJאאאא3232אאאאאא25002500؟

אא

אא

א

א

3

א אאFE אא א

- 19 -

אא

אא

Calibration Of Infusion Pumps


אאאאWWאאאW

11KK אאKK

22KK אאKK

33KK אאKK


אאאאWW44


אאאאWWאאאא

א אאFE אא א

- 20 -

אא

Calibration Of Infusion Pumps

אאאאאאאאאאאאKKאא

אאאאאאאאFFFFllooww RRaatteeEEאאאא א א K FK F mmll // hhrr E Eא א א א א אא א א א א FFllEEא

אאאאKK

אאאאאא????אאאאאאאא

אא،אא،??אאאאF?F?OOcccclluussiioonn PPrreessssuurreeEEאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא

FF11KEKE

אאאאאאאאאאFFOOcccclluussiioonnEEאא א א אאא אא א א א

אאFFאאEEאאאאאאאאאאAAllaarrmm))EEאאאאאא??אאKKאאאאאאאאאא??אאאא

אאאאF?F?OOcccclluussiioonn ttoo aallaarrmm ttiimmeeEEאאאא א אאא אא

אאKKאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא

אא א א א אא אא א א א אא

א אאFE אא א

- 21 -


ديةمضخة المحاليل الوري) 1 (شكل

אא??אאאא??


אאאאאאאא

א אאFE אא א

- 22 -

אאאאאאאאKK1 JאאW

??אאאאF?F?IInnffuussiioonn DDeevviiccee AAnnaallyyzzeerrEEאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאKK

אאאאאאאאFFmmiiccrroopprroocceessssoorrEE אא،،אאאאאאאא22٪٪אא

0.50.5אא??אא10001000אא??אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא240240KK

א א א א א א א א א א א א א א א א א א א א א א א א

אאאאאאאאWW

1K אW א א א א א א א א F F

אאEEאאאאאאא א א א א א א א א א א א

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאWW

אאZאאLא

אFZאא JאאFLEאאE

א אאFE אא א

- 23 -

א א א א E H F E H F א א א א א א א א KK

אאאאFFJJEEאאאאאאאאKK

א א א א א א א א אאאאKK

א

אאWWאאאאאאWW

אאאאLLWLLWאאWW

رقم التجربة

معدل التدفق الثابت في المضخة

(ml/hr)

لسائل آمية االمتجمع

(ml)

زمن جمع (hr)السائل

التدفق المقيس(ml/hr)

نسبة الخطأ %

1 2 3 4

אאאאאאאאאא

אא1010٪٪אאא،אאא،אאאאאאאאאאאאאא55K٪K٪

א אאFE אא א

- 24 -

2K אאW אאאאאאאאאאאאאא

א א א א א א 100100א א ? ? א א א אJJ1010 ٪ ٪ א א9090 100100

אאאאFFEE900900אא??10001000?אא ?אאאאאא K Kאאאאאא1010K٪K٪

א א ،، אא אאאאאאאא

אאאאאאאאאאאאאא

אא א א א אא א א א אא،،אאאאאאאא،،א אא א

אאאאאאאאKK

3K אאW

FFEEאאאאאאאאאאאאאא????אאאאאאאא

אאאאאאFFאאEEאאאאאאFFEEאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא

אאאא??אאאאאאאאK?K?


א אאFE אא א

- 25 -

،א،אpKz1x

xאW

אZאLאFZLE

pWאKFWאאKAWאK

אאאאאאאאPa11ZZ11LL22،،אאאאאppssii11ZZ11LL

א22א

אאאאאאאאאאאאאK

אאאאאאאאאFFAAbbssoolluuttee VVaaccuuuummEEאאאאKKאא

،א،אאאאא،אאאאאא،אאאאאאאאא،אאאאאzz22xxאאאא

אאאאאאא،אאאאא،אאאאאKK

אאאאאאאWW

: للضغط أعلى من الضغط الجوي

א אאFE אא א

- 26 -

אאW

عمود الزئبق

אאאאPaא،1אאFN·m J2or kg·m J1·s J2Eאא،א1971،

אאN/m2KאאאאאאאאאFEאKאcgsF،א

،FbaEאאאK

אאאאאFWtechnical atmosphereWEatאאא1אאK

אאאאאאאאFFhhPPaaEEאא،אאאאאאFF11ZZ11LL10001000EEאאא،אאא،

FFkkPPaaFEFE10001000EEאאאאאאאאאאFF11ZZ100100EEאאKK

א אאFE אא א

- 27 -

אאאאאאאאאאאאKK

אאFFddbbaarrEEא،אאא،אאאאאא11אא11KK

אאאFFEEאאאאאא،א،אZWZW101325101325PPaaKK101.325101.325KKppaa1013.251013.25hhPPaaאאאא

אאא،،11bbaarrZZ100000100000PPaaא،א،א11א٪٪אאאאאאאאKK

وحدات الضغط

باسكال

(Pa)

بار

(bar)

جوي تقني ضغط

(at)

ضغط جوي

(atm)

زئبق ميلليمتر

(Torr)

ثقلي في باوند

البوصة المربعة

(psi)

6−10×145.04 3−10×7.5006 6−10×9.8692 5−10×1.0197 5−10 2م/نيوتن 1 ≡ اسكالب 1

14.5037744 750.06 0.98692 1.0197 2سم/داين 106 ≡ 100,000 بار 1

14.223 735.56 0.96784 2سم/ق آجم ≡ 1 0.980665 98,066.5 جوي تقني ضغط 1

14.696 760 ضغط جوي 1 ≡ 1.0332 1.01325 101,325 جوي ضغط 1

3−10×1.3158 3−10×1.3595 3−10×1.3332 133.322 زئبق ميلليمتر 1 ميلليمتر1

1Torr=زئبق19.337×10−3

psi 1 ≡ 51.715 3−10×68.046 3−10×70.307 3−10×68.948 6,894.76 ثقلي في البوصة المربعة باوند 1

ضغط جوي تقني 6−10×9.8692 ≡ ضغط جوي 6−10×10.197 ≡ بار 5−10≡ )2يةثان·1م/(آجم 1 ≡ 3م/جول 1 ≡ 2م/نيوتن 1 ≡ باسكال 1

א אאFE אא א

- 28 -

אא

،אאאאאאאאW

،א،אאאא،א،אאאאאא8080kkPPaaאאאאאאJJ2121אאאאאא

101101kkPPaaFKFKאאאא2121kkPPaaאאאאאאKEKE אאאאFFEEאאאא

א،אאא،אא،אאא،א،אאא،אאא

אא،אאאאFאאאאאאאאאאאאאא

אאKEKE אאאאאאאאאאאאאא

א،א،א،אאא،אאאאאאKK

א אאFE אא א

- 29 -

11JJ؟אאאאא؟אאאאא

22JJאאאאאאאאKFKFmmll // hhrrEE؟؟

33JJ؟؟אאא؟؟אאא

44JJ؟אאאא؟אאאא..................................

אא

א Flow Rate

אא Occlusion Pressure

FאEאאא

אא

Fא

E

א

א

א

4

א אאFE אאא אאאאאא

- 30 -

אאא

FאEאאא

Physiological Signals Simulator

אאאאWWאאאאאאאאKK

אאאאWWאאאאאאWW

11KK אאאאאאאא

22KK אאאאאא


אאאאWW 44




- 31 -

FאEאאא

Physiological Signals Simulator

א א א א א א א אא א א א א אא א FF EEא א א א א א א א

א א א אאא אא אא אאKKא א א א א א א א אאאאאאאא،،אאאא

א א א א א א א א א אאא،،אאKK

אא אא אאא אא אא אאא אא

א א א ، א א א א ، א א א א אא א א א א א אא א א א אFF

אאEEFF2424EEאאאאאאKK

א א א א א א א،אא،אFFאאEEאא

אאאאאאאא،،אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאKK

אאאאאאאא

אאFFאאEEKKאאאאאאאאFFאאEEאאאאאאאאKK

אאאאאאFFאאEEאאאאאא


- 32 -

אאFFאאEEאאאאאאאאאאKK

אאאאאאFF11EEאא

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא??F?F?PPuullsseeEEאאאאbbppmmFFbbeeaatt ppeerr mmiinnuutteeEEKK

אאאאאאאאאאאאא אא אא אא א אא א אא א

אאאאאאאאאאאא،،אאאאKK

جهاز إصدار إشارات متغيرات وظائف األعضاء) 1 (شكل

א א א א א א אא א א א א א א אאאאאאKKאאאא

אאFFאאEEאאאאאאאאKKאאא א א אא אKKאא

אאאא א אאאאא א אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא

אאKK


- 33 -

אאאאאאאא א א א א

אאKK

אאאאאאאאאאJJאאאאFF44EEJJWWJJGG אאאאאאאאKKGG אאKKGG אאKKGG אאKK

אא אאאאאאאאF FEECCGG WWAAVVEESSEE א אאא אא א א א אאא אא א א

LLLL LLAA RRAA RRLLאאאאאאאאFFאאEEאאאאאאFFRRAAEEאאאאFFLLAAEEאאאאFFRRLLEEאאאאFFLLLLEEKK

א א א א א א א א אא FFאאEEאאאאאאFFVVEEKKאאאאאא

אאאאאאאאאאאאKK

אאאאאאאאFFEECCGG WWAAVVEESSEEאאאאאאאאאאFFmmVVEEאאאאאא

FFSSeecc..KEKE

،א א،א אאאאא


- 34 -

א א א א F FSSttaattiicc PPrreessssuurree E E א א א א F FDDyynnaammiicc

PPrreessssuurree E E KK א א א א א א א א8080אא120120אאאאKK אא אא

אאאא،،אאאאאאאאאאאאאאKK

א א F FRReessppiirraattoorryy WWaavveess E E א א א אאא،אאאא،אאאאFFRRaattee // MMiinn..EEKKאא

אאאאא2020א،،4040،،120120אאKK

אאאאאאאאFFPPuullsseeEE אא אאאאאא א א אאאא א א F FBBeeaatt ppeerr

MMiinnuutteeKEKE

אאאאאאאאאאאאאאאא א א א א11 א א11

KK


- 35 -

إشارات متغيرات وظائف األعضاء)صدارإ (محاآاة أنواع الموجات المتولدة من جهاز :)2(شكل


- 36 -

FFEE،אא،אאFF E EאאאאאאאאאאWWJJ11JJאאאאאאFFאאEEאא

אאKK[[ ]]

22JJFFאאEEאאאאאאאאאאFFאאEEאאאאKK[[ ]] 33JJאאאאאאFFאאEEאא

אאאאKK[[ ]] 44JJFFאאEEאאאאאאאאאא،،אא

אאKK[[ ]] 55JJאאאאFFEECCGG WWAAVVEESSEEאאאא

אאאאKK]][[ 66JJאאאאאאאאKK]][[

77JJאאאאFFRRaattee // MMiinnEEאאאאאאאאאאKK]][[

- 37 -

אאא

אא

א

א

א

5

א אאFE אא אא

א

- 37 -

אא

אאא

Electrical Safety Analyzer אאאאWWאאאאאאKK

אאאאWWאאאW

11KK אאאאאאKK

22KK אאאאKK


אאאאWW 44


אאאאWWאאאאאא

א אאFE אא אא

א

- 38 -

אא

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Electrical safety is very important in hospitals as patients may be undergoing a diagnostic or treatment procedure where the protective effect of dry skin is reduced. Also patients may be unattended, unconscious or anaesthetised and may not respond normally to an electric current. Further, electrically conductive solutions, such as blood and saline, are often present in patient treatment areas and may drip or spill on electrical equipment.

Electric Current Leakage Current Extension Leads Double Adaptors Equipment Classification

Class I Class II Defibrillator-Proof

Protective Devices Residual Current Devices (RCD) Line Isolation overload Monitors (LIMs) Equipment Earthing

Area Classification Body Protection Area Cardiac Protected Area

Other Electrical Issues Extension Leads Double Adapters Main Extension Devices Power Boards Installation of Additional Power Points

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EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATIONS

There are several methods of providing protection for operators and patients from electrical faults and harmful leakage current.

Class I

Class I equipment is fitted with a three core mains cable containing a protective earth wire. Exposed metal parts on class I equipment are connected to this earth wire.

Should a fault develop inside the equipment and the exposed metal comes into contact with the mains, the earthing conductor will conduct the fault current to ground. Regular testing procedures ensure that earthing conductors are intact, as the integrity of the earth wire is of vital importance.

Class II

Class II equipment is enclosed within a double insulated case and does not require earthing conductors. Class II equipment is usually fitted with a 2-pin mains plug. An internal electrical fault is unlikely to be hazardous as the double insulation prevents any external parts from becoming alive. Class II or double insulated equipment can be identified by the class II symbol on the cabinet.

Class II Symbol:

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Defibrillator-Proof

Some medical equipment within the hospital is classified as defibrillator proof. When a defibrillator is discharged through a patient connected to defibrillator proof equipment, the equipment will not be damaged by the defibrillator's energy. Defibrillator proof equipment can remain connected to the patient during defibrillation. It is identified by one of the following symbols.

Defibrillator proof symbols.

Body protected Cardiac protected

Care must be exercised in the use of a portable Core Balance Unit. It should be located off the floor and in a position that will protect it from physical abuse and possible entry of fluids. These devices are expensive and easily damaged. The device must be sent to Biomedical Engineering every 6 months for safety testing.

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A stroboscope, also known as a strobe, is an instrument used to make a cyclically moving object appear to be slow-moving or stationary. The principle is used for the study of rotating, reciprocating, oscillating or vibrating objects. Machine parts and vibrating strings are common examples.

In its simplest form, a rotating disc with evenly-spaced holes is placed in the line of sight between the observer and the moving object. The rotational speed of the disc is adjusted so that it becomes synchronised with the movement of the observed system, which seems to slow and stop. The illusion is caused by temporal aliasing, commonly known as the 'stroboscopic effect'.

In electronic versions, the perforated disc is replaced by a lamp capable of emitting brief and rapid flashes of light. The


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frequency of the flash is adjusted so that it is a unit fraction of the object's cyclic speed, at which point the object is seen to be stationary.

Contents

1 History 2 Applications 3 Other effects 4 See also 5 External links

History

Joseph Plateau of Belgium is generally credited with the invention the stroboscope in 1832, when he used a disc with radial slits which he turned while viewing images on a separate rotating wheel. Plateau called his device the 'Phenakistoscope'. There was a simultaneous and independent invention of the device by the Austrian Simon von Stampfer, which he named the 'Stroboscope', and it is his term which is used today. The etymology is from the Greek words strobo(s), meaning 'whirling' and scope meaning 'to look at'.

As well as having important applications for scientific research, the earliest inventions received immediate popular success as methods for producing moving pictures, and the principle was used for numerous toys.

Other early pioneers employed rotating or vibrating mirrors. The electronic strobe light stroboscope was invented in 1931, when Harold Eugene Edgerton ("Doc" Edgerton) employed a flashing lamp to study machine parts in motion. General Radio Corporation then went on to productize this invention in the form of their "Strobotach".


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Edgerton later used very short flashes of light as a means of producing still photographs of fast-moving objects, such as bullets in flight.

Applications

Stroboscopes play an important role in the study of stresses on machinery in motion, and in many other forms of research. They are also used as measuring instruments for determining cyclic speed.

As a timing light they are used to set the ignition timing of internal combustion engines.

In medicine, stroboscopes are used to view the vocal cords for diagnosis. The patient hums or speaks into a microphone which in turn activates the stroboscope at either the same or a slightly different frequency. The light source and a camera are positioned by endoscopy.

Another application of the stroboscope can be seen on many gramophone turntables. The edge of the platter has marks at specific intervals so that when viewed by incandescent lighting powered at mains frequency, and provided the platter is rotating at the correct speed, the marks appear to be stationary.

Flashing lamp strobes are also adapted for pop use, as a lighting effect for discotheques and night clubs where they give the impression of dancing in slow motion.

Other effects

Rapid flashing can give the illusion that white light is tinged with colour, known as Fechner colour. Within certain ranges, the apparent colour can be controlled by the frequency of the flash, but it is an illusion generated in the mind of the observer


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and not a real colour. The Benham's top demonstrates the effect.

At certain frequencies, flashing light can trigger epileptic seizures in some people.

Angular velocity From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Angular velocity describes the speed of rotation and the orientation of the instantaneous axis about which the rotation occurs. The direction of the angular velocity vector will be along the axis of rotation; in this case (counter-clockwise rotation) the vector points toward the viewer.

In physics, the angular velocity is a vector quantity (more precisely, a pseudovector) which specifies the angular speed at which an object is rotating along with the direction in which it is rotating. The SI unit of angular velocity is radians per second, although it may be measured in other units such as degrees per second, degrees per hour, etc. When measured in cycles or rotations per unit time (e.g. revolutions per minute), it is often called the rotational velocity and its magnitude the rotational speed. Angular velocity is usually represented by the symbol omega (Ω or ω). The direction of the angular velocity vector is perpendicular to the plane of rotation, in a direction which is usually specified by the right hand rule.


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[edit] The angular velocity of a particle [edit] Two dimensions

The angular velocity of the particle at P with respect to the origin O is determined by the perpendicular component of the velocity vector V .

The angular velocity of a particle in a 2-dimensional plane is the easiest to understand. As shown in the figure on the right, if we draw a line from the origin (O) to the particle (P), then the velocity vector ( ) of the particle will have a component along the radius ( - the radial component) and a component perpendicular to the radius ( - the tangential component).

A radial motion produces no rotation of the particle (relative to the origin), so for purposes of finding the angular velocity the parallel (radial) component can be ignored. Therefore, the rotation is completely produced by the tangential motion (like that of a particle moving along a circumference), and the angular velocity is completely determined by the perpendicular (tangential) component.

It can be seen that the rate of change of the angular position of the particle is related to the tangential velocity by:


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Defining ω=dφ/dt as the angular velocity, and realizing that is equal to where θ is the angle between vectors r

and v yields:

In two dimensions the angular velocity is a single number which has no direction. A single number which has no direction is either a scalar or a pseudoscalar, the difference being that a scalar does not change its sign when the x and y axes are exchanged (or inverted), while a pseudoscalar does. The angle as well as the angular velocity is a pseudoscalar. The positive direction of rotation is taken, by convention, to be in the direction towards the y axis from the x axis. If the axes are inverted, but the sense of a rotation does not, then the sign of the angle of rotation, and therefore the angular velocity as well, will change.

It is important to note that the pseudoscalar angular velocity of a particle depends upon the choice of the origin and upon the orientation of the coordinate axes.

[edit] Three dimensions

In three dimensions, the angular velocity becomes a bit more complicated. The angular velocity in this case is generally thought of as a vector, or more precisely, a pseudovector. It now has not only a magnitude, but a direction as well. The magnitude is the angular speed, and the direction describes the axis of rotation. The right hand rule indicates the positive direction of the angular velocity pseudovector, namely:

If you curl the fingers of your right hand to follow the direction of the rotation, then the direction of the angular velocity vector is indicated by your right thumb.


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Just as in the two dimensional case, a particle will have a component of its velocity along the radius from the origin to the particle, and another component perpendicular to that radius. The combination of the origin point and the perpendicular component of the velocity defines a plane of rotation in which the behavior of the particle (for that instant) appears just as it does in the two dimensional case. The axis of rotation is then a line perpendicular to this plane, and this axis defined the direction of the angular velocity pseudovector, while the magnitude is the same as the pseudoscalar value found in the 2-dimensional case. Define a unit vector which points in the direction of the angular velocity pseudovector. The angular velocity may be written in a manner similar to that for two dimensions:

which, by the definition of the cross product, can be written:

[edit] Higher dimensions

In general, the angular velocity in an n-dimensional space is the time derivative of the angular displacement tensor which is a second rank skew-symmetric tensor. This tensor will have n(n-1)/2 independent components and this number is the dimension of the Lie algebra of the Lie group of rotations of an n-dimensional inner product space. [1]

[edit] Angular velocity of a rigid body Main article: Rigid body dynamics


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Position of point P located in the rigid body (shown in blue). Ri is the position with respect to the lab frame, centered at O and ri is the position with respect to the rigid body frame, centered at O' . The origin of the rigid body frame is at vector position R from the lab frame.

In order to deal with the motion of a rigid body, it is best to consider a coordinate system that is fixed with respect to the rigid body, and to study the coordinate transformations between this coordinate and the fixed "laboratory" system. As shown in the figure on the right, the lab system's origin is at point O, the rigid body system origin is at O' and the vector from O to O' is R. A particle (i) in the rigid body is located at point P and the vector position of this particle is Ri in the lab frame, and at position ri in the body frame. It is seen that the position of the particle can be written:

The defining characteristic of a rigid body is that the distance between any two points in a rigid body is unchanging in time. This means that the length of the vector is unchanging. By Euler's rotation theorem, we may replace the vector with where is a rotation matrix and is the position of the particle at some fixed point in time, say t=0. This replacement is useful, because now it is only the rotation matrix which is changing in time and not the reference vector , as the rigid body rotates about point O'. The position of the particle is now written:


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Taking the time derivative yields the velocity of the particle:

where Vi is the velocity of the particle (in the lab frame) and V is the velocity of O' (the origin of the rigid body frame). The velocity of the particle is given by:

Where Ω is the angular velocity tensor. If we take the dual of the angular velocity tensor, we get the angular velocity pseudovector

and the matrix multiplication is replaced by the cross product, yielding:

It can be seen that the velocity of a point in a rigid body can be divided into two terms - the velocity of a reference point fixed in the rigid body plus the cross product term involving the angular velocity of the particle with respect to the reference point. This angular velocity is the "spin" angular velocity of the rigid body as opposed to the angular velocity of the reference point O' about the origin O.

It is an important point that the spin angular velocity of every particle in the rigid body is the same, and that the spin angular velocity is independent of the choice of the origin of the rigid body system or of the lab system. In other words, it is a physically real quantity which is a property of the rigid body, independent of one's choice of coordinate system. The


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angular velocity of the reference point about the origin of the lab frame will, however, depend on these choices of coordinate system. It is often convenient to choose the center of mass of the rigid body as the origin of the rigid body system, since a considerable mathematical simplification occurs in the expression for the angular momentum of the rigid body

A tachometer gauges the speed of rotation of a shaft or disk (from Greek: tachos = speed, metron = measure), as in a motor or other machine. The device usually displays the rate of revolutions per minute on a calibrated analog dial, but digital displays are increasingly common.

[edit] History

The first, mechanical, tachometers were based on measuring the centrifugal force. The German engineer Diedrich Uhlhorn is assumed to be the inventor, he used it for measuring the speed of machines in 1817. Since 1840 it was used to measure the speed of locomotives.

[edit] Automotive

Automotive tachometers show the rate of rotation of the engine's crankshaft by measuring the spark rate of the ignition system, typically in revolutions per minute (RPM). This can assist the driver in selecting the most appropriate throttle and gear settings (more applicable to manual transmissions than automatics) that the driving conditions call for.

Tachometers fitted to cars, aircraft, and other vehicles typically have markings indicating a safe range of speeds at which the engine may be operated. Prolonged use at high


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speeds may cause excessive wear and other damage to engines. On an analog tachometer this maximum speed is typically indicated by an area of the gauge marked in red, giving rise to the expression of "redlining" an engine - i.e. running it at (dangerously) high speed. The red zone is superfluous on most modern cars, since engine speed is electronically limited to prevent damage (see rev limiter).

In older vehicles, the tachometer is driven by the pulses from the low tension (LT) side of the ignition coil, whilst on others (and all diesel engines, which have no ignition system) engine speed is determined by the frequency from the alternator tachometer output (a special circuit inside the alternator to convert from rectified sine wave to square wave) , which is directly proportional to engine speed. With modern engine management systems found in present day vehicles, the tachometer is driven directly from the engine management ECU.

[edit] Medicine

In medicine, tachometers are used to measure the rate of blood flow at a particular point in the circulatory system. The specific name for these devices is haematachometer.

[edit] Analog audio recording

In analog audio recording, a tachometer is a device that measures the speed of audio tape as it passes across the head. On most audio tape recorders the tachometer (or simply "tach") is a relatively large spindle near the ERP head stack, isolated from the feed and take-up spindles by tension idlers.

On many recorders the tachometer spindle is connected by an axle to a rotating magnet that induces a changing magnetic field upon a hall effect transistor. Other systems connect the


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tach spindle to a stroboscope which alternates light and dark upon a photodiode.

The tape recorder's drive electronics use signals from the tachometer to ensure that the tape is being played back at the proper speed. The signal from the tachometer is compared against a reference signal (either a quartz crystal or alternating current from the mains). The comparison of the two frequencies drives the speed of the tape transport. When the tach signal and the reference signal match, the tape transport is said to be "at speed." (To this day on film sets, the director calls "Roll Sound!" A moment later the sound man calls back "Sound speed!" This practice is a vestige of the days when recording devices required several seconds to reach a regulated speed.)

Having perfectly regulated tape speed is important because the human ear is very sensitive to changes in pitch, particularly sudden ones, and without a self regulating system to control the speed of tape across the head the pitch could drift several percent. A modern, tachometer-regulated cassette deck has a wow-and-flutter (as the measurement is called) of 0.07%.

Tachometers are acceptable for high-fidelity sound playback, but are not acceptable for recording in synchronization with a movie camera. For such purposes, special recorders that record pilottone must be used.

Tachometer signals can be used to synchronize several tape machines together, but only if in addition to the tach signal, a directional signal is transmitted, to let the slave machines know not only how fast the master is going, but in which direction.


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A strobe light or stroboscopic lamp, commonly called a strobe, is a device used to produce regular flashes of light. It is one of a number of devices that can be used as a stroboscope.

Strobe lights have many uses, including scientific and industrial applications, but are particularly popular in clubs where they are used to give an illusion of slow motion (cf. temporal aliasing). Other well-known applications are in alarm systems, theatrical lighting (most notably to simulate lightning), and as high-visibility Running lights, as well as still widely being used in law enforcement and other emergency vehicles, though they are slowly being replaced by LED technology in this application, as they themselves largely replaced halogen lighting in this application. Strobe lighting has also been used to see the movements of the vocal cords in slow motion during speech, a procedure known as video-stroboscopy. Special calibrated strobe lights, capable of flashing up to hundreds of times per second, are used in industry to stop the motion of rotating and other repetitively-operating machinery and to measure the rotation speeds or cycle times.

A typical commercial strobe light has a flash energy in the region of 10 to 150 joules, and discharge times as short as a few milliseconds, often resulting in a flash power of several kilowatts. Larger strobe lights can be used in “continuous” mode, producing extremely intense illumination.

The light source is commonly a xenon flash lamp, which has a complex spectrum and a colour temperature of approximately 5,600 kelvins. In order to obtain coloured light, coloured gels must be used.

The origin of strobe lighting dates to 1931, when Harold Eugene "Doc" Edgerton employed a flashing lamp to make an


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improved stroboscope for the study of moving objects, eventually resulting in dramatic photographs of objects such as bullets in flight. Strobelights are often used in nightclubs and raves, and you can buy ones for the home for parties and such.

[edit] Strobe lights and epilepsy

Strobe lighting can trigger seizures in photosensitive epilepsy, thus most strobe lights on sale to the public are factory-limited to about 10-12 flashes per second in their internal oscillators, although externally triggered strobe lights will often flash as frequently as possible. At a frequency of 10 Hz, 65% of affected people are still at risk. The British Health and Safety Executive recommend that a net flash rate for a bank of strobe lights does not exceed 5 flashes per second, at which only 5% of photosensitive epileptics are at risk. It also recommends that no strobing effect continue for more than 30 seconds due to the potential for discomfort and disorientation.

Dennō Senshi Polygon, a 1997 episode of the Japanese animated television program Pocket Monsters (Pokémon) was involved in an incident in which

reportedly 685 young viewers were taken to hospitals by ambulances after experiencing epileptic seizures (most of the patients recovered on the way to hospitals, although over 150 children were admitted to hospital care). The seizures were provoked by a scene in the episode of an explosion during which solid red and blue patterns blinked at a rate of about 12 Hz for about 6 seconds.

Currently, the episode is banned worldwide, including in Japan.

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