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AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICSAND AIRFIELD DESIGN

CHAPTER

This chapter provides information on the characteristics of com-

mon mi l i tary a i rcra f t , the des ign o f mi l i tary a i r f i e lds , and the

in t e r re la t io n of th e t w o . T h e d e s ig n c rit e ria f o r e a c h m i lit a r y

a ir f i e ld mus t be formula ted ind iv idual ly to sa t i s fy i t s spec i f i c

se t o f opera t ional requ irements . The f ina l a i r f i e ld des ign mus t

meet the design requirements for the given aircraft and airfield

t y p e , a llo w s a f e a i rc ra f t o p e ra t i on s , a n d b e a p p r ov e d b y t h e

user . Loca l condi t ions and fu ture opera t ions may l imi t the d i -

me ns ions of runw ay s a nd ta xiwa ys , their orientat ion concerning

w ind , and the treatme nt of their su rfaces. Also exe rcise practical

judgment in the prov is ion for pro tec t ion and main tenance fac i l i -

ties, the installation of aids to navigation, and the construction

of parking areas and s torage faci l i t ies for fuel and ammunit ion.

AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS

The airfield design criteria and layouts in critical category types may use thes e facilthis chapter are based on usage by specific ties only under special l imitations. Tableaircraft in relative location on the battle- 11-1 a n d 11-2, pages 11-2 and 11-3, showfield. The most demanding characteristics the important characteristics of selected Aof the using aircraft establish the control- Force and Army aircraft .ling aircraft. Less critical category types ofaircraft also may use these facili t ies. More

CORRELATION OF ARMY AND AIR FORCE TERMINOLOGY

The primary air field complex has three spe-cific types of airfields, As Indicated by itsname and anticipated life, each airfield is in-cluded in the complex for a specific pur-pose, and their design criteria are based onrequirements for the aircraft shown in Ta -ble 11-3, pages 11-4 and 11-5. Note thateach type airfield has a controlling aircraftthat will ultimately determine the length ofthe runway (described in this chapter) and

the thickness of pavem ents , subbas e , andsubgrade (discussed in Chapter 12).

Besides the three primary air fields, thereare several special airfields (including DZsEZs, blocked-out airfields, special opera-tions forces (SOF) airfields, and unmanneaerial vehicle (UAV) airfields ) described indetail later in this chapter. Table 11-3 detai ls the requirement for the three pr imarairfields.

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Table 11-3. Minimum geometric requirements for TOE airfields (continued)

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The Army airfield classification system for months) and include c lose batt le areaTO construction is the same as the Air Force and rear area airfields. Tempora ryairfield classification system. As described construction airfields are for long-termin Chapter 10, airfields are constructed to use (6 to 24 months) and includeone of two standards showing the expected COMMZ a ir fie lds . Perman ent a i r fie ld

life of the airfield. Initial construction air- construction is discussed in detail infield s a re for s h or t-t er m u s e (zer o t o s ix TM 5-8 00 s er ies p u blica tion s .

AIRFIELD DESIGN

Army and Air Force staff engineers acting forthe Joint Force Commander determine baseairfield criteria for a specific TO, and theybase criteria on local conditions.

Table 11-3, pages 11-4 and 11-5, shows the

controlling characteristics and geometric andminimum area requirements for each a ir-field. The key to a proper airfield design isthe thoroughness and accuracy of a topo-graphic survey with minimum 5-foot contourintervals. (See Appendix C, FM 5-430-00-1/ AFPAM 32-80 13 , Vol 1, for informa tion onsubgrade strength requirements. )

TYPICAL AIRFIELD LAYOUTS

Figures 11-1, 11-2, 11-3, and 11-4, pages 11-7 through 11-9, show typical layouts and sec-tion views applicable to TO airfields. Figure11-1 shows the basic airfield layout. For ex-ample, to find the geometric requirements fora support area airfield, enter Table 11-3 atthe applicable airfield type in column 1, thenread horizontally across the table under thevarious column headings to obtain the re-quired dimensions (geometric requirements).

The circled numbers referring to the variouselements of the airfield shown in Figures 11-1 through 11-4 identify the column numbers

in Table 11-3, which give the geometric re-quirements for each element. Use of thesefigures with the table determines the specificairfield geometric requirements for each criti-cal aircraft in each military area (close bat-tle, support, and rear), as applicable.

ELEMENTS OF THE AIRFIELD

The elements that make up the a irfie ldinclude runways, taxiways, aprons, andhardstands. These e lements usuallyconsist of pavement placed on a stabi-lized or compacted subgrade, shouldersand clear zones (normally composed ofconstructed in-place materia ls) , and ap-proach and lateral safety zones (whichrequire only clearing and removing ob-structions that project above the pre-scribed glide and safety angles). The no-menclature for these e lements is de-fined below and shown in Figures 11-1through 11-4.

RUNWAY DESIGN CRITERIA

Runway location, length, and alignmentare the foremost design criteria in anyairfield plan. The major factors that in-fluence these three criteria are

Type of using aircraft.

Local climate.

Prevailing winds.

Topograp hy (dr ain age, eart h work,and clearing).

Loca t ion

Select the si te using the runway as thefeature foremost in mind. Also con-sider topography, prevailing wind, typeof soil, drainage characteristics. and theamount of c learing and earthwork neces-sary when selecting the site. (See Chap-ter 2, FM 5-430-00-l/ AFPAM 32-8013 ,Vol 1, for airfield location criteria.)

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Figure 11-3.

Figure 11-2.

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Figure 11-4.

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AIRFIELD DESIGN STEPS

The following is a procedural guide to com-plete a comprehensive airfield design. Theconcepts and required information are dis-cussed la ter in this chapter.

1. Select the runway location.

2. Determine the runway length andwidth.

3 . Calculate the approach zones.

4 . Determine the runway orienta tionbased on the wind rose .

5. Plot the centerline on graph paper, de-sign the vertical alignment, and plot thenewly designed airfield on the plan and pro-file.

6 . Design t ransverse s lopes .7 . Design taxiways and aprons.

8 . Design required drainage structures.

9. Select visual and nonvisual aids tonavigation.

10. Design logistical support facilities.

11. Design a ircraft protection facilit ies.

Leng th

When determining the runway length re-quired for any aircraft, include the surface

required for landing rolls or takeoff runsand a reasonable allowance for variationsin pilot technique; psychological factors;wind, snow, or other surface conditions;and unforeseen mechanical failure. Deter-mine runway length by applying several cor-rection factors and a factor of safety to thetakeoff ground run (TGR) established forthe geographic and climatic conditions atthe insta lla t ion. Air density, which is gov-e rned by tempera tu re and pressure a t thesite, greatly affects the ground run re-quired for any type aircraft. Increases in

either temperature or a l t i tude reduce thedensity of air and increase the requiredgrou n d ru n . Th e refore , t h e le n gth o f ru n -way required for a specific type of aircraftvaries with the geographic location. Thelength of every airfield must be computedbased on the average maximum tempera-ture and the pressure a lt i tude of the si te .

The pressure a lt i tude is a measure of the a t-mospheric pressure a t the si te . The pres-sure a l t i tude is ze ro under s tandard dayconditions of 59 Fahrenheit (F) and baro-metric pressure of 29.92 inches. However,

pressure a lt i tude varies with a tmosphericpressure and is usua l ly g rea te r than thegeographic altitude. Compute pressure alti-tude by adding the pressure a lt i tude (dH)va lue (height or elevation differential) shownin Figure 11-5 to the geographic altitude ofthe si te .

The average maximum temperature is theaverage of the highest daily values occur-ring during the hottest month of the year.Figure 11-6, page 11-12, shows worldwidetemperature values to be used. In using

these char ts , ob ta in tempera tu re and pres-sure altitude values for a specific site by in-terpolation.

D ete rm in ing Takeof f G round R un

Table 11-3, pages 11-4 and 11-5, shows theTGR at mean sea level, 59F, with a runwayeffective gradient of 2 percent for most air-craft based on the location within the TO.Use data in Figures 11-1 a n d 11-2, pages11-7 and 11-8, if aircraft is not found in Ta -ble 11-3. This standard TGR must be in-creased for different local conditions. The

steps used to determine the adjusted TGRfollow:

1. Determine the standard TGR for a n a ir-craft shown in Column 6, Table 11-3.

2. Correct for pressure altitude. Add th edH value of the site (from Figure 11-5) tothe geographic altitude. Increase the TGRby 10 percent for each 1,000-foot increasein altitude above 1,000 feet. No reductionin TGR is permitted if the pressure altitudeis less than 1,000 feet .

3. Correct for temperature. If the pres-sure-corrected TGR is equal to or greaterthan 5,000 feet , increase the pressure-cor-rected TGR by 7 percent for each 10 Fincrease in temperature above 59F (fromFigure 11-6). If t h e pre ssu re-co rre cted TG Ris less than 5,000 feet , increase the pres-sure-corrected TGR by 4 percent for each10F increase above 59F. Never decrease


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Figure 11-6.

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Use di tches at the shoulder edges, paral lelto the centerline (longitudinally), to provideadequate dra inage. Also , la te ra l d itchesmight be required to provide flow of wateraway from the longitudinal ditches whichparallel the runway. Neither longitudinal

nor lateral ditches can have side slopesgrea t e r t han 7 :1 . Th is ensu re s the d it chesmeet the design drainage requirement butdo not present a safety hazard to aircraftrunning off the runway.

Where there is more than one change inlongitudinal grade, the distance betweensuccessive points of grade intersectionmust not be less than the minimum dis -tance given in the appropriate design crite-ria table. The maximum rate of change of longitudinal grade is 1.5 percent per 200

feet for all TO airfields. These figures per-ta in to center l ine measurements , buthigher rates of grade change to permittransverse sloping of the runway may be al-lowed along the edges of the runway.These requirements will be satisfied by fol-lowing the vertical curve design procedurediscussed later .

When jet aircraft are involved, hold longitu-dinal grade changes to an absolute mini-m u m . Make any necessary grade transi-tions as long as possible to keep grade

change rates very low.

Crowns or t ransverse slope sect ions shouldhave a t ransverse gradient ranging between1 and 2 percent . Transverse grades morethan 2 percent a re a hazard in wet weatherbecause aircraft may sl ip on wet surfaces.

Grade shoulders to a t ransverse slope of 1.5 to 5 percent . Permiss ib le t ransverseoverrun grades are the same as those forthe runway.

S u r f a c e T y p e a n d P a v e m e n t T h i c k n e s s

The design-criteria tables contain recom-mendations on the type of surfaces andthickness of pavement to be used for eachtype of airfield. Chapter 12 discusses thedesign thicknesses for unsurfaced, aggre-gate, and bi tuminous surfaces.

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S h o u l d e r s

Shoulders are required for al l runways.Shoulders range in width from 10 feet to50 feet, depending on the airfields locatioand the using aircraft. Normally, airfield

pavement shoulders are thoroughly com-pacted and constructed with soi ls havingall-weather stability. Use vegetative coveanchored mulch, coarse-graded aggregateor liquid palliative other than asphalt ortars to provide dust and erosion control .When using coarse-graded aggregates, thoughly blend and compact them with in-place materials to ensure proper bindingand to avoid damage to aircraft from for-eign objects.

Signa l Cab les

Communicat ions personnel plan and insttelephone and radio facilities, but coordintion with the engineers is essential. Laysignal cables that cross the runway beforstar t ing the surfacing operat ion. Place cduits or raceways under the runway ever1,000 feet during construct ion so thatflight operations may continue during fu-ture expansions of communication faciliti

RUNWAY ORIENTATION

Runways usually are oriented in accord-ance with (IAW) the prevailing winds in tarea. Pay part icular at tent ion to gustywinds of high velocity in determining therunway locat ion.

The established runway direct ion should sure 80 percent wind coverage, based on maximum allowable beam wind (perpendilar to the runway) of 13 miles per hour(mph). This requirement, however, shoulnot cause reject ion of a s i te that is other

wise favorable. Where dust is a problemon the runway or shoulders, locate the rway at an angle of about 10 degrees to thprevail ing wind so that dust clouds pro-duced by takeoffs will blow diagonally offthe runway,


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Gather ing Wind Data

Wind data i s usual ly based on the longestperiod for which information is available.A minimum of 10 years data showing winddirections, velocity, and frequency of occur-

rence is necessary for conclusive analysis.Military and civilian maps for all populatedareas of the world usually have this infor-mation, especially those prepared by ma-rine or aeronautical agencies. If no obser-vations are available for a si te, adjust thenearest recorded observations for changesthat will result from local topography orother influencing factors. Table 11-4shows the form in which wind data may beobtained from AWS.

Wind Rose

A wind rose graphically depicts wind veloci-ties, directions, and their probability of oc-currence in a format resembl ing a compass(see Figure 11-7). The radii of the concen-

tric circles arc scaled to represent wind ve-locit ies of 4, 13, 25, 32, and 47 mph. Theradial l ines are arranged on the diagram ina manner s imi l a r t o a compass card toshow direct ions such as north, north north-eas t , nor theas t , cas t nor theas t , and eas t .Each di rect ion subtends an angle of 22.5degrees.

The probabilities of occurrence for the windvelocit ies and directions are recorded inthe appropriate spaces on the diagram.The example on page 11-18 uses the winddata to be analyzed from Table 11-4.

Table 11-4. Annual percentage of all surface winds, categorized by velocity (mph) and direction


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a wind rose scale of 0. 1 inch equals 1 mph,the rectangle is 1.3 inches from its centerto i ts edge and has an overall width of 2.6i n c h e s . The rectangle is slightly longerthan 6 inches, the diameter of the wind-rose diagram. The long axis (the centerline)

of the rectangle is marked with a fine,opaque l ine that shows the direction of a

runway. A small hole at the midpoint ofthis l ine is used for a pivot to rotate the retangle.

The indicator is securely pivoted at the center of the wind rose (Figure 11-10). Be-

cause the edges of the indicator define thelimits of the acceptable crosswind velocity

Figure 11-10. Determination of runway alignment by wind-rose analysis

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Follow a similar procedure for the rest ofthe spaces and portions of spaces coveredby the indicator. Enter the percentages de-termined into a table similar to Table 11-5,page 11-11. The total of the percentages isthe indicated wind coverage of a runway.

Follow a similar procedure when the calcu-lation is based on spaces not covered. Thecalculation based on spaces not coveredsubstantially reduces the work required.The results of a not-covere d calculat ion forthe wind-rose analysis in Figure 11-10,page 11-19, are recorded in Table 11-6,page 11-21.

T r u e a n d M a g n e t i c N o r t h D i r e c t i o n s

Wind data direct ions are based on the t ruegeographic north, whereas airfield runway

direct ional numbers are based on the mag-net ic nor th . Magnetic declination adjust-ments must be made in the resul ts of wind-rose runway orientation determinations toshow runway directions based on magneticheadings.

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Airfield construction specifies a minimumlength of each grade line or a minimum dis-tance between the grade line intersectionpoints. Although this specification is

based on the type of aircraft involved andthe standard of construction desired, aminimum of 400 feet between points of ver-tical intersection is used.

in grade.

VERTICAL CURVES

The same vertical-curve design proceduresused for roads in Chapter 9, FM 5-430-00-1/ AFPAM 32-801 3, Vol 1, ar e us ed for air-fields. However, the curve length may belonger. In many cases, the runway is a seg-

ment of a curve, and both the point of verti-cal curvature (PVC) and point of verticaltangency (PVT) are off the airfield. Confu-sion of stationing must be avoided. Table11-7, page 11-21, shows equations to deter-mine the length of airfield vertical curves.For overt curves, use either sight distanceor maximum change of grade to determine

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the curve length. Use whichever length islongest.

Example

A close battle area airfield is to be built toaccommodate C-17 and C-130 aircraft .

The runway length is determined to be3,000 feet (after adjustments made toTGR). Figure 11-12, page 11-24, showsthe profile and plan views of the selectedsite with final trial grade lines. To meetthe criteria for an unobstructed glide angleof 35:1, the overrun must s tar t a t s ta t ion + 00. Complete the design of the verticalcurve to include PVC and PVT, calculatethe offsets every 100 feet, and prepare theequat ion in tabular form.

Solution

1 .

2 .

D e t e r m i n e

Wherea n d

Determine length (L), because of chang

Where L = length of vertical curve an dr= allowable rate of change (from column10, Table 11-3, page 11-4)

3. Determine sight distances.

4. Determine L due to sight distance.

L = 14 stations (raised to the next hig

even station)N o t e : L e n g t h d u e t o s i g h t d i s t a n c e i sg r e a t e r t h a n l e n g t h d u e t o c h a n g e i ng r a d e . T h e r e f o r e , l e n g t h d u e t o s i g h td i s t a n c e m u s t b e u s e d .

L = 1 4 s ta t ion s = 1 ,4 0 0 fe et


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Figure 11-12. Profile of proposed runway

5. Determine the PVC.

6. Determine the PVT.

7. Determine the maximum offset (MO).

8. Determine tangent (grade line) elevations

Left side of curve

Right side of curve

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10. Determine final elevations.

The cross section of a runway may be oftwo general types-a crowned cross sectionor a transverse slope cross section asshown in Figure 11-13. Transverse slopecross sections may slope to either side oft h e r u n wa y. Th e t er m s right a n d lef t ,when used in connect ion with a runway, re-

fer to the right and left sides of the runwayas the observer s tands on the center l ineand faces the higher numbered s ta t ions onthat centerline.

Transverse slopes are applied to sections atappropriate stations to make the finishedrunway surface fit close to the original to-pography of the site. A sloped runway fol-lows the transverse and the longitudinalshape of the original ground as closely aspossible while staying within acceptablegrade l imi ta t ions . Us ing transverse s lopeson a runway reduces the amount of ear th-

work and drainage construction. Thechanges in shape and grade of a properlysloped runway are small compared with therunway length.

Runway t ransverse s lopes do not cause ahazard to flight operations. Records showno increase in operational accidents as a re-

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suit of using transverse slopes. Changesin the transverse slope on airfields used

je t a i rcraf t must be kept to a minimum.Transverse slopes are not needed for roador t axiways . They usu a lly a re loca ted toconform to the existing ground surface,

L i m i t a t i o n s

In applying transverse slopes to a runwayit may be economical to change from a lehand to a r ight-hand t ransverse-s lope crosection or to change from a transverse-slope cross section to a crowned cross setion. These changes may occur often, provided two limitations are observed:

The longitudinal distance from the ceter of one transition to the center of thnext t ransi t ion must not be less than

400 feet.The length of the transition connectintypical cross sect ions must be such ththe m aximum grade limitations in Tab11-3, page 11-4, are not exceeded.

Figure 11-13. Crowned cross section an

transverse-slope cross sections of runwa


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Design ing Transverse -S lope Cross Sec-

t i o n s

Transverse sloping of a runway is primarilya computing and drafting job. The twomain tasks in a sloping problem are-

Selecting the proper cross sections forvarious lengths of the runway.

Designing proper transitions to connectthe lengths of different cross-sectionals h a p e s .

These steps are il lustrated in Figures 11-14an d 11-15, page 11-28.

Selecting cross sections. Use the followingprocedure to select proper runway crosssections:

1 . Plot the ground profiles at the center-line, left edge, and right edge of the run-way as shown in Figure 11-14 . Plot eachprofile with a different color pencil.

2. Determine the re la t ive posi t ions of three profiles at each cross section. Whenboth edges arc below the centerline, use acrowned cross section (does not need to besymmetrical). Use a transverse-slope crosssection when one edge is above and theother is below the centerline.

3. Design proper cross-sectional shapesfor each distinct length of runway. Ob-serve the two limitations explained earlier.The cross-sectional shapes, as designed,should fit as closely as possible to the un-disturbed ground shape within the allow-able limitations for changes of grade.

Figure 11-14 shows how cross sectionsmay vary along a runway and how crosssections are selected by comparing the cen-ter, left-edge, and right-edge ground pro-file s . Note tha t be tween s ta t ions 0 + 00

and 10 + 00, 28 + 00 and 48 + 00, and 60+ 00 and 70 + 00, the right edge of the run-way is above the centerline profile whilethe left edge is below the centerline profile.This suggests using a left-hand, transverse-slope cross section. The three profilesshow that a crowned cross section is mostsui table between s ta t ions 10 + 00 and 28 +00. Between stations 48 + 00 and 60 + 00

and between s ta t ions 70 + 00 and 80 + 00,a right-hand, transverse-slope cross sectionis best because the left edge is above thecenterline and the right edge is below thecenter l ine .

Designing transit ions. The upper par t of Figure 11-15 shows a t ransi t ion sui tablefor changing from a left-hand, transverse-slope cross section to a right-hand , t r ans -verse-slope cross section, In Figure 11-15,the dotted line on the plan connects highpoints of the successive cross sections. Asimilar s i tuat ion occurs when the changein volves a crowned section. The lower partof Figure 11-15 shows a crowned section,high points, and typical cross sections in asimilar fashion. Note that all the cross sec-tions, between and including C-C and D-D,

are alike.

When s taking out a t ransi t ion on theground, use at least five lines of gradestakes. Locate the grade stakes along thecenterline. quarter points, and edges of therunway. These are enough stakes for con-s t ruct ion, but addi t ional s takes may be re-quired for close grade control.

TAXIWAYS

Taxiways are pavements provided for the

ground movement of aircraft , They connectthe parking ant i the maintenance areas of the airfield with the runway. The locationof these facilities determines the location oftaxiways.

Locate taxiways to provide direct access tothe ends of the runway for takeoffs. Avoiddesigns with long taxiways and designsthat require excessive crossing and turningo n t h e r u n w a y. S u c h d es ign s r ed u c e t h eoperational capacity of the runway andcause needless hazards .

Provide cutoff taxiways or exit paths thatpermit landing aircraft to clear the runwaypromptly. Excessive cutoffs can complicatethe traffic control problem.

Construct taxiways on a loop system. Thisprovides an alternate route in case a dis-abled plane or maintenance operations


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Figure 11-15. Transitions between cross sections

block the taxiway. Make the taxiway paral- APRONSle l with the runway and t ie onto i t a t bothends, thus forming a closed loop. In a TO airfield, three types of aprons are

u se d : w a rm-u p , o p e ra t io n a l , a n d c a rg o .Straight taxiways are preferred for modern,high-performance a ircraft that consume Warm -Up Apron

large amounts of fuel. Straight taxiways The warm-up apron, sometimes called apermit movement from one point to an- warm-u p/ holding-pad apron, is a pavedother in the shortest possible t ime with the area adjascent to the taxiway near the run-greatest fuel savings. way end. The warm-up apron permits

The final portion of warm-up and en-gine and instrument checks to be done

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aircraft involved, air-traffic-control rate,runway saturat ion rate, and stat ion work-load capabilities.

Experience from within the TO or a specificassessment by the t roop t ranspor t com-mander should determine apron require-ments. Use an est imate of 10 percent ofthe total number of cargo aircraft in the op-erat ion, or est imate the addi t ional apron ar-eas required by mul t iplying the number ofai rcraft to be accommodated at anyt ime bythe factors shown in Table 11-8.

CALIBRATION HARDSTAND

Modern tactical aircraft contains naviga-

t ional , bombing, and gunnery equipmentthat must be maintained wi thin a given ac-curacy to produce the desired precision.To ensure these resul ts , the equipmentmust be properly calibrated at fixed inter-vals after each engine change or anytime amajor modification is made to the aircraft .Failure to perform this calibration peri-odically reduces the ability of the aircraftto complete i ts assigned mission.

A calibration facility normally consists of acal ibrat ion hardstand and a f i r ing-in but t .

This facility provides a suitable means foraligning an aircraft or the precise calibra-tion of all types of navigation, bombing,and gunnery equipment in the ai rcraft .The cal ibrat ion hardstand was formerlycalled a compass swinging base. For non-tactical missions, this facility is limited tothe hardstand required for cal ibrat ion.

Table 11-8. Factors for determining cargoapron areas

The hardstand is a level , surfaced areamarked with precision alignment indica-t ions accurate to within 0.25 of 1 degree.Because of the calibration operation in-

volved, locate the paved hardstand in anarea where the local magnetic influence isa t a m i n i m um .

CORROSION CONTROL HARDSTAND

Aircraft must always be kept clean. Dirt ,grime, oil , and grease on aircraft increaseairflow drag, promote corrosion, change bal-ance, slow the dissipation of heat from theengines, and prevent effective aircraft in-spection for airframe and mechanical fai l-u r e s .

Aircraft corrosion control facilities, calledwashing areas, are specifically designedwith the necessary tools for washing andcleaning aircraft quickly and efficiently.The design must provide adequate drainagefacilities to dispose of large quantities ofwater, oi l , and other substances.

AIRCRAFT PROTECTION FACILITIES

Aircraft revetments may be needed for pro-

tect ion against smal l -arms fi re, mortars,st rafing at tacks, and near misses wi th con-vent ional bombs and to prevent sympat-thetic detonation of explosives on nearbyaircraft. Any of the various types of openrevetments or soft shel ters may be used.Chapter 14 discusses revetment detai l s .

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE FACILITIES

The maintenance mission and facil i t ies ofa i r bases depend on the number and typeof aircraft assigned and the degree of main-

t enance des i r ed . T he t hea t e r com m ande rspecifies the maintenance mission. There-fore, it is impossible to forecast the exacttype of facilities required at any TO base.In general, the following guidelines may beu s e d :

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Tax iw ay M ark ing

Mark taxiways to conform with the followingrequirements shown in Figure 11-16.

Centerline stripes. Mark each taxiwaywith a s ingle, continu ous stripe a long th ecenterline, These stripes should have aminimum width of 6 inches. At taxiwayintersections with ru nway ends , taxiwaystripes sh ould end in l ine with t he n ear-est edge of the runway. At taxiway inter-sections, the taxiway centerline markingssh ould intersect .

Holding line marking. Place a taxiwayholding l ine m arking not less tha n 100feet and n ot more than 200 feet from th enearest edge of the runway or taxiwaythat the taxiway intersects (see Figure 11-16 , page 11-23). Measure this distanceon a line perpendicular to the centerlineof the runway or taxiway that is inter-sected. Increase the distance from theminimu m 100 feet to whatever distan ceis necessary to provide adequate clear-ance between large aircraft operating on

the ru nway or taxiway and th e holdingaircraft .

M ark ing M ate r i a l s and M ethods

The materia ls and methods used in a irfie ldmarking must provide visual contrast withthe airfield surface, They vary primarilywith the type of surface and less directlywith the construction type or stage. Fewerpermanent materia ls require constant mainte-nance. Use the following guides to selectmarking materia ls:

Paint is u sed only on perman ent su rfaces.

Lime is u sed prima rily for ma rking un su r-faced a reas s uch a s ea r th , membra nes ,or similar surfaces.

Oil or similar liquids are used for mark-ing un su rfaced areas.

Panels mad e of ma teria ls su ch as c loth orcanvas, properly fastened to the pave-

ment , may be used fo r manymarking requirements.

Use yellow flags to show temporary ob-structions caused by flying accidentsor enemy action. As temporary expedi-ents, sandwich-board markers or stake-mounted signs may be used to definethe runway width. These markers, 2feet by 2 feet in size, have black-and-white triangles on each side, They arespaced 200 feet apart longitudinally onthe outer edge of the runway shoulder.

For taxiways, sandwich-board markersor flat pieces of wood or metal paintedwith black-and-white triangles mayserve as expedient markers. Fastenthese 12- by 12-inch markers tostakes and place them 100 feet apartalong the outer edge of the taxiways h o u l d e r .

All expedient markers should be light-weight and constructed to break read-ily if struck by an aircraft. Theyshould never be hazardous to a ircraft .

Figure 11-17 shows several types of ex-pedient markers. Markers for snow-covered runways should be conspicu-ous. Upright spruce trees, about 5feet high, or light, wooden tripods maybe used. Place the markers a long thesides of the snow-covered runway.Space them not more than 330 feetapart and locate them symmetricallyabout the axis of the runway. Placeenough markings across the end of therunway to show the threshold. Alumi-num powder and dyes can effectively

mark snow in the runway a rea .

AIRFIELD LIGHTING

Airfield lighting includes the systemsof illuminated visual signals that helppilots in the safe, efficient, and timelyoperation of a ircraft a t n ight and dur-ing periods of restricted visibility (IFRconditions). In general, airfield light-ing is comprised of runway lighting, ap-proach lighting, taxiway lighting, ob-

struction and hazard l ighting.

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Figure 11-17. Types of expedient airfield markers

beacons, l ighted wind direction indicators,and special signal l ights. Not all these itemsare included in TO airfields. Normally, alllighting (except certain obstruction lighting)is controlled from the control tower. Thelighting system includes all control devices,circuit protective devices, regulators, trans-

formers, mounting devices, and accessoriesneeded to produce a working facility.

The configuration, colors, and spacing ofrunway, approach, and taxiway lighting sys-tems are uniform regardless of the antici-pated length of service of the installation,the mission of the tenant organization, orthe method of installation.

The colors and configuration used in air-field lighting generally are standardized onan international scale, and there is no dif-ference between permanent and TO installations. The basic color code follows:

Blue-taxiway lighting.

Clear (white)-sides of a usable landinga r e a .

Green-ends of a usable landing area(threshold lights). When used with abeacon, green indicates a l ighted and atended airfield.


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Red-hazard, obstruct ion, or area unsuit-able for landing.

Yellow-caution. When used with a bea-con, yellow indicates a water airport.

Airfield lighting requirements are detailedin AFI 32-1044.

R unw ay L igh t ing

Runway lighting, the principal element ofairfield lighting, provides the standard pat-tern of l ights to outl ine the runway and toshow side and end limits. Side limits aremarked by two parallel rows of whitelights, one row on each side of and equidis-tant from the runway centerl ine. Lightswithin the rows are uniformly spaced, and

the rows extend the entire length of therunway. End l imits are outl ined by greenrunway threshold lights, which are visiblefrom all sides and vertical angles.

Space runway threshold l ights along thethreshold line, which is 0 to 10 feet fromthe end of the runway and perpendicularto the centerline extended off the runway.Runway lighting is divided into two classes-high intensi ty to support aircraft opera-t ions under IFR condit ions and medium in-tensi ty to support aircraft operat ions under

VFR conditions.A pproach L igh t ing

This system of lights is used to guide air-craft safely to the runway on airfields in-tended for instrument flying and all-weather operat ions. The system is in-stal led in the primary approach to theStage II runway. Its use is generally con-fined to installations that are or will be pro-vided with precision, electronic, low-ap-proach facilities. Never use approach light-ing with a medium-intensi ty runway l ight-

ing system.

Taxiway Light ing

When an airfield becomes fully operational,l ights and reflectors are used to increasesafety in ground movements of aircraft.Taxiway lighting is standardized. In gen-eral , blue taxiway l ights mark the laterall imits , turns, and terminals of taxiway sec-t ions.

Reflectors are also used to delineate taxi-ways. Standard taxiway reflectors are pan-els approximately 12 inches high by 9inches wide. Both sides of the panels con-sist of a retroreflective material that re-

flects incident light back to the light source(aircraft landing or taxiing lights). Mount-ing wickets can be manufactured local lyfrom galvanized steel wire, size Number 6or larger. The wire, cut into 42-inchpieces, is bent into a U-shape so parallels ides a re 7 1 / 2 inches apar t .

Install reflectors along straight sectionsand long-radius curves at 100-foot inter-vals . At intersect ions and on short-radiuscurves, set the ref lectors 20 feet apart andperpendicular to one another . Embed wick-

e ts 12 to 15 inches in the ground and se tthem firmly. When reflectors are set wheregrass or other vegetation grows 2 inches ormore in height , t reat the ground surfacewith engine oil or salt to prevent thisgrowth.

B e a c o n s

Airport- type beacons are not commonlyused in a combat zone. They may be usedin rear areas of the TO. Mobile beaconsare sometimes employed to t ransmit ordersof the day, Beacons are considered organ-izat ional equipment and are not part of theconstruct ion program.

Lighted Wind-Direc t ion Indica tors

These indicators provide pilots with visualinformat ion about wind d i rec t ions . Underconditions of radio silence, they are theonly means available to the pilot to deter-mine direction of landing and takeoff.

Specia l Signal Lights

Signal lights may be used to convey operat-

ing information to pilots during periods ofradio si lence. Such signals may be used totransmit orders of the day and to aid in airand ground traff ic control . No standardsfor TO construction of signal lights arepresently available. The theater com-mander determines the cr i ter ia necessaryfor construct ion.


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Figure 11-22. Painting of towers, poles, and similar obstructions


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Figure 11-23. Painting of water towers


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Posit ion the f lags in such a way that thehazard they mark is not increased. Dis-play f lags on top of or around the perime-ter of the highest edge of the object. Flagsused to mark extensive objects or groups of closely spaced objects should be displayedat approximately 50-foot intervals.

OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING

Obstruction lights show the existence of ob-struct ions. These l ights are aviat ion red,with an intensi ty of not less than 10 can-dlepower . The number and ar rangement of l ights at each level should be such that theobstruction is visible from every angle. Fig-ures 11-24 through 11-26, pages 11-44through 11-46, i l lustrate methods of ob-

struction lighting.

V er t i ca l A r rangem ent

Locate at least two lamps at the top of theobstruct ion, ei ther operat ing simultane-ously or circuited so that if one fails theother operates. An exception is made forchimneys of s imilar s tructures. The topl ights on such s t ruc tures a re p laced be-tween 5 and 10 feet below the top. Wherethe top of the obstruct ion is more than 150feet above ground level, provide an interme-diate light or lights for each additional 150

feet or fraction thereof. Space the interme-diate lights equally between the top light(or lights) and the ground level.

H or izon ta l A r rangem ent

Buil t-up and tree-covered areas have exten-sive obstructions. Where an extensive ob-struction or a group of closely spaced ob-struct ions is marked with obstruct ionlights , display the top l ights on the pointor edge of the highest obstruct ion. Spacethe l ights at intervals of not more than 150feet so they show the general definitionand extent of the obstruction. If two ormore edges of an obstruct ion located nearan airf ield are at the same height , l ight theedge nearest the airfield.

Light ing of Overhead Wires

When obstruction lighting of overheadwires is needed, place the l ights not more

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than 150 feet apart at a level not below tof the highest wire at each point lighted.When the overhead wires are more than15,000 feet from the center of the landinarea, the distance between the l ights mabe increased to no more than 600 feet .

METHODS OF LIGHTING

CONSTRUCTION AREAS

Three methods are used for l ighting con-s t ruc t ion areas :

Method A is normally confined to emgency airfields and to emergency repat more permanent instal lat ions. Prsion methods of layout are not used,bles are laid on the ground, and l igh

are stake-mounted. The wind indicais pipe-mounted instead of being plaon the tower.

Method B is an upgrade of Method Awhen emergency repairs might take longer time to accomplish. Precisionmethods of locating fixtures are alsoused. Cables are buried at least 6inches. Remote control features, whare not usually provided with Methoinstal lat ions, are used in Method B.

Method C is used when instal l ing airfield lighting. Construction should aproach the standards outl ined in AF1044 and TM 5-823-4. Cables are bied 24 inches below the finished gradLighting fixtures are precisely locateand mounted in concre te bases . Thewind indicator is tower-mounted.

NAVIGATIONAL AIDS

Navigational aids refer to the ground eqment and support ing faci l i t ies that prov

electronic (radio and radar) assistance ithe navigation of aircraft. NAVAIDs conof components of equipment, housing, autilities. Each component serves a specmission in directing or assisting the diretion of airborne aircraft.


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Figure 11-25. Lighting of smokestacks and similar obstructions


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Figure 11-26. Lighting of water towers and similar obstructions


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The NAVAIDs used in a TO include

Mobile and a ir-transportable search andprecision approach radar ground-con-trolled approach (GCA).

Radio homing beacons.

Ultrahigh frequency direction finders(UHFDFs) and omnibearing distanceequipmenttactical air navigation (TA-CAN).

Radar beacons (RACONs).

Remote receiver and transmitter build-ings for temporary construction (usedwith control tower).

Control tower.

C r it e r i a a n d R e q u i r e m e n t s

Not a ll systems l isted are required a t anyone base . Requirements are determined byfactors such as base mission, type of a ir-craft, geographic location, terrain, and mete-orological conditions. Final selection of thefacilities required is made by the theatercommander and requires technical determi-nation by the AFCS or United States ArmyAeronautical Services Office (USAASO).

When facilities selection is made, considersurvivability by hardening (if use permits),tone down, camouflage, concealment, andother measures designed to complementany base vulnerability reduction program.The following NAVAIDs are the minimum de-sirable for planning and obstruction designpurposes:

Priority l-Mobile GCA and homing bea-con on TACAN.

Priority 2-UHFDF.

Priority 3-RACON.

Most NAVAID equipment is portable and

has se lf-contained housing that is adequatefor short-time use. In more deliberate con-s t ruc t ion and fo r suppor t ing ha rdstands o rcable l ine , addit ional construction must beperformed and building materials provided.The AFCS personnel provide, install, anderect a l l equipment, cables, and antennas.The USAASO personnel provide technical as-sistance only.

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The construction force provides and constructs prefab housing, access roads, hastands, and foundations (bases) for antenas. The construction force a lso cutsditches or trenches for laying cable, al-though the actual cable laying and ante

erection are done by AFCS personnel suported by construction forces. The final ing of all facilities is done by AFCS andUSAASO personnel. In this section, onlapproximate siting is given. Thus,NAVAIDs are considered in planning the out of other facilities on a base. (See Fure 11-27, page 11-48.)

Adoption of standard NAVAID buildings(types T-0, T-1, T-2, and T-3) has beenmade by using fractions of the basic 20-48-foot prefab building. The type of buiing used depends on the power supply gerators required. In all field- and intermate-type facilities requiring a shed for apower unit, cable is laid on the ground tween the power shed and the equipmenFor temporary-type construction, direct ial power cable is used. Remoting cableburied only in temporary-type constrict

The selection of cable size depends on tdistance over which the cable must carrpower. Cable is not listed in BOMs, but

must be considered in planning and logtics.

E q u i p m e n t a n d P o w e r

The following is a summary of commonlused NAVAID equipment and the power rquirements for each group of related eqme n t :

Precision Approach Radar (GCA). Th eAN/ CPN-4, AN/ MPN-11, a nd AN/ TSQ-7apply to all types of construction becauthese units are housed in mobile shelte

An access road, turnaround loop, and lehardstand for an approximate wheel loa9,000 pounds should be provided. In tporary-type construction, an undergroutra ns former vau lt with 120 / 208-volt (v)3-phase, 4-wire, 60-hertz (Hz), 45-kilo-vamp (KVA) transformer secondary servic100-ampere disconnect switch; and a

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Figure 11-27.

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Table 11-12. Size criteria for tactical airlift DZs


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Table 11-13. Size criteria for delayed opening (HAARS and HVCDS) DZ

Circular Drop Zones

A circular DZ is a round DZ with multiplerun-in headings. The size of the DZ is gov-erned by mission requirements and usableterrain. The radius of a circular DZ corre-sponds to the minimum requi red d is tancefrom the point of impact (POI) to one of thetrailing edge corners of a rectangular DZfor the same type a n d n u m b e r of loads be-ing dropped (see Figure 11-29, page 11-54).In other words, the entire DZ box must fitinside the circle. The POI of a circular DZis normally at the DZ center .

Drop-Zone MarkingsDZs are normally marked with a raised an-gle marker (RAM) or VS-17 marker panels,omnidirectional visible lighting systems,and if required, rotating light beacons. Virtually any type overt lighting or visualmarking system is acceptable if all partici-pat ing units are briefed and concur in i tsuse. Other day markings or visual acquisi-

tion devices in clu de colored sm oke, m irror,railroad fu sees, or an y reflective/ contra st-ing marker panel (space blanket) . In somecases, geographical points may be used.Night markings or acquisi t ion aids may in-clu de a B-2 light gu n , flares, fire/ fire p ots,railroad fusees, flashlights, or chemlights.Combat control units also may use special-ized clandestine infrared (IR) lighting sys-tems. Electronic markings may be used forei ther day or night operat ions.

Tact ica l Air l i f t Drop-Zone Markings

Timing points. Timing points are not nor-

mally required for tactical airlift airdrop op-erat ions. If they are needed to meet mis-sion requirements and the terrain al lowsthem, t iming points should be equidistantfrom the extended DZ centerlineno morethan 1,300 yards (1,183 meters) before thePOI and 300 yards (273 meters) to 400yards (364 meters) (350 yards (319 meters)


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Table 11-15. DZ POl placement minimums

size requirements are met for the load being RAM (day operations) or a block letterd ropped and tha t the en t i re DZ fa l l s w i th in (n igh t opera t ions ) .the su rveyed boundar ies . The miss ion com-mander or supported force commander a lsomay request the DZ be set up with the POIat a specif ic point on the DZ. These re-quests a lso must be made a t leas t 24 hoursin advance . The reques te r e i the r ensuresthe min imum DZ s ize requ i rements remainon the surveyed DZ or accepts responsibi l -i ty for the drop i f they do not . Both theseprocedures a re used on ly dur ing VFR opera -tions. Aircrew schedulers ensure requestsfor these type operat ions are consol idatedto prevent more than two POI locat ionchanges on one DZ during a mission or op-e r a t i o n .

Unless o the rwise coord ina ted wi th the a i r -crew, the POI is normally marked with a

The RAM is aligned into the aircraft lineof flight with the base on the actual in-tended landing point. If required for ad-d i t i o n a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o r a u t h e n t i c a t i o ncolored panels (placed flat on the sur-face in a block letter or other prebriefedsymbol) may be added.

Block letters are at least 35 feet by 35feet. They consist of at least ninewhite / IR, omnidirect ional l ights fornight ( i f the tact ical environment per-mits). Letters authorized for POI mark-ings are A, C, J, R, and S. The lettersH and O may be used for circular DZSsIf used for day operations, the letter willconsist of at least nine marker panels.


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If used, smoke is displayed next to anddownwind of the POI for other than Con-tainer Delivery System (CDS) drops. ForCDS, visual acquisition signals are nor-mally displayed on the DZ centerline, 200yards/ 180 meters sh or t of the intendedPOI.

On small CDS (resupply) DZs where obsta-cles may prevent timely visual acquisitionby the aircrew, visual signals may be dis-played at the trailing edge of the DZ on thecenterline or at another location on the DZ.If this option is exercised, the DZC mustensure all participating aircrews have beenthoroughly briefed on the change in loca-t ion.

Trailing edge. For night airdrops, the trail-ing edge marker (if used) will be an amber,

rotating beacon (or other briefed light)placed at the trailing edge of the minimumsize DZ (for the type airdrop being done) onthe DZ centerline.

No-drop signals. A scrambled block letter,a block letter X, markings removed, redsmoke, red flares, a red beam from a B-2light gun, or any other precoordinated sig-nal on the DZ indicates a no-drop condi-tion. Temporary closing of the DZ or tem-porary delay of the airdrop is shown byforming the letter identifier into two paral-lel bars, placed perpendicular to the line of

flight. These visual signals may be con-firmed by radio communication to the air-craft if communications security permits.

Visual clearance. Unless radio communica-tions are specifically required, any precoor-dinated marking (other than red smoke,flares, or lights) displayed on the DZ indi-cates clearance to drop.

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Special-Use Drop-Zone Markings

Marked special operations drop zone. Thisis an authent icated drop zone, which hasthe POI or release point marked with a pre-coordinated signal. This marking may be

either overt (block letter, flares, smoke, mir-ror, or RAM) or covert (IR strobe, RACON,or zone marker). No other markings are re-quired. Unless radio communications arespecifically required, any precoordinatedmarking (other than red smoke, flares, orlights) displayed on the DZ indicates clear-ance to drop. For personnel drops, the DZwill be visually marked to identify it as ahazard to parachut is ts .

RACONs. Tactical airlift airdrops using RA-CONs require the use of a collocated pairof tuned I-band (SST-181) beacons. MC-

130 aircraft can use a single I-band beaconor other type radar beacons. The TACAN isnot normally placed on a DZ as an airdropaid.

For special operation airdrops, NAVAIDs areplaced as directed by the mission com-mander. They are normally located on therelease point or on the POI.

EXTRACTION ZONES

EZs are areas used for delivering supplies

and equipment by aircraft without actuallylanding. At an EZ, the load is removedfrom the aircraft by a deployed parachute.As the aircraft fl ies by, the parachute pullsthe load from the aircraft. This is called aLAPES. Figure 11-31 shows a typical

Figure 11-31. Low-Altitude Parachute-Extraction System


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LAPES deployment from a C-130 aircraft.Specific details on EZs are contained inAMC Reg 55-60.

The LAPES, as described in the previous

paragraph, is a low-alti tude method of aer-ial delivery. This system employs a 15-footdrogue parachute deployed behind the air-craf t and a t tached to a tow plate on the a i r -craft ramp. At the release point, the para-chute forces are transferred from the towplate to the ring slot or ribbon main extrac-tion parachute(s) that then extract singleor tandem platforms from the aircraft .Ground friction decelerates the load.Loads up to 42,000 pounds may be deliv-ered into small areas using LAPES and tan-dem platforms. The total distance from re-

lease to stopping point of the load dependson ground speed, size, number of extrac-tion parachutes, weight of the load(s), andtype of terrain.

Genera l EZ Cr i te r ia

Since proper site selection for the EZ de-pends on a variety of conditions, there arespecific criteria that must be used to en-sure a safe operation when physically locat-ing the EZ. These criteria are shown in Fig-u r e 1 1 - 3 2 .

Approach zones . The complete approachpath for LAPES consists of the initial a n d fi-nal approach zones . These two zones over-lap and use different glide slope ratios forobstacle c learance.

The initial approach zone is 10,500 feetlong, and s tar ts 11,000 feet and ends 500feet (at the release panels) from the leadingedge of the impact/ slide-out zone. The rec-ommended glide-slope ratio for obstacleclearance within this zone is 35:1.

For day operations, the final approach zoneon th e leading edge of the impa ct/ slide-outzone should consist of two 400-foot zones(800 feet in total length). The inner 400-foot zone (nea rest th e imp act/ slide-outzone) may be a graduated slope with obsta-cles limited to a maximum of 1 foot at theleading edge of the impact/ slide-out zoneand 12 feet at the farthest edge from the

impact/ slide-out zone. The ou ter 400 -footzone may be a graduated slope with obsta-cles limited to a maximum of 12 feet at theinner edge and a maximum of 50 feet atthe outer edge. The inner zone of the final

approach zone must be sufficiently clear tomake the impact panels clearly visible (be-cause of the steep aircraft approach, the ap-proach-zone slope must not exceed a 15:1ratio).

For night operations, the final approachzone on the leading edge of the im-pact/ slide-out zone shou ld consist of twozonesone 600 feet long and the other1,000 feet long (1,600 feet total length).The 600 -foot zone n earest th e imp act/ slide-out zone should be a level area with no ob-

stacles over 1 foot high. The next 1,000-foot zone may be a graduated slope with ob-stacles limited to a maximum of 1 foot atthe inner edge and a maximum of 12 feetat the outer edge. The entire portion ofthe final approach zone must be clear tomake the approach zone and impact arealights clearly visible to the aircraft.

Th e imp act/ sl ide-out zone should be clearof obstructions and relatively flat. It maycontain grass: dirt: sand: short, l ightbrush; or snow.

Th e clear area may be a graduated s lopewith obstacles limited to a maximum of 1foot high adjacent to the impact/ slide-outzone and 2 feet at the outer edge.

Th e lateral safety zone may be a graduatedslope with obstacles limited to a maximumof 2 feet at the inner edge and 12 feet atthe outer edge.

Th e climb-out zone should contain no ob-structions that would prevent a loaded air-

craft from maintaining a normal obstacleclearance climb rate after an inadvertenttouchdown, delivery abort, or extractionmalfunction.

Multiple LAPES. Extraction lanes are desig-nated in numerical sequence from left toright. The left lane in the direction of flight


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Figure 11-33. Multiple LAPES zones configuration and marking

Figure 11-34. Day EZ markings

Figure 11-35. Night EZ markings

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Figure 11-37. Runway marking pattern (SOF airfields)


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