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Proceedings of 99 International Conference on Agricultural Engineering Beijing, China, December, 1999

III-10

2) it must feed the worlds hungry tomorrow;3) it must prevent deterioration of soil and water.Despite the fact that today a U.S. farmer feeds 96people, it is estimated that in the world 841million people remain hungry and undernourished[2]. Seven hundred million (projected to rise to

1.5 billion by 2030) people live in 42 so-calledHighly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs, JeffreySachs). In general 3 billion people survive on lessthan 2 USD per day [3]. In developing countriesrural economy characterizes with highunemployment and poverty. Agriculture wastesindustrial conversion into biofuels or value-addedproducts in rural area is a new non-farm activityform. These activities create occupationaldiversification by increasing interdependencebetween farm and non-farm. Such non-farm

activities and occupational diversification shouldbe bases for job generation and povertyelimination.Agriculture is important not only for developingbut also for developed countries. What Americansare calling a farm crisis is really an export crisis.The $90 billion farm sector with the nations 1.9million farms has become the most export-sensitive part of the $7 trillion U.S. economy [4].One in three acres of U.S. farmland is used togrow crops for export. From 25% to 33% of totalU.S. farm output is shipped to foreign markets.380,000 U.S. farmers are organized under theU.S. United Soybean Board (USB). Investigationof new uses for soybeans, including industrialuses, is one of the missions of this board [5]. Oneof the USBs goals is to introduce 60 newproducts and applications by 2005. In 1997,898,000 tons were used for industrial purposes inthe USA. Estimates are that in 2005, 3.27 milliontons will be used for industrial purposes in theU.S. [5]. 380, 000 farmers (USB) 0.5% of yearsell products money supported for soybean newuses. Replacement of synthetic litographic inksand varnishes (LIV) with soybeans and othervegetable oils facilitates recycling of waste paper.When printed or varnished papers are deinked inorder to recycle fibers, process waters containingthe ink formulations can be easily reused afterbiochemical degradation [6].

What does Biorefinery Mean? Biorefineryseparates the plant biomass, so-calledlignocellulosic materials, into its building blocks- phenols and sugars. Biorefinery technologiesproduce value-added products that might rangefrom basic food ingredients to complex

pharmaceuticals and from simple buildingmaterials to complex industrial composites.Products such as biofuels (ethanol, biodiesel),glycerol, lipids, oils, citric acid, lactic acid, aceticacid, furfural, isopropopanol, vitamins,levoglucosan, sugars and protein polymers couldbe produced for use in food, cosmetic andpharmaceutical industries. Intermediate fuels ascharcoal and briquettes should also bemanufactured using clean and energetically self-efficient small scale production units [7]. A

crucial for biorefinery is development of productssuch as fibers, new adhesives, biodegradableplastics, degradable surfactants, detergents,specific polymers and enzymes, etc., to fillparticular niches. Recently almost 50 percent ofall detergents in the USA contain enzymes andthe market share in Europe and Japan for enzymebased detergents is over 90 percent. The cost ofenzymes has dropped by more than 75 percent in

the last 10 years [8]. Biorefinery CO2 productioncycle is closed and it can stabilize atmospheric

greenhouse gases (GHG) concentration. Ingeneral, biomass as renewable is a sustainable

resource and thanks to photosynthesis is CO2neutral. This is a principal advantage ofbiorefinery in comparison with oil refinery andother fossil fuel consumption systems. Viewingbiorefinery in terms of its role in ecorestructuringof the society, biomass, particularly agriculturalwaste, will become the major raw material forproduction of industrial chemicals and relatedmaterials. It is analogous to petroleum as the

basic feedstock for oil refinery. However, thepetrochemical industry has a significant lead intechnology for converting their primary rawmaterial to various products. The scope ofmethodology for conversion of biomass is muchsmaller and the list of products available fromrenewable biomass is much shorter than forpetrochemicals. So, in contrast to oil refinery,which operates with nonrenewable resources

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similar manipulation of renewable resources liesfar behind. We can conclude biorefinery needsserious technological development. Biorefinerywould include cost effective technologies ofharvesting, transporting, drying andmanufacturing of the biomass.

Biomass distribution density as well as energy islow in comparison with existing fossil resources.Hence the economic value per unit weight of thematerials is also low and consequently the value-added becomes low. As a consequence,development of biorefinery technologies shouldbe based on the principle of local uses in smallareas. Biorefinery technologies should becompact and mobile, oriented to be applied inrural areas and generate new jobs. Particularly itis to important for developing countries because

about 90 percent of growth in the worldspopulation will be among people living in thesecountries with traditional village-based ways oflife. The biorefining conversion of biomassshould be considered not only as a substitute forfossil resources but also as an integrated use ofliving organisms, microorganisms and enzymesin a cycle producing food-stuffs, fuels, feeds,value added chemicals and industrial materials.Biorefinery technologies should not adverselyaffect the environment, living things and life ofpeople in community. The systems approachrequires analyses of such three importantagricultural and forestry cycles as carbon(respiration, photosynthesis, organic matterdecomposition), water (precipitation, evaporation,infiltration, runoff) and nitrogen (N fixation,mineralization, denitrification) and theirinterdependencies. Soil degradation minimization

and biodiversity conservation are dominatingfactors to consider in biomass biorefinery.Principles of ecological conservation and thebalance between production and utilization ofbiomass resources should be used by applyingbiorefinery technologies. The global target for

biorefinery technologies is the eco-efficiency thatcan guarantee "resource productivity increasingby a factor of four, the world could enjoy twicethe wealth that is currently available, whilstsimultaneously halving the stress placed on ournatural environment" [9]. From thethermodynamic viewpoint, photosynthesis is themost important material- producing process onthe Earth. At the same time ecologicalproductivity is limited. Biomass can not growinfinitely. From the material cycle viewpoint

mankind irreversibly dissipates energy andmaterials. Only biomass in natural cyclesconcentrates renewable materials and dissipatesenergy. Fortunately for this sun energy weshouldnt pay.

Zero Emissions ConceptZero Emissions is the concept which represents ashift from the traditional system based on largeexploitation of natural resources and large wasteproduction to integrated cluster industries in

which all resources are used. In principle ZeroEmissions industrial cluster imitates naturalmaterial cycles and eliminates waste andpollution. Zero Emissions represents two leadingwings: industrial performance with increasingefficiency and resource consumption withreducing emissions (Fig.1).

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Fig.1 Achieving Zero Emissions requires improvements in industrial performance, greater efficiency in resourcesconsumption and reduction in the levels of waste according to R. Ayres and C-G Heden [10]

Hence, in case of biomass, particularlyagricultural and plantation waste utilizationstrategy would be oriented to create ZeroEmissions Biomass refinery integrated cluster.Change from oil refinery to biorefinery meansthat the traditional 3R approach (reduce, reuse,

recycle) is modified to 4R (replace, reduce,reuse, recycle). From business, it means toreplace core business based on production onlyone main product (grain, sugar, oil, etc.) todiversification of production with many marketproducts [11].

Raw Materials for BiorefineryThe main argument against biorefinery islimited land resources and soil degradation.Indeed 2 billion hectares were degraded in past50 years and 5-10 million hectares lost annually

to severe degradation [12]. However,biorefinery is principally orientated to organicwaste materials utilization. In Foreign AffairsLugar and Woolsey analysis showed There is,in short, no basis for the argument that Americadoes not have land to produce enough ethanolto make a very large dent in U.S. gasolineconsumption [13]. Today the worlds industryis utilizing not more than 10% of biomass of

raw materials from plantations [11]. At thesame time only 1% of all materials disposed ofin landfills could not be readily recycled by aprocess already available. Each year Americansproduce over 100 million tons of organicgreenwaste in the form of tree cuttings, yard

waste, and construction site debris. Lawsrestrictions to use of landfills in many U.S.states has become crucial for communities andfacilitate recycling of these organic materialswhich can represent nearly 30% of the wastestream at many landfill sites [14]. In 1989, 172million tons of fossil fuels were used in theUSA for making industrial products (excludingconstruction materials like asphalt). At thesame time, aside from papermaking (80.9million tons), only 6 million tons of plant

matter were consumed in the USA are used forindustrial purposes [8]. Hence the ratio of fossilfuels to plant materials are 30:1. At the sametime there is a great potential for lignocellulosicmaterials based biorefinery. In the USA alonethere are approximately 350 million tons ofagricultural waste currently disposed each year[8]. China has about two times moreagricultural waste materials. Unused residual

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biomass from tropical plantations is alsoenormously high. Many types of quite abundant

wastes from tropical plantations are waiting foreffective utilization (Table 1).

Table 1. Biomass waste materials from tropical plantations (dry weight except products) [15].

Plantation Biomass Unit World Asian Country

Rubber Latex production 106

tone 5.99 5.65 1.72 Thailand

Residual wood 10

6

M

3

100.0 94.2 28.5

Oil palm Oil production 106

tone 15.6 12.7 7.8 Malaysia

Residual wood 106

M3 80.8 65.8 40.8

Frond 106

tone 18.0 14.6 9.2

Coir 106

tone 28.0 22.8 14.0

Coconut Oil production 106

tone 45.1 38.2 10.3 Philippines

Residual wood 106

M3 157.6 133.5 36.0

Shell 106 tone 8.32 7.05 1.95

Coir 106

tone 13.3 11.3 3.05

Coir dust 106

tone 4.82 4.08 1.10

Sugar cane Production 106

tone 1149 511 259 India

Bagasse 106

tone 254 113 57

Rice Crop production 106 tone 562 513 190 China

Rice straw 106

tone 275 250 93

Rice hull 106

tone 100 91 33

Log wood Production 106

M3 3440 1150 306 China

Fire wood Production 106

M3 1891 879 269 India

Pulp wood Production 106

M3 498

Tropical biomass such as oil palm (Elaeisguneensis Jacq.), coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)

Fig. 2 Closed loop: biomass - biorefinery - value added products - disposed waste biorefinery [16].

coir dust and coir fiber, and rubber (Heveabrasiliensis) wood were analyzed [15] forchemical and structural characteristics of wallpolysaccharides and lignin to develop effectiveutilization. K.Iiyama [15] has proposed to

construct a Biological Industrial Complex(BIC) with few emissions for total utilization ofwastes from tropicalplantations. Thus, resources for biorefinery canbe used without damaging forests and

Plantation

Farm

HarvestHarvestTransportationTransportation

BIOREFINER

Y

FoodFeed

Biofuels

Textiles

Paper

Chemicals

Polymers

Composites

Vitamins

Enzymes

Pharmaceutics

.

Wastes

StorageStorage

Forest

Fishery

Municipalwaste

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agriculture land (not more than 10% of forestbiomass can be used for chemicals without itsdestruction) at the same time cleaning theenvironment. Organic materials from forestry,fishery as well as municipal waste also can beused as sources for biorefinery (Fig. 2).

Breakthrough TechnologiesA case study (Table 2) shows the advantages ofnew technologies in comparison with

conventional pulping technologies of plantmaterials. Targets for these technologies aredifferent.Cellulose and fibers are targets for theconventional pulping industry, for the steamexplosion [17] - fibers, cellulose, sugars, lignin

and phenols, for the solid state extrusion [18] -sugars and composite materials.

Tab. 2 Comparison of the conventional wood pulping, steam explosion and solid-state extrusion technologies

[19].

Wood

Pulping(Pulp and Paper Industry)

Steam

Explosion

Solid State

Extrusion

high water and energyconsumption;

high temperature steam; no water consumption;

additional chemicals

(sulfur and chlorinecompounds);

chemicals from biomass; no chemicals;

high environmentalpollution

small emissions no pollution

processing

hours minutes seconds

Another breakthrough technology isSimultaneous Saccharification and

Fermentation (SSF) [20]. When enzymatichydrolysis is employed after a pretreatmentstep, for instance after steam explosion (Fig.3)enzymatic hydrolysis and 6- carbon atomscontaining sugars fermentation can becombined into one process. Next breakthroughin biomass to ethanol technology wassimultaneously fermentation of both xylose (5-carbon sugars) and glucose (6- carbon sugars)

by using genetically- engineered bacteriumZymomonas mobilis [21].These techniques eliminate the need and thecost of separate tanks for saccharification and

fermentation of glucose and xylose.Furfural from low grade wood and

agricultural wastes as equivalent to

fossil oil. A case studiesFurfural has fantastic application possibilities(Fig. 4) and in future can become as analternative source which partially replace fossiloil for production of chemicals and motor fuel.

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WOOD orWOOD orAGRICULTURAL RESIDUESAGRICULTURAL RESIDUES

STEAM EXPLOSIONSTEAM EXPLOSION

ENZYME PRODUCTIONENZYME PRODUCTION

SIMULATENOUS SACCHARIFICATIONSIMULATENOUS SACCHARIFICATION

ETHANOLETHANOL

BUTANEDIOLBUTANEDIOL

ENZYMESENZYMES

90% OF STEAMED

RESIDUES

10% OF STEAMED

RESIDUES

Fig. 3 A simplified process of biomass conversion to ethanol or butanediol using steam explosion and SSF according

to E.K.C.Yu and J.N.Saddler

Fig. 4

A new theory to solve this problem wasdeveloped at the Latvian State Institute ofWood Chemistry (LSIWC) by N. Vedernikov

[22]. The theory is based on idea of differentialcatalysis of hydrolysis and dehydrationreactions using small amounts of concentratedsulfuric acid and acetic acid generated from

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hemicelluloses during the treatment. The aimedchange of the mechanism of process haspermitted to solve two problemssimultaneously: to make increase the furfuralyield from 55% up to 75% from theoretical andto diminish 5 times degree of the cellulose

destruction. On the basis of theoretical studies anew technology including two-step hydrolysisof foliage wood and other pentosan containingraw material has been elaborated. Since 1997for the first time in the world's industrialpractice this technology yielding furfural andfermentable sugars further processed intobioethanol has been realized in Russia withcapacity 4.300 t/a of furfural and 8.800 t/a ofbioethanol [22]. The degree of raw materialutilization has grown 3 times, the total yield of

furfural and fermentable sugars - 4 times whencompared to the only furfural production.Recently worlds furfural market is around300,000 tons per year. About 80,000 tons areproduced from sugar cane bagasse.

Economic assessment of steam

exploded biomass fractionation as case

studiesAs a method to obtain various value-addedproducts from biomass, particularly from

agricultural waste, the steam explosion (SE)autohydrolysis treatment has been proposed ascore technology around which complementaryindustries cluster can be build. Studies at theLSIWC had shown that SE treatment allowedto obtain fibers and a variety of value-added

biochemicals from wood and non-wood(bamboo, oil palm, parts of pineapple plant,corn cobs and kernels) biomass [23,24]. The SEand also mentioned above solid state extrusion(or shear deformation under high pressure(SDHP) as model process) action on wood andnon-wood biomass will be interpreted as aself-sufficient treatment method [19,23]:system components or conversion products startto act as physical and/or chemical factorsnecessary for further transformations during the

process. A crucial for new lignocellulosiceconomy (or sometimes in literature was usedcarbohydrate economy) to compete withtraditional hydrocarbon economy is marketforces of oil and biomass refineries. The maineconomic analyses for SE were done by Avellarand Glasser [25]. As a starting point authorsused biomass materials refinery flow diagram(Fig.5).

Fig. 5 BBiioommaassss mmaatteerriiaallss rreeffiinneerryy ffllooww ddiiaaggrraamm iinn ccaassee oofftthhee sstteeaamm eexxpplloossiioonn pprreettrreeaattmmeenntt

The manufacturing cost items are summarizedin Table 3.

Biomass materials

Bleached Cellulose

STEAM EXPLOSION

H2O EXTRACTION

ALCOHOL EXTRACTION

and/or ALCALINE

EXTRACTION

NON-CHLORINEBLEACHING

Soluble sugars or

oligo sugars

Soluble lignin

fragments

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Table 3 Steam explosion manufacturing cost items

Cost item Cost determination

Raw materials Input as biomass, in dry tons per year, cost ($/dryton)

Chemicals, alkali and acid Input from mass balances, as tons per year, cost ($

t-1)Labor Summarized in spreadsheet from individual

module input x salary per operator x benefits factorSupervision 10% of total labor costsMaintenance and repair (M&R) 5% of total installed capital cost excluding working

capitalOperating supplies 10% of M&R per annumLaboratory and quality control Variable input percentage on total labor (10% base

case)Insurance Variable input percentage on fixed capital (0.5%

base case)General and administrative Variable input percentage on overhead (25% base

case)Marketing expense Variable input percentage on total expense (5%

base case)

The basic economic assumptions were: All product costs are production costestimates only. No income tax, investment taxcredits, return on investment or profit isassumed for any case. The reader should adopta reasonable tax structure and profit margins fora complete economic evaluation. Equipment sizing and costing at scale +

109,000 green tons per year with scaling factoras exponent 0.6 total capital investment(including working capital). Evaluation at ca mid 1988 U.S. dollars, CEIndex at 400. Plant life and straight line depreciationschedule, 15 year, no salvage value. Zero construction time.Instantaneous economic evaluation (i.e., noinflation, capital cost escalation, labor rateescalation or increase in maintenance or repair

costs).

Authors [25] analyzed eight individual models:MODULE 1: raw steam exploded fiber(including all woodhandling auxiliaries, steamgenerator and the StakeTech gun)MODULE 2: water extractionMODULE 3: water extract evaporatorsMODULE 4: alkali extraction

MODULE 5: lignin extract evaporationMODULE 6: alkali extract precipitationMODULE 7: spray drying (this module would

be used in the place of module 5)MODULE 8: lignin filter cake dryer

Individual modules are connected into completeprocess simulations called scenarios. Each

scenario models the unit operations required forthat process complete with an economicevaluation to allow the estimation of productioncostsThe corresponding block and flow diagrams forscenarios 1, 2, and 3 are showed in Fig.6, 7, and8.

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Fig. 6 Block flow diagram for scenario 1 - raw steam-exploded fibers

Fig. 7 Block flow diagram for scenario 2 - water extracted, unbleached steam-exploded fibers and WSS concentrate

Process Raw

Material Input

MODULE 1

Steam-Explosion

Unbleached

Dry Fiber

MODULE 2

Water Extraction

MODULE 9

Fiber Drying

MODULE 3

Water Extract

Evaporator

Water Soluble

Solids (WSS)

Process RawMaterial Input

MODULE 1MODULE 1

Steam-Steam-Explosion

MODULE 9

Fiber DryingUnbleached

Dry Fiber

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Fig. 8 Block flow diagram for scenario 3 - unbleached, extracted, steam-exploded fibers, wss concentrate and ligninprecipitate (dry product)

Avellar and Glasser obtained interesting results.An unprocessed, undried (50% moisture),steam-exploded wood fiber can be produced fora total process cost of $ 0.077 kg-1, plus the costof raw

material. Using raw material cost of $ 44 t-1 dry

basis, the total process cost is $ 0.117 kg-1 rawmaterial processed. On the basis of purecellulose (anhydroglucose AHG, the potentialglucose yield), the total process cost is $ 0.271kg-1 AHG (including raw material). Variation inscale has the greatest effect on the total processcost. The point of diminishing effect of scale onthe total cost is above 220,000 t of greenfeedstock raw material per year (base case is109,000 green metric tons raw material peryear). This allows the conclusion that steam-

explosion processing can operate on a smallscale and be economical. Water washed steam-exploded biomass fiber along with water-soluble solids (WSS) can be produced for $0.165 kg-1, plus raw material, if the WSS arerecovered by evaporation concentration. Moredelignified, steam-exploded fiber with recoveryof WSS and aqueous alkali soluble lignin canbe produced for between $ 0.222 and $ 0.246

kg-1 of raw material processed, dry basis,depending on the lignin recovery optionemployed (i.e. evaporative concentration,precipitation from alkaline solution; or spraydrying). An evaluation of current marketconditions will indicate that steam-explosionalone for a raw fiber is marginally economical.Some high value co-products and markets must

be developed for the lignin and water solublesolids WSS (pentosans/xylan) before the steam-explosion fractionation technology will beattractive as a new, stand alone industry.

The President Clintons new

Executive Order on bio-based

products and bioenergy, August 12,

1999Without doubt the biomass conversion program

based on biorefinery needs state support andcooperation between government, business,industry and science. Recently the USAdemonstrated such type of cooperation. OnAugust 12, 1999 The Executive Order (citedfurther from [26]) issued by President Clintonwill coordinate Federal efforts to accelerate thedevelopment of 21" century bio-basedindustries that use trees, crops, and agricultural

Process Raw

Material Input

MODULE 1

Steam-Explosion

Unbleached

Dry Fiber

MODULE 2

Water Extraction

MODULE 9

Fiber Drying

MODULE 3

Water Extract Evaporator

Water Soluble

Solids (WSS

MODULE 4Alkali Extraction

MODULE 6

Alkali Extract

Precipitation

MODULE 8

Lignin Dryer

Lignin

Solids

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and forestry wastes to make fuels, chemicals,and electricity. Owing to recent scientificadvances, bioenergy and bioproducts haveenormous potential to create new economicopportunities for rural America, enhance U.S.energy security, and help meet environmental

challenges like global warming. In a separateExecutive Memorandum, the President set agoal of tripling U.S. use of bio-based productsand bioenergy by 2010. Meeting this goal couldcreate $15 billion to $20 billion in new incomefor farmers and rural America, and reduceannual greenhouse gas emissions by an amountequal to as much as 100 million metric tons ofcarbon (MMTCE) - the equivalent of takingover 70 million cars off the roadRecent scientific advances in farm, forestry,

and other biological sciences are makingbioenergy and bioproducts more technicallyfeasible and more economically viable. Recentreports and studies - including the just-releasedNational Research Council report, "BiobasedIndustrial Products" - have concluded thatFederal support for research is essential torealizing the economic and environmentalpotential of bio-based industries. Today'sExecutive Order acts on this advice to create apowerful new research management team tofocus Federal efforts with a goal of tripling U.S.use of bioenergy and bioproducts by 2010.Energy from biomass sources currentlyaccounts for about 3 percent of the total U.S.energy supply - mostly from wood and woodwaste.Today's Executive Order also builds on theAdministration's record of strong and consistentsupport for bio-based industries. This includesthe Administration's electricity restructuringbill introduced earlier this year requiring that7.5 percent of all U.S. electricity come fromrenewable resources by 2010; Executive Order13101, signed in September 1998, instructingFederal agencies to make use of Biobasedproducts; new proposed tax credits for bio-based electricity production; and increasedresearch finding for the Department of Energy(DOE), the Department of Agriculture (USDA),and the National Science Foundation

For rural America, a fast-growing bioenergymarket will greatly increase the demand forenergy crops and for agricultural and forestresidues, or wastes, of all types. Since the costof transporting the raw materials is high, mostof the value-added work would occur in rural

communities, providing new revenue streamsfor farmers and cash-flow for rural economicdevelopment. This means that good, high-technology jobs associated with producingbiofuels and chemicals can be added in ruralcommunities helping ensure that they will be anintegral part of a prosperous 21st centuryAmerican economy. By creating high-techjobs and new economic opportunities, meetingthe President's goal of tripling U.S. use ofbioenergy and bioproducts could add $15

billion to $20 billion in new income for farmersand many rural communities. Finally, as thePresident's Committee of Advisors on Scienceand Technology highlight in their new report -"Powerful Partnerships: The Federal Role inInternational Cooperation on EnergyInnovation" - investments in bioenergytechnologies, infrastructures, and markets couldincrease profitability for U.S. firms competingin global markets, while simultaneouslyproviding for the world's future energy needs inan environmentally sustainable waySubstituting biomass for fossil fuels candramatically reduce greenhouse gas emissionsthat contribute to global warming. Sincebiomass crops absorb carbon during growth,their use for energy and other applicationsresults in near zero net carbon release. Meetingthe President's goal of tripling our use ofbioenergy and bioproducts by 2010 will reducegreenhouse gas emissions by up to 100MMCTE - the equivalent of taking more than70 million cars off the road. Substituting forfossil fuels, bioenergy will also reduceemissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx). sulfuroxides (SOx), and other pollutants.Additionally, the deep-rooted plants commonlyused for biomass - such as poplar, willow, andswitchgrass - are helpful in controlling erosion,filtering chemicals from water runoff, andslowing floodwaters

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President Clintons FY 2000 budget

on biomass [26]The President's FY 2000 budget requestcontains $242 million for investments inbiomass research, development anddeployment, including:

* Advanced Biomass Power and Fuels. Fundingfor DOE and USDA to continue developing,testing, and demonstrating high-yield, low-costbiomass feedstocks; cofiring biomass with coalto produce electricity; advanced technologiesfor biomass gasification using paper industryby-products; and continued work on producingalternative fuels, such as ethanol, from biomass.* National Biomass Partnership. Funding forDOE, USDA and other Federal agencies andprivate partners to launch a national partnership

to develop advanced integrated biomasstechnologies.The President has also proposed a package ofbiomass tax credits. The President proposes toextend for 5 years the current 1.5 cent perkilowatt hour tax credit for electricity producedfrom biomass. The proposal also expands thetypes of biomass eligible for the credit toinclude certain forest-related, agricultural andother resources. Finally, the package includesa 1.0 cent per kilowatt hour tax credit for

electricity produced by cofiring biomass in coalplants.To date, Congress has not only failed to enactthese proposed new tax credits, but hasterminated the current 1.5 cent per kilowattcredit and cut the President's budget request by14 percent.

Conclusions

The authors propose that sustainableagriculture is not only to include sustainable

agricultural management and engineering, butalso the chemical and physical processing ofbiomass, particularly agricultural wastes, whichcan be obtained from sustainable agriculture,offering value-added products and generatingadditional jobs.

The agriculture, forestry and plantation sectorsbiomass refinery with Zero Emissions targetcould become the economic powerhouse of the21st century just like the oil refinery was in the

20th century. The success of oil refinery is dueto fact that the petrochemical industry utilize allmolecules with high efficiency, nothing iswasted. So, biorefinery needs develop newtechnologies and methodologies to succeed in asimilar full utilization of biomass moleculesinto value-added chemicals and materials. As a

result many products would be available inabundance.

Powerful partnership between governmentalinstitutions, business, industry and science isnecessary for succesfull development of theZero Emissions agricultural system usingBiorefinery approach. Environmental issuesand global climate change as well as additionalincome opportunities and rural sustainableeconomic development could be the maindriving forces for Zero Emissions Biorefinerydevelopment.

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Cellulose, Wood, and Paper Under Sheer Deformationand High Pressure, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 1994, Vol.54, No. 6, 697-708.

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Life-Cycle and Environmentally SustainableDevelopment, 1998. Campinas, Brazil. Published bythe UNU/IAS, 1998, 161-165.

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24.J.Gravitis,A.Kokorevics, O.Bikovens, U. Kallavus,R. Teeaar. Steam Exploded Bamboo Fibers StructureStudies. Proceedings of the 10th InternationalSymposium on Wood and Pulping Chemistry,Yokohama, Japan, 1999, vol. I, 656-661.

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26.http://www.ubeca.org/pubs/press/bio-annouce081199.html
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