.

(Universal Grammar,UG)

PPP

(deductive approach)

(inductive approach)

(transformation task)

(CET)

TEM

IELTS

16

(competence)(performance)Hymes(1995)

202070-8090

90Widdowson (1990)Widdowson

PBalcom

Mariane Celce Muriea (1991)

Louis Alexander

(code)

.

1

2

3()

4

5

6

7

8()

9

10

()

()of(phonology)(graphology)(grapheme)(semiology)(morphology)(-ing)(the)(syntax)

(semantics)cousinYour cousin is the son or daughter of your aunt and uncle.()(non-)and so forth(notion)()()

(meaning potential)Good morningGood afternoonGood morning(pragmatics)

()()

1-1

I am cold

Excuse me, could you tell me the right time, please?

What time is it, please?

Whats the time?

Time?

How much longer have we got?

My watch seems to have stopped.

(1997:160), Halliday(,1999)(2003)

1()()()

2

3()

4

Grammar may be roughly defined as the way language manipulates and combines words (or bits of words) in order to form longer units of meaning (Ur, 1988).

[Grammar is] a description of the structure of a language and the way in which units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in the language (Richards, Platt and Weber, 2008).

[Grammar] is the way in which words change themselves and group together to make sentences. The grammar of a language is what happens to words when they become plural or negative, or what order is used when we make questions or join two clauses to make one sentence (Harmer. 1987).

Widdowson (199282)

Lyons(Stern1983)

Longman(1989):

(200011)

George Yule (2002)

Larsen-Freeman (200534-38)grammaring(morphosyntax)(semantics)(pragmatics)

(2004)(pedagogical grammar)

(2006)/()/(interestin)(er)

(2001)

1-2

1-3

1-3 the interaction between grammar and other subjects of language

10002005, 16

, 16171586William BollokarPamphlet for Grammar (Brief Grammar)68Bollokar16PGr(Grammatica Anglicana, 1594) (Willward, CMA Biography of the English Language, 198921)

1719

1755 (Samuel Johnson)(Dictionary of English Language)18(the Age of Reason)

Robert LowthA Short Introduction to English Grammar176219(most highest)a meansa meanwhoselesserworserwhowhomWe are still at a loss, who civil power belongs to. ()whowhomhad ratherhad betterId ratherIdI hadI would-enwrotetookwrittentakenI have knew, I have saw, I have gaveI have wroteI have bore-ly(flat adverb-ly)It is meThese kind ofthanasHe is taller than ImeHe is older than she (is old)than her; He likes you better than (he likes) methan Ihidden, holdenbiddenhid, heldbid

18Lindley MurrayEnglish Grammarmeanswhosewhich

19(1819) William CobbettA Grammar of the English Language

WhartonThe English Grammar,7shall/will I + () It is IHes bigger than IImebetween you and mebetween you and I()(I want you to really tryI want you really to tryI want you to try reallyI really want you to try, ) different(ly) from to than(, to from than)

, :

, 192018911898Henry Sweet(descriptive)

Otto Jesperson(A Modern English Grammar),(The Philosophy of Grammar),(A Handbook of English Grammar) , 1909194920l20012

120

2

3

1

2(PalmerA Grammar of Spoken English), PoutsmaKruisingaZandvoortJespersenCurmeSweet, (Aarts, F1988/2)

19721985Randolph QuirkA Grammar of Contemporary EnglishA Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language(Survey of English Usage):

1

2

3

Quirk(Aarts, F1988)

1999BiberLongman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1209)1980

1

2(37,2444000)saythinkthat-that(P.681)95%80%45% ififshould(P.852)66%42%10%

3:go(say)

4It was a good book this/or woman who gets themself involved in(14), 90

5(lexical bundles)(preface)

,2050,,,

synchronic grammardiachronic grammar

(contrastivecomparative grammar)

(pedagogical grammar)(reference grammar)(linguistic grammar)(school grammar)(university grammar)(user's grammar)(case grammar)(stratificational grammar)

()

1-4

Larsen-FreemanTeaching LanguageFrom Grammar to Grammaring

1

(Anderson1983)

Larsen-Freemangrammaring(grammar)

2

Larsen-FreemanThere is a pencil on the tableIts a pencil on the tableit()there

A pencil is on the tablethereA pencil is on the table There is a pencil on the tableLarsen-Freeman

3

(: I see what you meanOnce you have done thatthe rest is easy)(Jo seldom tells the truthI wish you had told me the truth NP + tell + tense + the truth)

-ing

I am loving every minute of this class

love

4

-edde SaussureLarsen-Freeman

Larsen-Freeman-ed

-ed

I walked to school yesterday

I have finished my homework

The field was planted with corn

If he finished his homeworkhe would go

Diane said that she liked grammar

I was bored by the lecture

Did you want something to eat?(do)

What sort of price did you have in mind?

1-1

-edLarsen-Freeman Knowles()()()()()()-eddiddo

Larsen-Freeman-ed

5

Whom did you see?whomwho

Are you going downtown after class?

Arent you going downtown after class?

Are you not going downtown after class?

Youre not going downtown after classare you?

Youre going downtown after classarent you?

Youre going downtown after class?

You arent going downtown after class?

Going downtown after class?

6

()()(discursive tool)Larsen-Freeman

athe

_________ boy jumped over ________ stream

athe

A young boy was hurrying home from school and decided to take a shortcut through the woodsHe entered the woods behind the school by climbing over a fenceHe began to follow a familiar pathLater____ boy jumped over______ stream

the boystreamathere(context)(co-text)()

Larsen-Freeman

1

2

3(texture)

4

5

7

Larsen-FreemanLilia

12

Pressley1995

()

Lado(1961)Carroll(1968)

2050Chomskycompetenceperformance/ChomskyChomskyHymesHymesHymes

1

2)

3

4

HymesWiddowson(1989)Hymes

Competence has two components: knowledge and ability and all four of Hymes parameters can be reformulated as grammatical competence(the parameter of possibility)on the one hand, and pragmatic competence (all the other parameters)on the other (Widdowson, 1989132).

(Canale)(Swain)

(grammatical competence)

(sociolinguistic competence)

(discourse competence)

(strategic competence)

()

(paralinguistic)

Leech1983

()

()

()()

80Oller 1979the unitary competence hypothesismulticomponentialBachman1991673Bachman199081-10990Bachman the divisibility hypothesislanguage componentstrategic competence psycho-physiological mechanisms

1-5

Bachman/

(Larsen-Freeman)1991

It is not helpful to think of grammar as discrete set of meaningless, decontextualizedstatic structures. Nor is it helpful to think of grammar solely as prescriptive rules about linguistic form, such as injunctions against splitting infinitives or ending sentences with preposition. Grammatical structures not only have (morphosyntactic) form, they are also used to express meaning(semantics)in context-appropriate use(pragmatics).

1-6 The prototypical unit of three dimensions of grammar

(Larsen-Freeman)(grammaring),(appropriately)(meaningfully)()()

5

.()

She is eager to pleaseShe is easy to please

4

She wrote the article ten years ago The article was written by her ten years ago(Caims, 1976 )

(declarative knowledge)(procedural knowledge)(Anderson, 1983 in O Malley, J.M., and Chamot A. U. 2001)

(Brown, 1987) Do you speak English?(? )Do you understand English?(? )

(automatic skill)(controlled process)(automatic process)

(200110)(199658):

1

2H. SweetSweet(1913)man, tree, good, growJespersenoxoxenoxoxes

Halliday(lexico-grammar)(1974:86)(19766)(1976281)

FrightenRiseraiseriseraiseHe raises very early in the morning

3()(1995:12)(19905)

Rivers45%30%16%9%Chomsky

A: I really enjoyed myself today. How about you?

B: So did I.

didso

20056

W: I found an expensive diamond ring in the restroom this morning.

M: If I were you, I would turn it in to the security office. It is behind the administrationbuilding.

Q: What does the man suggest the woman do?

A) Give the ring to a policeman.

B) Wait for the owner of the ring in the restroom.

C) Hand in the ring to the security office.

D) Take the ring to the administration building.

20006

M: Wouldnt you get bored with the same routine year after year teaching the same thing to children?

W: I dont think it would be as boring as working in an office. Teaching is more stimulating.

Q: What does the woman imply about office work?

A) Its awfully dull.

B) Its really exciting.

C) Its very exhausting.

D) Its quite challenging.

Alexander200

Grammar and Vocabulary

This refers to range and accuracy as well as the appropriate use of grammatical and lexical forms. At BEC Preliminary level, a range of grammar and vocabulary is needed to deal with the tasks. At this level candidates may make frequent minor errors and use some inappropriate vocabulary, but this should not obscure intended meanings.

Discourse Management

This refers to the coherence, extent and relevance of each candidates individual performance. Contributions should be adequate to deal with the tasks. At times, candidates utterances may be inappropriate in length and some utterances may lack coherence.

1-2BEC Preliminary 2007:40

Grammar and Vocabulary

This refers to range and accuracy as well as the appropriate use of grammatical and lexical forms. At BEC Vantage level, a range of grammar and vocabulary is needed to deal with the tasks. At this level candidates should be accurate enough, and use sufficiently appropriate vocabulary, to convey intended meanings.

Discourse Management

This refers to the coherence, extent and relevance of each candidates individual performance. Contributions should be adequate to deal with the BEC Vantage tasks. At times, candidates utterances may be inappropriate in length.

1-3BEC Vantage 2007:68

Grammar and Vocabulary

This refers to range and accuracy as well as the appropriate use of grammatical and lexical forms. At BEC Higher level, a range of grammar and vocabulary is needed to deal with the tasks. At this level grammar is mainly accurate and vocabulary is used effectively.

Discourse Management

This refers to the coherence, extent and relevance of each candidates individual performance. Contributions should be adequate to deal with the BEC Higher level tasks. Candidates should produce utterances which are appropriate in length.

1-4BEC Higher2007:100

Rutherford (19876) (Yule2002120)(Nuttall20027886)Oakhill (2003),(comprehension monitoring)

(Many studies have shown that children harbour misconceptions about pure, curriculum science.) These misconceptions do not remain isolated but become incorporated into a multifaceted, but organized conceptual framework, making it and the component ideas, some of which are erroneous, more robust but also accessible to modification.

these misconceptionsnotbutnot remain isolated but become incorporated intonot butisolated incorporatedintoframeworkmakingmaking it and the component ideasrobustaccessiblecomponent idea

YES/NO/NOT GIVEN

The fact that childrens ideas about science form part of a large framework of ideas means that it is easier to change them.

YES

1Its a long time since I lived here.

2It has been ten years since I was a teacher.

since

1John will clean the classroom.

2John shall clean the classroom.

willshall(1)(2)

1We dont think that she will interview you personally.

2Personally, we dont think that she will interview you.

personally(1992)1personallywill interview2personallyWe dont think she will interview you

Canale (1983)

1()

2

3

1Sighing with resignation, Jill switched on her television set. She knew that the picture would be snowy and crackling with static. Her house being in a weak reception area.

2He failed a number of courses before he earned his degree. Among them, English I, Economics, and General Biology.

3A recent study indicates that most people usually sleep between seven and eight hours a night, however, about fifteen percent of the population requires nine hours or more.

12sentence fragments3run-onshowever

4

We must find new sources of energy. The earths natural sources of energy are dwindling. Solar energy is a promising new source of energy. Solar energy is energy from the suns radiation.

becausewhich

We must find new sources of energy because the earths natural sources of energy are dwindling. Solar energy, which is energy from the suns radiation, is a promising new source of energy.

Some claim that money is the only rule that measures a person. With much money, 1will lead a happy life; without money, will lead a sad life. If 2one people can earn lots of money, he will be regarded as a successful man.3Contrary, if one people can't earn much money, he will be considered a failure. Others try to prove that money is the source of all crimes. Some people think that money is the source of all crimes. They think so because they believe that the criminals 4do crimes for money. For example, a thief, a robber, and those who commit crimes 5in order of money aren't afraid of breaking the laws. As a matter of fact, money is not all good or all bad. It can make one rich, but it can also make one commit crimes. If money is in an honest man's hand, it is safe. On the other hand, if money is in a bad man's hand, it will be unsafe.

Money1oneOne will... 23peopleonepeoplepersonregard-edcontrarycontrarilyon the contrary45commit crimesin order to

Eugene ANida

great lorries with a double deck cargo of cars for export lumber past Magdalen and the University Church.

lumberlumber

College English185

The woman who said she saw the murder wears glasses

who...the murderthe woman

2008

He asserted, also, that his power to follow a long and purely abstract train of thought was very limited, for which reason he felt certain that he never could have succeeded with mathematics.

He asserted thathis power to wasto follow of thoughtpowerfor which reasonthat

On the other hand, he did not accept as well founded the charge made by some of his critics that, while he was a good observer, he had no power of reasoning.

he did not accept the charge made by thatas well foundedchargemadechargeThatchargewhile

, 16171719,

(Neogrammarians)(Karl Brugmann)(August Leskien)(Hermann Osthoff)(Hermann Paul) (Berthold Delbriick)(J Wright)(Antonie Meillet)

1

2

3

4(Phonetic laws)()

5

6

(18571913(Culler19767)

(18581917)(18561939)()William Dwight Whitney

1

2

3

(describe)(prescribe)20

1926106(Bolinge1968)

(1943)

20(18581942)19

(the Smithsonian Institution)201911

1921

(Sapir1921)

(Sapir,1921)

(Sapir1921)

Bloomfield1933

W. WundtmentalismJBWatsonbehaviourism(BehaviorAn Introduction to Comparative Psychology1914),

(AP Weiss)(positivism)(determinism)(mechanism)

(act of speech)(practical event)

A

B

C

ACB

A(S)C(R)(S)(R)

B

B1)(S)(R)(speech reaction)(substitute reaction)r

2-1

B2)

B3)s:

2-2

S rs R

2-3

SrsRSR(sr)S

(rs)

,

1,Bloomfielddancingdancesingingdancingdance/da:s/ing/i/

2Bloomfield

3Fries15

4IC Analysis(Immediate Constituent AnalysisIC Analysis)old men and womenOld menwomenoldmen and women

1Tom runs fast.

2The boy finished the book.

1Tom /runs //fast.

The boy /finished// the ///book.

1Tomruns fastrunsfastruns fast2The boyfinished the bookfinished the bookfinishedthe bookthe boytheboythe bookthebook

1 Tom runs fast.

2-4

2The boy finished the book.

2-5

?

1)

When he got home /nobody was at home.

2) ()

A young beautiful girl with some flowers who passed by/ met her boyfriend.

3)

often/ clean the room on Saturdays when she is at home

clean the room on Saturdays/ when she is at home

clean the room /on Saturdays

clean /the room

the /room

4)

a young beautiful girl with some flowers /who passed by

a beautiful young girl /with some flowers

a /beautiful young girl

beautiful /young girl

young /girl

5)

at/home because she must finish her homework

because /she must finish her homework

she /must finish her homework

must/ finish her homework

finish /her homework

her/ homework

6)

apples, /oranges /and /pears

7)

Is he sleeping?

2-6

The teacher took the studentsin.

2-7

A young beautiful girl with some flowers who passed by met her boyfriend.

2-8

The boy repaired the bicycle /in the house.

The boy /repaired the bicycle in the house.

in the house repaired the bicyclein the house the bicycle

Webster' s Third International Dictionary1961bringin

1957(Syntactic Structures)(the first linguistic model)(standard theory)(extended standard theory)(revised extended standard theory) (the theory of government and binding) (minimalist program)

1966 (Cartesien Linguistics)1718 (Chomsky1966)(Nelson Goodman)(Structure of Appearance1951)(VOQuine)(theory-oriented)

20 (Gestalt) (generate)

1933?(homotaxis)1951Jacobson

()He lost his pen He lost his wayhisHe told her to leave the partyHe promised her to leave the party to leave

1John is too stubborn to talk to Bill.

2John is too stubborn to talk to.

talk to1Johntalk2Johntalkcreativity)

BSkinner Chomsky196559

(LAD)

?

(Universal GrammarUG)

(Haegeman1991)

(Chomsky1965)(formal universals)(substantive universals)[][]

universal grammar(particular grammar)S0S0S1S2S3steady stateSsS0SsS0SsS0y=f(x) x=ySsfS0

psychological realityprinciples(parameter)

1

1 John is strong and stupid.

2 John is tall, strong and stupid.

3 John is fat, tall, strong and stupid.

4.

1 I believe that John came yesterday.

2 I believe that you know that John came yesterday.

3 I believe that you know the he thinks that John came yesterday.

recursiveness

2discreteness198825

3(linearity)(hierarchy)

The boy often came

Theboyoftencameboyoftenthe boyoften came

(sentenceS)the boyoften came(noun phraseNP)(verb phraseVP)the boy(determinerDET)the(nounN)boyoften came(adverbADV)(verbV)cameSNPVPNVDETADV(category)NPVPNV

(language competence(language performance)

1965

1982

1

2

3

3I-E-

internalized languageI-language(externalized language, E-language)I-I-Iinternalized, innate, individualintentionalE-languageE-I-I-I-

1(observational adequacy)

2(descriptive adequacy)

Chomsky196524(syntactic description, SD)

They dont know how good meat tastes.

goodmeattaste

S

P VP

Adj N V

good meat taste

2-9

S

P VP

Adj N V

meat taste good

2-10

1966

3(explanatory adequacy)

1957?explanatory adequacyRichard P. Feynman19632001Beyond Explanatory AdequacyLanguage and Mind

1957

1

(Chomsky195711)(device)()(set)(Chomsky195713)1)(generative)2) (simple)3) (explicit)A+B=C+D+EA=C+DBE A=CB=D+E4) (formal)5)(exhaustive)6)(recursive)abaabbaaabbbaaaabbbb(rewrite rule)S>a(S)b( )S>abS>aabbS>aaabbb

(infinite state grammar)(phrase structure grammar)

(initial state)(final state)(finite state language)

2-11

This man has bought the book()

These men have eaten some bread()

Anyone who says that is lying()who says thatanyoneis lying

(string)S NP+VP,

i. S NP+VP

ii. NP Det + N

iii. VP Verb + N

iv. Det the

v. N man, ball, etc.

vi. Verb hit, took, etc.

S(Sentence)NP(Nominal Phrase)VP(Verb phrase)Det= (Determiner)

The man hit the ball.

The man took the ball.

(labelled bracketing)

(NP(Det(the)N(man)VP(V(hit)NP(Det(the)N(ball))))

old menand women old (men and women)

2-12

(phrase-marker)

context-freecontext-dependent context-sensitive

X>YXY>YX(movement)XY>YX(deletion)XY>X(addition)XY>XYZ

Af + V V + Af#

(Af#)

AfVtakeshas + takenwill takehas + been +takenis + being + takenThe man has been reading the book

i. Verb Aux + V

ii. V hit, take walk, read, etc.

iii. Aux C (M) (have + en) (be + ing) (be + en)

iv. M will, can may, shall, must

sNPsing

v. CNPp1

past

Afsening#Chave + enbe + ing

Af + VV + Af#

The man has been reading the book.

i. the + man + Verb + the + book

ii. the + man + Aux + V + the + book

iii. the + man + Aux +read + the + book

iv. the + man +C +have + en + be + ing +read + the + book

v. the + man +s +have + en + be + ing +read + the + book

iv. the + man + have +s # be + en # read +ing # the + book

vii. # the # man # have + s # be + en # read # ing # the # book #

i. have + sha: z

ii. be + en bi: n

iii. read + ing /ri: di

The man has been reading the book.

2-13

not

1She might not come today

2John has not written the letter

3Jane was not smiling

4She didn't kiss her cat

havebedodoC+MC + haveC + beCX1X2X3

NPCV

NPC + M

NPC + have

NPC + be

X1X3X2 X1X2ntX3

do(do-insertion)

# Af #do + Af

i. John is easy to please. ()

ii. John is eager to please. ()

pleaseplease

i. It is easy to please John

ii..John is eager to please someone

2-14

2-15

(1)The man opened the door

(2)The man didnt open the door

(3) Did the man open the door?

(4) Didnt the man open the door?

(5)The door was opened by the man

(6)The door was not opened by the man

(7) Was the door opened by the man?

(8) Wasnt the door opened by the man?

3

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously()

+++

(Aspect of the Theory of Syntax) (1965)S NP+VPVP V + NP

2-16

John married MaryMary was married by John()John resembles his fatherHis father was resembled by John

(base component)(transformational component)(interpretative rule)(deep structure) (surface structure)

2-17

1

(rewriting rule)

A ZXY

AXYZAZXY(category symbol)N()NP()VP()Z)

The boy likes the picture

SNPVPNVDet theboylikepicture(1exical item)likes{s} (grammatical item)(formative)(string)

(tree diagram)

2-18

(node)(Phrase-markers)([p1P2P3Pn])NPVP(initial string)The boy likes the picture(terminal string)

(phrase structure rulePS-rule) (category component) (subcategorizational component)(1exicon)()()

PS-rule(branching rule)

PS-rule(subcategorization rule)(complex symbolCS)

N [+NCommon](Common +)

[+Common] [Count](Count)

[+Count] [Animate](Animate)

[+Animate] [Human] (Human)

[Count] [Abstract](Abstract)

(context-free)(context-sensitive)

N [+NCommon]

[Transitive] / P

P+ Transitive

(strict subcategorization rule)(selectional rule)

P

#()

Adjective

Predicate-Nominal (-)

CS/ like Predicate-Nominal (like -)

Prepositional-Phrase ()

that S (that )

etc.

[+Abstract] [+Animate](selectional restriction)

2

(map)(filter)

a + d +e +b + f + c + g + h

2-19

Wine drink John(John)(drink)(wine)SVPV+SNPNP+S

2-20

(John kills John=John kills himself)(You come here!=Come here!)(John kills JohnJohn kills himself)John kills John* kills John*kills himself (You come here!)

(criticismexplanation)

(1) *The square root of 5s criticism of the book

(2 ) *The square root of 5 criticised the book

11, 22

1Everyone loves someone

1Someone is loved by everyone

2Tom doesnt go to town very often

2Very often Tom doesnt go to town

1Beavers build dams

1Dams are built by beavers

11

John ate some spaghetti, and Mary some macaroni

ate

(1) John gave a book to Mary( _________ NP PP)

(2 ) John gave Mary a book. ( ________ NP NP)

(1) John donated a book to Mary( _________ NP PP)

(2)*John donated Mary a book( _________NP NP)

TG(Deep Structuresurface Structure and Semantic Interpretation1972)(Extended Standard TheoryEST)(Essays on Form and Interpretation, 1977)(Revised Extended Standard TheoryREST)ESTRESTEST

(focus) (presupposition)

(1) Not many arrows hit the target. ()

(2) Many arrows didnt hit the target.

NOT [many arrows hit the target]

12NOT

2-21

(syntax)

X(X bar theory)(complementComp)

1 VP V comp

2 NP N Comp

AP A Comp

PP P Comp

EST12

3XP X Comp

XVNAP3

4 XP

X Comp

XPXXX(bar)

4

5 X

X Comp

XXPXP XP(maximal projection)

X (Move -)

1979Chomsky(Lectures on Government and Binding)(1981(1982XChomskyempty categoryprinciples and parameters

1977

2-22

D--S-S-1979D-S--(PF)(LF)

D-

-

S-

PF LF

2-23

Baker(2001)

19931993(Bare Phrase Structure)19941995

??

optimal designThe Minimalist Program1995(Minimalist Inquires: the Framework)(1998)?

(government & binding)4(D-structure)(S-structure)(logical form)(phonetic form)(computational system)(move)(merge)

PFLF

2-24

1

2

3

4

5(Full Interpretation)(Procrastinate)Greed

(1995211)

1999Derivation by Phase2001(Beyond Explanatory Adequacy)

1957

17(Port-Royal)19(innere Sprachform)

(1anguage acquisition deviceLAD)

(corpus)

(type)(token)

Langacker70(Space Grammar)1982Space GrammarAnalysabilityand the English Passive 19871991(Foundations of Cognitive Grammar)CognitiveCognitive Grammar2000Grammar and ConceptualizationLakoff (1987)Taylor (1996), Lakoff Johnson(1999)

1.

2.

3.

Langacker

1. 2.

3.

4.

(Embodied Philosophy)

1.

2. ()

3.

4.

5. (Construal)

6.

7.

8.

9.

(Autonomy)(Modularity)(Language Faculty)(1965)

(psychological reality)(internal grammar)(Linguistic unit)

Langacker()()Langacker(19911)

()

(Input-free)

Langacker

1. (Phonological UnitPhonological PolePhonological StructurePhonological RepresentationPhonological Category)

2. (Semantic UnitSemantic PoleSemantic StructureSemantic RepresentationSemantic Category)

3. (Symbolic UnitSymbolic Structure)(the conventionalized and direct association of a phonological unit with a semantic unit, a semantic unit paired with a phonological unit)Langacker()[DOG][d g]

beds

(Langacker (88) 93)

2-25S=i=C=

,(encyclopedia)(perspective)

(conceptualization)Langacker ringringringringringringLangackerring circular entityschema(elaborated)ring a group of people who operate together secretly, like a smuggling ring or a spy ring(extension)()

2-26

Langacker(2000)(2000361370)

Langacker1987(ImageImagery)(Construal)

cognitive domain

LangackerdomainLangacker(semantic content)

()(Conceptual Complex)

(representational field)(irreducible)(1987)()()()

()

() bananabanana(encyclopedic knowledge)

2

Langacker(198719912000)

(Grouping)(Integration)

(Summary Scanning)(Sequential Scanning)()

(Image Schema)

construal

Langacker19871991(Image, Imagery)

(abstract analogy)Langacker(199115)Langacker construalimagery

LangackerMeaning is a function of both the content and the construal)Langacker Construal is our ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways.(specificity)(scope)(perspective)(salience, prominence)

1

(different levels of specificity, elaboration)

thing>creature>animal>mammal>dog>poodle

do>act>move>run>sprint

Something happened.

An animal moved.

A dog ran into the room.

A dirty poodle sprinted recklessly into the kitchen of our cottage.

That player is tall.

That defensive player is over 6 feet tall.

That linebacker is about 6.5 feet tall.

That middle linebacker is precisely 6.5 feet tall.

schema

2

(Scale)(Maximal ScopeMS)(ImmediatescopeIS) elbow handbodybodyarmarmelbow hand

2-27

arm>hand>finger>knuckle. armhandhandfinger

2-28

MSISThere is a mail box across the street.

MSacross the streetR(Reference Point)IS( Trajector) ( Landmark)

2-29

(1) This house has 7 doors. Each door has 3 hinges. Each hinge has 6 screws.

(2) *This house has 21 hinges/126 screws.

(3) *This door has 18 screws.

have(2)(3)

fingertip, fingernail, toenail, eyelash, eyelid, eyeball

*bodytip; *armnail; *legnail; *facelash; *bodylid; *headball

3)

(transformation),

(1) I will go to Chicago tomorrow.

(2) I will come to Chicago tomorrow.

(1)()go(2)come

(1) Brian is sitting to the left of Sally.

(2) The hill falls gently to the bank of the river.

(3) The hill rises gently from the bank of the river.

(1) (2) (3)

1

2

3 (Visual Scanning) (Summary Scanning) (Sequential Scanning) (Mental Scanning) (Diverge) (Converge)

4

4salience, prominence

LangackerLangacker

2-30

Langacker

a. the glass with water in it

b. the water in the glass

c. the glass is half-full

d. the glass is half-empty

Langacker198711819915

Profile-Base

(predication)()Langacker (Maximally Prominent)(Designate)

(The semantic value of an expression resides in neither the base nor the profile alone, but only in their combination. Langacker, 1987: 183)

2-31

aunt

2-32

Trajector-Landmark

(Trajector,tr)(the figure within a relational profile)(Landmark, lm)

(Participants)(Initial Focus)(First Participant)(Starting Point)Langacker (1999: 47; 2000: 182)Trajector and landmark can be characterized respectively as primary and secondary figure with a profiled relationship. ()

Langacker

2-33

(a)1Event 12Event 2beforeEvent 1 happened before Event 2b21afterEvent 2 happened after event 1

signifiersignified(iconicity) (motivated)

Langacker(198712)()

(Fuzziness)Ross(19721973)Quirk(1985)

Langacker(19871991)(Continuum)(Gradation)(200018122)

Langacker123(composite symbolic structure)(component structure) (composite structure)

Langackersmart womansmart womansmartwoman(symbolic structure)smart(semantic content)womanwomansmart(semantic pole)(phonological pole)

2-34

Wa thingTspeech time

smart(salient schematic element)woman(elaborate)elaboration sitesmart womanwomanwomanprofile determinantSmart womansmart woman with a PhD

2-35

smart woman123(focal participant)45

Langackerbig ugly vicious dog1move fast2woman smart, go away angry34pickpocket512

Langackerthrow a rock into a ponda rockthrowa rockthrowthrow a rockinto the pondinto the ponda rock

2-36

Langacker(Tradition)

1(automata theory)

Langacker(biological organism)(minimalist)(reductive)(top-down)(maximalist)(non-reductive)(bottom-up)(constituency)()

2-37

2-38

(Top-down)(Bottom-up)

2(modular theory)Chomsky,

(symbolic)()(generative device)

3(conceptualizational theory of meaning)

(conceptualization)

4(prototype)

(criterial attribute model)

2-38sawBillAlice

2-39

AlicesawAlice sawBillAliceBillAlice saw BillBill Alice saw

Halliday(1983)(Systemic Background)Firth (context of situation) (system)HallidayFirthFirth

2-40 Saussure, 1916

(syntagmatic ordering of elements)(a set of paradigmatic units)

2-41

John helped Mary. ()

John met Mary. ()

John greeted Mary. ()

John liked Mary. ()

++met, greeted, helped, liked mutual expectancy

(1978)

(Parret1974)

(dialect)(register)

()()

()

()(

()

2-1

20

(metafunction)Halliday196724319731985xxxv169)

1(experiential)(logical)(ideational)

2(interpersonal)

3(text)(textual)

2

Halliday1956(Grammatical Categories in Modern Chinese)(class)1961(Categories in Theories Of Grammar)60(1966)(order)Halliday

(semiotic system)a system of signsresource for meaning

3

1

2(realisation)()()()

3

()

()

()

2-42

4

4

The little girl

broke

her glasses

at school.

2-43

(Malinowski1935)

(Firth1957)

1)2)

() Do you have? Have you?, I shall go I will go, I have to go I got to go(),

(Scale and Category Grammar)(Systemic Grammar)

2

4(unit)(class)(structure)(system)4

()5Peter hit Tom the on headhithitPeter hit Tom on the head

hit

(1anguage event)(substance)(form)(situation)dtyo, atoday()

(phonetic substance) (graphic substance)(1exis)()()+(thesis) (immediate situation)(wider situation)

(interlevel) (context)

2-2

.

43(rank)(exponent)(delicacy)hierarchytaxonomycline

1

2-44

(rank shift)

(1)The man who is standing there is my teacher

(2) a beautiful house of Russian style

(1) who is standing there The man(2)of Russian style a beautiful house

2)

2-45

3

ABAB(usualness)

2-46

(scale of delicacy)

2-47

4.

(axis of chain)axis of choice)

2-48

123

transitivity system(material process)(mental process)(relational process)(behavioral process)(verbal process)(existential process)6

(material process)

buildrunbreak

(mental process)

perceptionreactioncognition

see, look, like, please, know, believe, convince

(relational process)

have, is, are

(behavioral process)

laugh, cry, breathe, cough, sigh

(verbal process)

say, tell, speak, talk, boast, describe, praise

(existential process)

exist, arise, be(there be)

2-3

(John kicked the ball)(The train left five minutes ago)intention processsupervention process

(1) Peter completed the job.

(2) He dropped his book.

(I liked it)(It puzzled everybody)

7

metafunction ideational metafunctioninterpersonal metafunctiontextual metafunction

(experiential function)(1ogical function) ()

1

(transitivity)(voice)

(active)(passive)(19701985)(middle)(non-middle)The man stood up when I came in.

He broke the record.

2

Halliday(198519942004)(interdependency)(1ogical-semantic relation)

Halliday(198519942004)(parataxis)(hypotaxis)

(word complex)She is an intelligent and diligent girl intelligentdiligent(clause complex)He is a teacher and I am a studentHe is a teacherI am a student

///Why dont we look at some//and I can have them set for you here.///

1

2

(dominant element)(dependent element)He is very cleververycleverHe was very sad because he failed the examhe was very sad because he failed the exam

///Why dont we look at some//and if you're seriousI can have them set for you here///

1 2 2

///Why dont we look at someand if youre seriousI can have them set for you here/

1 2 2

because itd be much cheaper than in England.///

2

(reporting clause)(reported clause)(quote)(report)

(expansion)(projection)

(elaboration)(extension)(enhancement)(non-defining relative clause)John ran away; he didnt waitJohn ran away, which means he didnt wait(co-ordination) and while whereasJohn ran away and Fred stayed behindJohn ran away whereas Greed stayed behind(adverbial clause) so, yet butJohn was scared so he ran away John ran away because he was scared

John said, I am running away.()John said that he was running away()

(connective)andbutif(conjunction)howeverfurthermorein addition for example

(mood)(modal1ty)

1)

(subject)(finite) Did you see him that day? did Someone may have heard the shot may(tag question) These two quotes exemplify many of the points These two quotes exemplify many of the pointsdon't they?these two quotesthey[present] dont

(indicative)(interrogative mood)(imperative)

(giving)(demanding)(goods & services)

Would you like this teapot?

Hes giving her the teapot.

Give me that teapot!

What is he giving her?

2-4

2-5

Halliday, 199469

(Residue)(Predicator)(Complement)(Adjunct)()(secondary tense We will have finished by six oclock for sure)()((circumstantial)(conjunctive) (modal)(Comment Adjunct)(Mood Adjunct)

2

(polarity)nt not( never hardly)

(intermediate points)(space)

(probability)(usuality)(obligation)(willingness)(inclination)(modalization)(modulation)will, should, would, could, can, mustprobably, usually, possibly, always, certainly(I will, should, must)(allowed to do, supposed to do, required to do)(Hallidayl99491)()(2007)

(orientation) (Halliday & Matthiessen2004619)in my opinion, in all probability

I think (in my opinion) Mary knows.

Mary will know

Mary probably knows

It isnt likely Mary knows.

Fred will sit quite quiet.

Fred usually sits quite quiet.

Its usual for Fred to sit quite quiet.

I want John to go.

John should go.

Johns supposed to go.

Its expected that John goes.

(I undertake for Jane to help_

Jane will help.

Janes keen to help.

Its pleasure for Jane to help.

2-6

(value)(//)()(Halliday2004620)

/

/

certain

always

requited

determined

probable

usually

supposed

keen

possible

sometimes

allowed

willing

2-7

2-49

3

(text)

3(Thematic structure)(Information structure)(Cohesion)

(Theme)(Rheme)(marked)(unmarked)

Last night

the man was helping police enquiries.

2-8

The man

was helping police enquiries last night.

2-9

1Golf (T)//is his favorite sport(R). ()

For lack of money (T)// he couldnt go travelling this year (R). ()

()The girl on the right (T)//told me.()

()If winter comes (T)// can spring be far behind? ()

4If winter comes if wintercomes

If winter (T) //comes (R

(textual element)(interpersonal element)(experiential element)(topical theme):yes, no , well, oh, nowcontinuativeand yet, so, even if, howeverstructuraltherefore, in other words, as far as that is concerned conjunctive

certainly, to be frank, broadly speaking modalfiniteJohn, Mrs, Jones, ladies and gentlemenvocative

topical themetopic-comment

Hal11day

Well

but

then

Ann

surely

wouldnt

the best idea

be to join the group

2-10

(theme-rheme patterns)

2-50

1Last week I went to the theater, I got a very good seat. I didnt enjoy the play.

2Mary is a girl. She is a beautiful girl. She is the most beautiful girl in her class.

2-51

1China is in Asia. Japan is in Asia. And India is in Asia, too.

2John likes football. Jimmy likes football. Every man likes football.

2-52

1Mary bought a carpet. It was made in Turkey. Turkey is a country in Asia.

2Outside my window is a big lawn. In the middle of the lawn is a flower bed. This bed is full of daffodil.

2-53

1Mary bought a carpet. It was very expensive. Mary liked expensive things.

2The play was interesting, but I didnt enjoy it. A young man and a young woman troubled me. I turned around and look at them but they didnt pay any attention to me.

(1976198519942004)(grammatical cohesion)(1exical cohesion)(reference)(ellipsis)(substitution)(conjunction)(repetition)(synonymyantonymy)(hyponymymeronymy)collocation

1Peter had a wife but couldnt keep her.

2Ill put you through into the Looking-glass House. How would you like that?

3Do you want to have another biscuit?

(exophoric) (endophoric) Whos he? he () Peter had a wife but couldnt keep her. her a wife(anaphoric)(cataphoric)her a wife This is the house Jack builtthe houseJack

My father planned and my brother built all these housesmy father plannedall these houses

1I have lost my umbrella.

Get a new one.(one=umbrella) ()

2He can speaks English as well as she does.(does=speaks) ()

3Do you think he will come?

I dont think so. (= I dont think he will come) ()

(transitional)(because ofdespite)(but, because, and)(clause complex)nevertheless, therefore

Despite the rain, he still went out.

He didnt come, because he was ill.

There was no news; nevertheless, we went on hoping.

123

17184019401845(Sears)

18191818(Stoics)(Alexandrian):181819(Greek-Latin Grammar System)(generativism)

?()(text)

20

1998

HBrown(HBrown200015)

.

.

(1997:337)(1996:102)

19:19

1918861888

,

1899(Sweet)The Practical Study of Languages,

1

(VWVietor)1882Language Teaching Must Start Afresh

(MBerlitz1852-1921)

(FGouin1831-1898)

(HEPalmer18771950):

1()

2()

3()

4(graduation)()

5()

6()

7

8(order of progression)()

9()

1

2

3

4

5

6

()()1950

1

2

3

4

19431957

1

2

3

4()

5

6

7

15%85%Twaddell1958

506070

60

()(rule-governed system)()()()

(Jean Piaget1925)2060() S(AT)R:

(JSBruner1962)

1

2

()

3

1)2)3)4)

1964(DPAusubel)

1

2

3()

4

5(under-correction)(over-correction)

6

:

(TBCarroll)

(communicative approach) (Hymes1972)Littlewood(functional-notional approach)

(Canale)(Swain)

(rules of speaking)

7070(Wilkins)19724(Notional Syllabus)(Teaching Language as Communication)DAWilkinsHGWiddowsonBurmfitCNCandlin

(strong version)(weak version)/(acquire)using the language to learnlearn to use the language

(Richard sand Rodgers2001)

1

2/

3()

JCRichards & TSRodgers(2001)

1

2

3

4

5

2

3

45

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

DBrown (1987)

(in an unrehearsed context)

(interpretation)(expression)(negotiation)

3-1

3-1

70KrashenKrashen (1999)(peripheral)Krashen (1981)Schwartz (1993)Fotos2006Hymes

HymesCommunicative Language TeachingCommunicative ApproachNunan (198912)

A great deal has been written and said about CLTCommunicative Language Teachingand it is something of misnomer to talk about the communicative approach as there is a family of approaches, each member of which claims to be communicative(in fact, it is difficult to find approaches which claim not to be communicative!). There is also frequent disagreement between members of the communicative family.

RichardsRodgers (2001)Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching(task-based 1anguage teaching)(Willis, 1996)12/3

(2003)

1Willis1996 tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose in order to achieve an outcome.

2 Bygate, SkehanSwain(2001:11)

3. Nunan (1989:10)

4. Richards, P1attWeber (1986289) (pedagogical perspective)

5. Breen (198723) (1anguage learning perspective)

6. WilliamsBurden (1997) :

7. Skehan (1998)Candlin (1987)Nunan (1989)Long (1959)2003)

)

)

3)

4)

)

()

Feez (2003)

1

2

3

4

5

6

Krashen (1982)(learning)(acquisition)KrashenKrashen(comprehensive input)

Long(1985)(conversational interaction)Long(modified interaction)Swain(1984)(200459)

Nunan (199la: 279)

(an emphasis on learning to communicate throughinteraction in the target language)

2(the introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation)

3(the provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on language but also on the learning process itself)

4(an enhancement of the learners own personal experience as important contributing elements to classroom learning)

5(an attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom)

Nunan1)(2004)()234

5 (1998)

Gass

Ambient Speech()Apperceived Input() Comprehended Input () Intake() Integration() Output()

3-1 (Izumi2003)

VanPattne(intake)(Skehan, 1998)

(Nassaji & Fotos, 2004)Ellis(Nassaji & Fotos, 2004)

1991Long(focus on forms)(focus on meaning)(2004)

Ellis( 2004) ( 2004)

(Longman)

(200190)

4

2

EG Woods (1988624)

HHStern1999)Mohammed (1996)

1+23(2000)

(Douglas Brown)1994Teaching by Principles

20004-1

4-1

Lantolf& Genung (2002)

Nunan (1998)

Hmyes (1972) (communicative competence)Chomsky (198923)Batstone (199459)Leech (1975)?

200443Stern200195(2004250)

Ellis (1997 )U(U-shaped course of development)

(2000)

PPP

PPP(Presentation)(Practice)(Production) PPPPPPPPP1(Presentation)2 (Practice)3(Production)

PPPpresentation, practice, productionmake someone do something, (not) let someone do something, be allowed to do somethinghave to

Tom VivTomVivTom had to help with the housework. But Viv didnt have to help with the housework. Toms parents made him take piano lessons. He didnt want to, but they made him. Viv on the other hand, wanted to have a motorbike. Her parents let her have one

Tom Viv

1. He had to help with the housework.

2. His parents made him take piano lessons.

3. He wasnt allowed to stay out late.

4. Viv didnt have to help with the housework.

5. Her parents let her have a motorbike.

6. She was allowed stay out late.

1a. His parents made him help with the housework.

2a. He had to take piano lessons.

3a. They didnt let him stay out late.

PPPpresentationcontrolled practicefreer production

(The Task-oriented Approach)20

NunanSkehanWillisWillisWillisPre-task, Task Cycle, Language Focus

1(Pre-task)

My Dream

2(Task Cycle)

My Dream

3(Language Focus)

(learner-centered)2070

1

(2002)

T: Morning, class, well talk about Subjunctive Mood today. Please answer me: If you were a teacher, would you give your students any homework?

S1: No, I wouldnt.

T: Why not? Dont you think homework useful?

S2: Sometimes. But yesterday our Chinese teacher gave us too, too much

T: Well. If your Chinese teacher hadnt given you homework, how would you have spent evening hours?

S3: Play, play PC games

2

might, may, can, mustmay (might)canmust(mightmaycanmust)JohnKateTomJackKateJohnJohnTomJohnJohnJackJohnJohn Who is the thief?

As Johns workmate, Kate knows when John leaves home and when he comes back, so it might be her.

No, it cant be Kate, because she cant enter Johns room.

Because Tom can enter Johns room, it may be him.

It may not be Tom because he and John are good friends.

It must be Jack because he often steals something and he can enter Johns room and we can tell the footprints on the floor are his.

I agree. It must be Jack.

(explicit teaching)(implicit teaching)might, may, can, must

2003

1

(2004)2-55

2

151015

Oral Practice: Suppose tomorrow was Teachers Day. You wanted very much to celebrate it for your middle-school teacher, but you would be very busy then. What would you do then? Talk over your planning with your partners. Then report it to the whole class. Whenever you have difficulties with grammar, do consult with your partners.

Writing practice: First, write a short passage with the title If I Were Bill Gates in 15 minutes. Then exchange your work with your partner and point out the grammatical errors in the writing for each other. Finally, correct the errors in your own writing and report it to the whole class. Pay attention to the usage of the Subjunctive Mood in it.

3

4-2:

4-2

6070

(deductive approach)(inductive approach)

(deductive approach)

1

might, may, could, canshould, ought to, would, willmust

+ do()

He must know what she meant.

She may come here tomorrow.

+ have done()

You must have attended the meeting yesterday.

She ought to have finished her homework by now.

+ be doing()

She might be watering flowers in the garden.

He should be playing cards with his classmates.

+ have been doing()

They may have been playing cards last night.

He should have been studying yesterday morning.

T: Right. The past perfect. (cueing)

T: The past perfect is formed from the past of auxiliary have, (rule of form)

plus the past participle.

T: For example, everyone had left, the film had started. (examples )

T: So, whats the past perfect of they go? (check )

Ss: They had gone.

T: Good.

T: It is used when you are talking about the past, and you want (rule of use)

to refer to an earlier point in past.

T: For example, we were late. When we got to the cinema, the (examples)

film had already started.

T: Did the film start after we arrived, or before we arrived? (check)

Ss: Before.

T: Right.

T: So, its like this. (draws)

b a

(illustration)

4-3

T: We arrived at this point in time (a).But I need to refer to an earlier point in the past, when the film started, here (b).

had +

(inductive approach)

1

PPT

(1) He is taller than his younger brother.

(2) She is less beautiful than her classmates.

(3) Tom walks faster than Peter.

(4) His daughter is the most beautiful girl in her class.

-ermore less-est the most the least

2so/suchthat

1. I was so tired that I could do nothing but go to bed.

2. She is such a nice person that she is willing to help anyone.

3. It is so cold today that most people stay inside.

4. It is such a cold day that most people stay inside.

5. It is such a difficult examination that most of the students have failed it.

6. It so difficult an examination that most of the students have failed it.

1. Which word goes before an adjective on its own, so or such?

2. Which word goes before a noun, with or without an adjective?

so + adj; such + (adj) n.

Winitz(1996:32) Ellis(1994:642)

20602070802090

/()()

word

What does this word mean?

Can I have a word with you?

I give you my word.

How should I word this letter

Word has it that they are getting married.

If you want help, just say the word.

context-sensitive

(1) The ones that dont, seem to think so.

(2) Its a drink.

1

be+ing

T: What are you doing now?

S1: Im listening to music.

S2: Im reading.

S3: Im writing.

S4: Im drawing.

T (to the class): What is he doing?

Ss: Hes listening to music (reading, writing)

2

two armchairs, a large square table, a sofa, a television set, pictures on the walls, a table lamp, a light, some books, a Piano, a bookcaseand so on10

4-1

DOG ATTACK

Jessica Johnson was out walking with her husband when she was attacked by an unsupervised Alsatian dog. Jessicas leg was bitten, and she had to have stitches in two wounds. Two days later, because the wounds had become infected, Jessica was admitted to hospital. Even after she was discharged, she needed further treatment from her GP and she was told to rest for two weeks.

Jessica is self-employed and her business was affected while she was sick. Also, the trousers and shoes shed been wearing at the time of the attack were ruined by bloodstains, and had to be thrown away.

Jessica told us, Im now trying to get compensation from the owners of the dog.

DOG ATTACKstitches, wounds, infected, bloodstains

Who was attacked? Where? How badly? Who was to blame? How long was she off work? What other losses did she suffer?

1. An unsupervised Alsatian dog attacked her.

2. She was attacked by an unsupervised Alsatian dog.

1212subject+ auxiliary verb to be + past participle2Because the woman is the topic, or theme, of the story, not the dogThemes typically go at the beginning of sentences

The passive is typically used

1. to move the theme to the beginning of the sentence, and/or

2. when the agent is unimportant, or not known.

Where the agent is mentioned, by + agent is used.

2~32~3

flash

T: What is she doing?

Ss: She is watching TV.

at six oclock yesterday eveningShe was watching TV at six oclock yesterday evening was watching TV(pictures on the screen)Have a party

T: What are they doing?

Ss: They are having a party.

at this time yesterday

T: Yes, they were having a party at this time yesterday.

were having a party

T: What happened to the train?

Ss: The train left.

T: What happened to the man?

Ss: The man was late for the train.

When he arrived, the trained had already left.

4-3

We were having supper when he called me up.

They were building a dam last winter.

The film had begun when we arrived at the cinema.

The plane had already taken off when we arrived at the airport.

4

70-8090

Krashen( , 2004)Tarone & Swain(1995)Schmidt(1993)Gass (1997)

learning strategies

Stern 1983

Rubin 1987

Chamot 1987

Oxford 1990

Cohen 1998

Ellis 1994Ellis

1

2

1994

(1991)

1998

2003

2090, OMalleyChamot Oxford

OMalley & Chamot1990(metacognitive strategies)(cognitive strategies)(socio-affective strategies)OMalley & Chamot

Oxford1990

Cohen1998

(1991) ,(1997) TPO

1996

( 2002) ()

80 2007631(1997-2006)

Bialystok (1981)(functional practice) (inferencing)(formal practicing) monitoring(1996)Bialystok (1981)

199912%2000

Huang Van Naerssen198760Bialystok

(1992)11(2002)178 525%(1994)17222%(2000)16

Gu Johnson (1996) 20%199810056%(1998)

20022005

199930

20( 2004)

3

learn how to learn

4

Oxford (1990) OMalley & Chamot1990Oxford (1990) OMalley & Chamot1990Cohen (1998) Cohen

OMalley & Chamot1990

metacognition ) 2070

1.2.3.

(Advance organizers)

(Directed attention)

(Selective attention)

(Self-management)

(Advance preparation)

(Self-monitoring)

(Delayed production)

(Self-evaluation)

5-1

2000

20 90 (2006)2007

1

2

3

4

11that 2that 3that 4the fact that5whether/if 6wh-789

2

?

3

OMalley & Chamot1990

1956

OMalley & Chamot (1990)

(Repetition)

(Resourcing)

Directed physical response

Translation

Grouping

(Note-taking)

Deduction

Recombination

Imagery

()

Auditory representation

//

(Key word)

(Contextualization

(Elaboration)

(Transfer)

(Inferencing)

5-2

1

2

Stand up WalkStopturn aroundwalkstopturn aroundsit down

board, table, door, window, chair, floor, light point to, walk to , touch , open , and close , walk to the door, open the door, close the door, turn around, walk to the board, point to the window, touch the floor

Stand up. Dont walk. Dont turn around. Sit down, Dont dont,

DontStand up. Dontwalk to the board.

Sit down. Point to the window.

Walk. Open the door.

Stop. Close the door.

Turn around. Touch the chair.

3

,used toI used to be afraid of dogsused to

it

It is a good idea to have a little notebook handy.

It took me a year to save up for the new coat.

4

5

1

Nouns, adjectives and adverbs

1. Subject and object pronouns

Subject pronouns

I

you

he

she

it

we

you

they

Object pronouns

me

you

him

her

it

us

you

them

The subject is the person or thing doing the action:

I left early.

She went home.

We said goodbye.

The object is the person or thing receiving the action.

She telephoned me.

I hit him.

We saw her.

Write the correct pronouns for these sentences:

1.telephoned yesterday. (she)

She telephoned yesterday.

2. We watch ________ for hours. (he)

We watched him for hours.

3. Hasnt _________ Arrived yet? (she)

4. ______ Dont understand. (I)

5. Are you talking to______? (I)

6. Dont ask ________. _______ doesnt know. (she/she)

7. This is Julia: ______ have known ______ for years. (we/she)

8. Nobody told ______ the bus was leaving. (they)

9. Why didnt_______ ask _______to come? (she/they)

10. Dont ask_________. Ask ________. (I/he)

11. ________ think _______ doesnt like_______.(I/he/I)

12. _______asked ________to invite _______.(they/he/we)

(from Walker and Elsworth Grammar Practice for Intermediate Students, Longman, 1986)

2

The teacher phoned the student.

phonedThe teacherthe studentSVO

The teacher someone

Someone phoned the student.

Who phoned the student?

1

Someone phoned the student.

1Who phoned the student

----The teacher.

The teacher phoned the student. the student someone:

Someone phoned the student.

1Who phoned the student?

---- The teacher.

The teacher phoned someone.

Someone phoned the student.

1Who phoned the student?

---- The teacher.

The teacher phoned someone.

2Who did the teacher phone?

---- The student.

1Who phoned the student?

2Who did the teacher phone?

S V O

Someone phoned the student.

Who phoned the student?

S V O

The teacher phoned someone.

The teacher did phone someone.

O V S

Who did the teacher phone?

Madonna

Michael Jackson The Pope

Martina Hingis

Who phoned Madonna?

Who did Madonna phone?

Who did the Pope phone?

Why did Madonna phone the Pope, do you think? etc.

:

Who phoned you yesterday/ this morning/ last weekend?

Who did you phone yesterday/ this morning/ last weekend?

Who e-mailed you

Who did you e-mail yesterday

Who visited you last week

Who did you visit ?

last weekend

Who wrote to you last Christmas

Who did you write to

()()()()

A man bit a dog.

A dog was bitten by a man.

He said, I am hungry.

He said he was hungry.

phone

3

369343thea, an

Articles

Complete the text by choosing the best word to complete the gap: a, an, the, or nothing. Sometimes more than one answer may be possible. If you are not sure about an answer, leave it; your classmates may be able to help you later.

Digestion

1_____ food we eat must be changed by 2_____ body before it can be absorbed by 3_____ blood and used to nourish 4____ cells of 5_____ body. 6_____ food is changed into 7_____ nourishment by 8_____ digestive system. 9_____ digestion begins in 10_____ mouth where 11_____ food is chewed into 12_____ small pieces and mixed with 13_____saliva before being

53AB CABC

1A2B3C3

123 123 123

123

111 222 333

6

,-ing 2008

I. Dictation

1. Have you finished doing your homework?

2. He managed to pass the exam with his effort.

3. Peter is looking forward to meeting Jack this Sunday.

4. His father promised to buy him a bike the next Saturday.

()

II. Divide the words and phrases into two groups:

V + doing & V + to do

mind, miss, hope, mention, wish, refuse, manage, pretend, offer, promise, choose, plan, practise, agree, ask, look forward to, imagine, suggest, decide, admit, determine, feel like, finish, learn, excuse, enjoy, consider, want, expect, cant help, help, avoid

( , )

III. Discussion

1. What are the words followed by to do?

delay, admit, dislike, practise, advise, suggest, mind (miss), enjoy, keep, appreciate, finish (feel like), excuse, imagine

2. Conclusion:

3. I advise that he (should) start at once.

(insist, demand, require, order, propose, command, advise, request, suggest )

()

IV. Fill in the blanks with proper words:

give, help, speak, visit

1. They often practise _______ English among themselves.

2. I suggested ________ a bath to Toms dog.

3. Theyre planning ________France next summer.

4. We appreciated your _______ us during the holidays.

V. Make sentences with those words.

1. a lion , we, live with, imagine, couldnt

2. on time, yesterday, we, arrive school, managed

3. drink, his father, immediately, give up, decide

4. old times, my grandfather, and, talk about, see his friends, enjoy

VI. Writing: write a short passage in five sentences, using the words and phrases we learned today.

:

1Mary

2

3

4

5,

6,

Panyu Xiangjiang Safari ParkZengcheng Baishuizhai Waterfall

Nov. 20th, Monday_____________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________.

5-3

7

Do you think its a man or a woman?

He likes jazz.

He takes the bus.

He wears a watch.

He wears glasses.

He reads French.

He goes swimming.

-sIs this past, present, or future? PresentRight now, or every day? Every day

2

5-1

1

T: Good morning, my dear students. Today, we are going to learn about a murder. The murder happened at 8 clock last night. Here is the detail of the story.

2

3

T: Now suppose you were the detective. Interview your classmates about what those people in the flat were doing when the murder happened last night. Write down what your interviewees say and report to the class.

4

5

3If I were

1

2If I were a teacher / If I were president

3)

4

8

David Reibel

1

(e.g. usually, always)

JO E What do you do on weekends?

DADWellthat depends. During the school year, I usually have to study on Saturdays.

J: And how about on Sundays?

D: Well, we always have lunch together, you know, the whole family. Then after lunch, I sometimes go to the park and meet my friends.

J: Oh? What do you do there?

D: We play soccer, take a walkor just talk. After that, I go out. I usually go to the movies.

J: How often do you go out of the city?

D: About once a month. My uncle has a small farm in the mountainsso I sometimes drive up there.

J: That sounds nice. Do you go alone?

D: No, my mom, my two sisters and some of our friends usually go too.

J: But why do you go?

D: A lot of things: green trees, clean air, and no people.

J: Oh, just like LA!

D: Ha! Thats a good joke.

(from Maple, R. Wave 1, Longman, 1988)

What are they talking about: last weekend, next weekend, or every weekend? and meet my friends.

movies, drive, soccer, go out, study, lunch, park, walk

study

have lunch

go to the park

take a walk

go out

go to the movies

drive

David Who does he have lunch with on Sundays? Why does he go to the farm? Who with? etc.

usually, always, sometimes

usually study

always have lunch

sometimes go to the park

23

We always have lunch together.

I sometimes go to the park.

++David23

David

9

5-2

He is coughing.

He is exercising.

She is lifting something.

OMalley & Chamot1990

1

(cooperative learning)20707080

1

2

3

4

22005

(2004)( ) //2004

2006

2006

VanPatten1996Les invita Manuel al cine (Manuel invites them to the movies=treats them to the movies; pays for their tickets)ManuelManuel 6-1Jame EPurpura

Grammatical knowledge Pragmatic knowledge

6-1

Tom ____ to school yesterday. wentgowentdichotomous scoringwentpartial-credit scoringwentgoedleftleave

Is this cake any good? Its fantastica request for some cake You want a bite?Oh, you are eating cake again. Enjoy it while you are still young and thin.

Hyme (1972) competenceperformance6-1

6-1 A depiction of grammatical knowledge, ability and performance

(The prescientific language testing)

2040(grammar-translation approach)(Heaton199115)1234

(the structuralist-psychometric approach)

(analytic approach)(psychometric-structuralist era)

(the integrative approach)

(global integrative approach)Spolsky(psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic era),(Heaton199116)1(context)2

(the communicative approach)

(Heaton199119)usageuseCarroll (19837)usageuseusage(use)

2080(Bachman1991677)(Bachman1991678Heaton1991202Carroll19838Weir19901014)1(information gap)2(task dependency)3(English for Specific Purposes)45(authentic),(direct testing)6(qualitative modes of assessment)(quantitative modes or assessment)

morphosyntactic formlimited-productioncontext-independent

20059TOEFLscoring rubricholistic scoringanalytic scoringIELTSformative feedback

(as a body of knowledge and a means to an end with attention to conveying appropriate means in messages rather than an exclusive emphasis on accuracy of form and structure) (Rea-Dickins, 200128) Community English Program Placement Test (The grammar, speaking and writing sections), On Target Achievement Tests (the grammar and writing sections)

.

proficiency testachievement testscholastic aptitude testplacement testdiagnostic testdiscrete point testintegrative testobjective testsubjective testnorm-referenced testcriterion-referenced testspeed testpower testhigh-stakes testlow-stakes test

( test specification)?

(test syllabus)

(test purpose)? 2(theoretical construct and operations)3(test taker)4(test content)5(test method)6 (test tasks and item types)7 8 (time duration)9(scoring criteria)10

Checklist

Test Purpose

Test Domain

--Theoretical Construct:

--Operations:

Test Takers

Test Content

--Text Types:

--Topic:

--Focus:

--Text Length:

Test Method

Test Tasks and Item Types

Test Organization and Weighting

Time Duration

Scoring Criteria

Test Administration

Test Development Chart

-

Test Purpose elementaryintermediateadvanced

Test Domain

Test Takers

Test Content

Test Method

Test Tasks and Item Types

Test Organization and Weighting

Time Duration

Scoring Criteria

Test Administration

Test Development Chart

Harris,1969Lado1961Bachman Palmerusefulness(reliability)(validity)(authenticity)(interactiveness)(impact)(practicality)

Bachman (1996) (consistency of measurement), consistency of test scores)

Kelly19274Lado1961321Messick 2006167 ()()()()()

Bachman(target language use task)(test task)6-2

6-2

(English for Business Communication)

Bachmantest taskindividual characteristicslanguage abilitylanguage knowledgestrategic competencemetacognitive strategiestopical knowledgeaffective schemata6-3

6-3

Bachman Palmer

(Items Selection and Distribution)

(6-3)

It

6-3

Bachman1990Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing(a framework of test method facets)1.(testing environment)2.(test rubric)3.(nature of test input)4.(nature of expected response)5.(relationship between input and response)

multiple-choice task

1stem2optionalternative3distracter4keyanswer

Dont open your book until the teacher you to

Atold Bwill tell Cis telling Dtells

Atold Bwill tell Cis telling

Dtells

1

2()

3

4()()

1productive skill

2blind guessing

3

He found it in his own room_________ he

Adidnt Bdid Cdoesnt Ddoes

AB

Your car is outside, is it?

You've had an accident, have you?

ohsoGreenbaum Quirk, 1990

B

4

1

They soon went back to .

Awork Bhome Cschool Dbed

AThey soon went back to workhoping to finish before dark.

CThey soon went back to school after a good rest at home.

DThey soon went back to bedseeing nothing serious happened.

---What does your father do?

---He .

Adoes well Bis a teacher Cis at work Dworks in a factory

DBDBis a teacherWhat does your father do?

2

3

---Ive had enough bread. Would you like ?

---No, thanks.

Aa few more Bone more Canother more Dsome more

Canother moreanothermore

4

Heaton,1990

Multiple-choice error identification task

The article suggests that when a person be under unusual stress he should be especially

A B C

careful to have a well-balanced diet.

D

Bsuggest CBsuggestis

20010

matching task

Column 1

Column 2

Going to see a film tonight?

A. No, I didn't.

How was the film?

B. Most are, I think.

I can't stand war films, can you?

C. It's one of the reasons.

So you went to the cinema.

D. I had a lot of work to do.

Don't you find war films too violent?

E. Actually, I quite like them.

Have you ever seen a Japanese war film?

F. Yes, I probably will.

I like war films.

G. No, I haven't.

Is everyone going to see the film? H. What a good idea! I prefer them to war films.

What about going to see a cowboy film instead? I. So do I.

Why didn't you come with us to see the film? J. All right. Nothing special.

Is that why you don't like war films? K. Not really. I quite like them.

Writing English Tests

gap-filling task

productive skillreceptive skill

(1)

a.

In about 20 AD, Apicus was well known for the cookbooks he (1) _______ in his spare time. He was equally famous for the lavish meals he (2) _______for his family and guests

b.

In about 20 AD, Apicus was well known for the cookbooks he (1) _______ writein his spare time. He was equally famous for the lavish meals he (2) _______ (prepare) for his family and guests

We got a phone call from our parents as we _______ (prepare) to go.

preparedhad prepared

2

Madsen, 1983:47

a.

Humans should not try to avoid stress any more than they would shun food, love or exercise, said Dr. Hans Selye, the first physician to document the effects of _____ on the body. While heres one question that continuous stress is harmful, several studies suggest that challenging situations in which youre able to rise to the occasion can be good for you. In a 2001 study of 158 hospital nurses, those who faced considerable work demands but coped _______ the challenge were more likely to say they were in good health than those ______felt they couldnt get the job done.

Stress that you can manage also boost immune() function. In a study at the Academic Center for Dentistry in Amsterdam, researchers put volunteers through two stressful experiences. In the first, a timed task _______ required memorizing a list followed by a short test, subjects believed they had control over the outcome. In the second, they were not in control: They had to sit through a gory() video on surgical procedures. Those who did well on the memory test had an increase in levels of immunoglobulin A, an antibody thats the bodys first line of defense against germs. The video-watchers _________ a downturn in the antibody.

b.

One day during our holiday in England, my friend and I _______ (go) to the train station _______ (buy) the tickets to Dover. As native speakers of English, we ______ (not expect) to have problems in England

c.

Are you able to send a letter with pictures and sounds to someone anywhere in the world without putting a stamp on it? W________(1) e-mail you can just do that. Using a c________(2) you can send e-mail quickly and easily. The post is much s________(3) than e-mail. E-mail can send i________(4) message to the other side of the world in seconds. E-mail is easy to use and it s________(5) time and money. The differences in time in different parts of the world do not matter w________(6) sending e-mail. It is twenty-four-hour service () that you can send an e-mail at any time of the day or n________(7). No one has to be t________(8) to receive e-mail. It d________(9) matter if your friends are in bed when you send an e-mail to them, or you are seeing a f________(10) at the cinema when they send an e-mail back.

a.

b.

c.

a. 300400

b.

c. (content words)(function words)??

d.

e. 30020

(transformation task)

Finish each of the following sentences in such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaning to the sentence printed before it.

1. The rail workers do not intend to call off their strike.

The rail workers have no .

2. I havent read that book for ages.

It's .

3. It was the goalkeeper who saved the match for us.

If it hadnt .

4. I wasn't a bit surprised to hear that Karen had changed her job.

It came .

5. You can try to get Tim to lend you his car but you wont succeed,

Theres no point .

6. John didnt celebrate until he received the offer of promotion in writing.

Not until .

7. I dont really like her, even though I admire her achievements.

Much .

8. Its thought that the accident was caused by human error.

The accident is .

Its ages since I read the book.

Its ages since I read the book last.

Its a long time now since I read the book.

I dont think it's necessary for you to do it all over again.

I dont think you

I dont think you need do it all over againI dont think you will find it necessary to do it all over again.

(the translation task)

CET-4CET-6

.

He believes that this very difficulty may have had the compensating advantage of forcing him to think long and intently about every sentence, and thus enabling him to detect errors in reasoning and in his own observations. 2008

thathe believes thatthatthis very difficultymay have the advantage of forcing, and thus enablingofforcingenablingadvantage

.

But for mobile phone, ____________().(CET-6, 2007.12)

but for

rearrangement task

sell/ her /last /month /she /did /car

Did she sell her car last month?

Take / drugs and stimulants / keep awake / while revise examination /often be very harmful. / It be far better / lead / balanced life / and get enough sleep / every night. / There / be / limit / degree and span / concentration / which you be capable / exert. / Brain / need rest / as much body. / Indeed, / it be quality / than quantity work / that be important.

Writing English Language Tests

20059ETSTOEFL IBT( Internet-based test)IELTSTOEFL2006 Vocabulary and StructureCommunicative grammar testing

(CET)

20066200312Vocabulary and StructureVocabulary1996200316

1996-1

2

2844

3

244042

2

4549

1

23

2

2139

1

36

1996-6

2

4243

1

22

4

27354649

1

3

252837

1

45

1997-1

3

344547

4

25264244

3

212937

49

2

2240

2

3649

1997-6

2

4255

4

47485658

2

4453

1

2

4550

1

32

1998-1

2

3859

3

313637

5

3540424560

44

2

3256

1

34

1998-6

2

4868

3

434466

4

58626470

1

2

4153

1

56

1999-1

3

576066

3

524557

2

4246

1

54

1

47

1999-6

2

4362

4

576066

4

41485558

1

63

2000-1

5

4952586470

3

454668

3

505356

2

4147

3

555960

2000-6

1

32

2

2630

5

3336374649

1

42

2

4148

3

222338

2000-12

1

41

6

465863656769

5

5052545768

2

4345

2001-6

2

3350

4

34364856

5

4143444658

1

31

2

4760

2002-1

2

4759

3

536167

2

4269

1

41

1

50

2002-6

2

4147

1

59

3

606164

1

70

1

66

1

43

2002-12

6

313941445659

2

3554

2

4750

1

33

2003-6

1

62

38

46

51

7

23

19

6-4 20042

200612

The National Endowment for the Arts recently released the results of

its Reading at Risk survey, which described the movement of the

American public away from books and literature and toward television and

electronic media. According to the survey, reading is on the decline on

62. _______

every region, within every ethnic group, and at every educational level.

The day the NEA report released, the U. S. House, in a tie vote,

63. _______

upheld the government's right to obtain bookstore and library records under

a provision of the USA Patriot Act. The House proposal would have barred

the federal government from demand library records, reading lists, book

64. _______

customer lists and other material in terrorism and intelligence investigations.

These two events are completely unrelated to, yet they echo each other

65. _______

in the message they send about the place of books and reading in American

culture. At the heart of the NEA survey is the belief in our democratic 66. _______

system depends on leaders who can think critically, analyze texts and

writing clearly. All of these are skills promoted by reading and discussing 67. _______

books and literature. At the same time, through a provision of the Patriot

Act, the leaders of our country are unconsciously sending the message that

reading may be connected to desirable activities that might undermine our 68. _______

system of government rather than helping democracy flourish.

Our culture's decline in reading begin well before the existence of the

69. _______

Patriot Act. During the 1980's culture wars, school systems across the

country pulled some books from library shelves because its content was 70. _______

deemed by parents and teachers to be inappropriate. Now what started in

schools across the country is playing itself out on a nation stage and is 71. _______

possibly having an impact on the reading habits of the American public.

62. on----in;

63. reportwas

64. demand----demanding;

65. to; unrelated to

66. in----that; that

67. writing----write;

68. desirable----undesirable;

69. begin----began;

70. its----their;

71. nation----national;

20066Vocabulary and Structure

A

B

C

D

http: // www. eol.cn/ cet speaking4747/ 20071027/ t20071027 262044.shtml

6-5

15

2

5

8

11

14

TEM

(Test for English MajorTEM)

GrammarandVocabulary50%50%

1 2 3 1wouldratherthatItisvitalnecessaryimportanturgentimperativedesirableadvisablenaturalessentialthatItistimeabouttimehightimethatproposalsuggestionthatlestthatshouldifonlythatwould 2ifattimesprovidedsolongasincaseonceifevenifsonowthatforalljusthardly...whenmorethanas...asnotsomuchasthesameasasmuchas 3 4 5whichas

TEM82004TEM8

One of the most important non-legislative functions of the U.S Congress

is the power to investigate. This power is usually delegated to committees---either

standing committees, special committees set for a specific

(1)____

purpose, or joint committees consisted of members of both houses.

(2)____

Investigations are held to gather information on the need for

future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed,

to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and

officials of the other branches, and in rare occasions, to lay the

(3)____

groundwork for impeachment proceedings. Frequently, committees

rely outside experts to assist in conducting investigative hearings

(4)____

and to make out detailed studies of issues.

(5)____

There are important corollaries to the investigative power. One

is the power to publicize investigations and its results. Most

(6)____

committee hearings are open to public and are reported

(7)____

widely in the mass media. Congressional investigations

nevertheless represent one important tool available to lawmakers

(8)____

to inform the citizenry and to arouse public interests in national issues.

(9)____

Congressional committees also have the power to compel

testimony from unwilling witnesses, and to cite for contempt

of Congress witnesses who refuse to testify and for perjury

these who give false testimony.

(10)____

One of the most important non-legislative functions of the U.S Congress

is the power to investigate. This power is usually delegated to committees - either

standing committees, special committees setfor a specific

(1) up

purpose, or joint committees consisted of members of both houses. (2) consisting

Investigations are held to gather information on the need for

future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed,

to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and

officials of the other branches, and in rare occasions, to lay the

(3) on

groundwork for impeachment proceedings. Frequently, committees

rely outside experts to assist in conducting investigative hearings (4) on

and to make outdetailed studies of issues.

(5) out

There are important corollaries to the investigative power. One

is the power to publicize investigations and its results. Most (6) their

committee hearings are open to public and are reported (7) the

widely in the mass media. Congressional investigations

nevertheless represent one important tool available to lawmakers (8) therefore

to inform the citizenry and to arouse public interests in national issues. (9) interest

Congressional committees also have the power to compel

testimony from unwilling witnesses, and to cite for contempt

of Congress witnesses who refuse to testify and for perjury

these who give false testimony. (10) those

TEM-8

2005420054

6-6

IELTS

IELTS International English Language Testing System The University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate UCLES The British CouncilIDP Education Australian

Band 9Expert User

A candidate may score band 9 for the speaking module if the English they produce is basically perfect. The candidates grammar and vocabulary should be at educated native speakers level. The candidate should be able to express his/her ideas in depth, both extremely clearly and fluently, using a complete range of vocabulary and grammatical structures.

Band 8Very Good User

A candidate may score band 8 for the speaking module if the English they produce is clearly sufficient to deal with all the topics and questions in all parts of the module in full. The candidate should make very few mistakes with grammar and vocabulary, even with complex language. The candidate should