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Chapter 4

Feminist ResearchDebbie Kralik and Antonia M. van Loon

n Introduction

n Feminist theory

n Feminist epistemology

n Feminist principles in research

n Case study on the use of feminist researchprinciples

n Conclusion

IntroductionThe purpose of this chapter is to explore feminist

methodology in the context of nursing research.

The questions posed in this chapter are: what is fem-inist research and how can feminism inform nursing

research? To respond to these questions, we explore

feminist epistemology, feminist principles, method-

ology (how research should proceed) and method

(approach to generating data) used by feminist

researchers. We demonstrate the method and method-

ology used in community-based research with

women who were sexually abused when they were

children.

Feminist theoryThere are four main orientations of feminist theory:

liberal, Marxist, radical and socialist feminist

theory. Whilst further reading is required to under-

stand each of these orientations, a brief overview is

provided. The liberal feminist view developed dur-

ing the 1800s where the focus was women’s lack

of rights and opportunity based on family, gender,

race, religion, and unequal distribution of wealth

(Chinn & Wheeler 1985). Liberal feminism focused

on reform through education.

Marxist feminist theory claims women’s oppres-

sion was caused by the introduction of privateproperty which led to the development of class

systems and sexism. Marxist feminists contend

that the oppression of women will resolve when

there is a revolution to redistribute the property

to society as a whole (Chinn & Wheeler 1985).

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Socialist feminist theory proposes that the patri-

archal family, motherhood, housework and consum-

erism are the basis of women’s oppression. Thistheory considers the oppression of poor, working

class women, third world women and women of

colour (Chinn & Wheeler 1985, Speedy 1991).

The principles of radical feminist theory are

derived from a woman-centred world view that

challenges patriarchal systems. The perspective is

that the oppression of women is caused by cultural

institutions and cannot be resolved by changing

those institutions. For oppression to be resolved

gender discrimination and gender roles must be

abolished (Chinn & Wheeler 1985).

Feminist epistemologyFeminist epistemologies argue that knowledge is

incomplete, situated in time and place, and embodied

by cultural constructions. Feminist epistemologies

identify the manner that dominant ways of knowing

may be disadvantaging women and other oppressed

groups, with the aim of surfacing and challenging

power constructions to reshape understandings and

practices, aiming to improve the situation for the

oppressed group. Central to feminist epistemology

is the idea of situated knowledge. The knower’s per-

spective that situates their understanding of a topic

is questioned. Feminist epistemologies contend that

gender affects understanding; informing approaches

to the central issue being studied and influencing

social and political roles of people in the study. This

impacts the values underpinning the inquiry

and understanding of objectivity, consistency and

authority. Consequently feminism becomes difficult

to define, but a simple description by Stanley and

Wise (1983, p. 55) provides a useful summary from

which to start our discussion. It says feminist under-

standing relies on ‘theoretical constructions about

the nature of women’s oppression and the part thatthis oppression plays within social reality more

generally’.

It is important to recognise that there is no single

way of knowing that can be described as feminist

because all knowledge is context based. Thus

diverse methods of understanding women’s experi-

ences are legitimate ways of knowing in feminist

epistemology. Many understandings of the samesubject will be reflected by the individual’s location

to, and relationship with, the subject under investi-

gation. People experience the world with their body

and their mind. Thus understanding personal

experiences of a phenomenon is assisted by first

person accounts about the lived experience of the

phenomenon under study. The researcher may only

know these states by interpreting signs and features,

or obtaining descriptions of the study subject from

the person experiencing the phenomenon. Such

knowledge relies on how the person represents their

experience and the emotions, values, attitudes andinterests the phenomenon holds for that person. In

many instances this knowledge is tacit, unspoken

and highly intuitive.

Those who have more information about the phe-

nomenon under study are likely to interact and react

to the phenomenon in different ways than those who

come from a position of ignorance. People will form

various beliefs about the phenomenon and these will

be influenced by their prior experiences, values and

belief systems, and their prior knowledge of the phe-

nomenon under study. The varying places in which

the person stands in relation to other inquirers also

affects their access to necessary information about

the phenomenon and their capacity to communicate

about the phenomena to other people. This position

may have an impact upon their judgement regarding

what is significant or otherwise regarding the study

subject. So we can see that how a person is situated

affects their understanding of their experience

and/or the phenomenon under study. The incredible

diversity of individual people’s lives and personal

experience necessitate the need for multiple and

flexible approaches to research. Feminist knowledge

emerges from an exploration and unpacking of

each person’s terms of reference, which are evolvingunderstandings.

Feminist approaches to research enable one’s

personal perspectives to surface (Chinn 2003). The

researcher’s epistemology is shaped by the life

experiences she or he brings to the research as well

36 Section 1 Approaches to Research

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as the influences of the many voices and conversa-

tions within feminism. As researchers, our assump-

tions and values underpin the research process. It isimportant to identify them prior to embarking on

research and during the research process. The chal-

lenge for us is ‘to develop a kind of self reflexivity

that will enable us to look closely at our own practice

in terms of how we contribute to dominance in spite

of our liberatory intentions’ (Lather 1991, p. 150).

Feminism is not a set of rules, methods and ideas

(Lumby 1997) but is a perspective that may inform

and guide the way we live. Hence feminism

challenges us to be accountable for congruence

between our thought and our behaviour (Maguire

1996). Locating one’s feminism, and one’s personalepistemology, is a dynamic process involving reflec-

tion and a critical consciousness. Feminist research is

not an intellectual exercise guided by theory, but is

passionate, political, participatory and personal. Femi-

nist principles are intimately connected to our lives;

hence knowing our world through a feminist lens has

implications for how we live and work, and whether

we engage in feminist research (Maguire 1996).

Diverse feminist positions have evolved over time

(Olesen 1994). The historical context and develop-

ment of the arguments that constitute feminist the-

ory are important for gaining a sense of where we

have been and how we have arrived at this point.

Theoretical history has meaning and purpose in con-

necting the old to the new as it allows us to record

advances and lay the foundation for advancing

inquiry. Many gains made for women can be attribu-

ted to the feminist movement. One example is the

movement against domestic violence. Until femi-

nism, there had been no acknowledgement of domes-

tic violence, no legal avenues and support for women

and no supported accommodation/sheltered hous-

ing. During the 1970s, feminist groups funded shel-

ters, but the government, police, and media paid

little attention to violence within the family, eventhough violence continues to be one of the most per-

vasive health and social issues facing women world-

wide. In 2006 there is funded supported

accommodation in our cities, improving public

awareness based on long-term media campaigns

against domestic violence, reformed laws and police

practices, and altered legislative strategies aimed at

contesting violence against women and children.

Feminist principles in researchCommon to the various feminist theoretical orien-

tation is the notion of patriarchal power relations

that oppress women where women’s interests or

social positions are subordinate to men (Speedy

1991). Although there are many forms of feminist

thought, there are also shared aspects. A femi-

nist worldview sensitises researchers to consider

voice, that is who is being heard and who is being

excluded. It is also of central importance to exploreand understand the context and lives of people

participating in research by understanding power

relations and how those play out in individual

experiences of help-seeking (Crotty 1998). In so

doing, however, a feminist perspective refrains

from perpetuating the view of the ‘woman as vic-

tim’ of their circumstances; instead it celebrates

diversity and varied strengths (Maguire 1996).

Chinn and Wheeler (1985, p. 76) explain this charac-

teristic of feminist research:

A feminist perspective does not seek to romanti-

cise or idealise these women, but rather to developinsights that allow us to appreciate their struggles,

understand their limitations and see their joys and

their pains as similar to ours.

The diverse feminist theories hold differing per-

spectives about the forces that oppress women, and

consequently advocate different ways by which

justice (via action and change) may be achieved

(Kolmar & Bartkowski 2000). Feminist theory

aims to transform women’s lived experiences and

women’s participation in the construction of

new possibilities (Smith 1991). A woman-centred

approach is fundamental to feminist research, withthe aim of illuminating the life context and experi-

ences of women, grounded by their frame of

reference, experiences and language (DuBois 1985,

Speedy 1991). This thinking develops through a

critical awareness of experiences, values, ideologies

Chapter 4 Feminist Research 37

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and goals. It is through this awareness that con-

sciousness raising and action becomes possible as

women learn to view the world through a criticallens and contradictions in their lives become illumi-

nated. Some ‘common threads in feminism’ (Maguire

1996, p. 107) have been identified as:

n acknowledgement that women face oppression

and exploitation;

n women experience their oppressions, struggles

and strengths in diverse ways;n a commitment to reveal the forces that cause and

sustain oppression;

n a commitment to working with women (individu-

ally and collectively) towards action that will chal-

lenge and change oppressive structures and forces.

The intent of feminist principles is to encourage

women to take action to develop new structures

or reshape existing forces so that women can ‘live

out new ways of being in relationship with the

world’ (Maguire 1996, p. 108).

Feminist inquiry has often been conceptualised as

research for women and with women rather than

research on women (Campbell & Bunting 1991, Hall

& Stevens 1991, Olesen 1994, Scharbo-DeHaan

1994, Webb 1993). Feminism focuses on the way-

women are represented, and the way in which knowl-

edge is constructed (Griffiths 1995, Maynard &Purvis 1994). Feminist research has revealed that,

while most knowledge has been generated and

defined by males, the perspective they espouse is

not the only one and not always appropriate (Speedy

1991). The experiences of men are not the experi-

ences of women, nor are the experiences of women

homogeneous. Feminists have challenged not only

the view of the way knowledge is produced but

also whose view the research represents. Feminist

principles in research are political, transformative

and transparent and therefore used where the aim

of the research is to create change (Jackson 1997).It is important that feminist research extends

further than the creation of knowledge to have a

commitment to social justice (Drevdahl 1999) and

social change that will serve to enhance the lives

of women (Hall & Stevens 1991).

Speedy (1991, p. 201) identified three main

principles that inform feminist research. They are:

n recognition that women are oppressed, and

that the reasons for oppression need to be exam-

ined so that action can be taken and changes

made;

n valuing of women’s experiences; and

n consciousness-raising that results in alternative

views of the world from a woman’s perspective.

Consciousness-raising involves the recognition of

social, political, economic and personal constraints

on freedom, and is the forum in which decisions

of actions are made that will challenge those

constraints and initiate change (Henderson 1995).

Consciousness-raising allows women the opportu-

nity to view the world in a different way.

Consciousness-raising is when:

. . . women experience a shared sense of reality

and a shared sense of oppression; they become

conscious of their problems as group problems

rather than as their own individual problems

(Henderson 1995, p. 63).

In feminist research, the questions that are asked

and the research focus are as important as the data

generated. Questions focus on exploring women’s

perceptions and feelings, and experiences are val-ued and made visible (Bowes 1996, Crowley & Him-

melweit 1992, Lather 1988 and 1991, Puwar 1997). It

is important that the words ‘feminism’ or ‘feminist’

are used in the research and that feminist literature

is cited (Chinn 2003). The research process ensures

a balance of power in the relationship between

researcher and researched, and consciousness-

raising is used as a methodological tool to empower

women participants (Bowes 1996, Millen 1997,

Punwar 1997, Webb 1993). The research is reported

in a way that the reader becomes engaged with

women’s experiences (Chinn 2003) and the researchfindings are made available to those who participated

in the generation of data. It is also important that the

research findings are disseminated widely to women

so that the findings can be incorporated into their

lives (Webb 1993). Participants are involved in all


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aspects of the research; hence it is important that

researchers consider ways of ending the research so

that participants are unharmed and the benefits of the research can be sustained. It is fundamentally

important that feminist research also attempts to

bring about progressive change in the interests of

women.

Feminist theory can guide nurses to explore

issues that are relevant to women and nursing, and

yet a review of the literature will reveal that in

comparison with the total amount of nursing

research that is published, the contribution from

feminist research is relatively small. Drevdahl

(1999) called for nursing research and the develop-

ment of nursing theories to extend further than thecreation of knowledge and have social justice as their

goal. Ford-Gilboe and Campbell (1996, p. 173) were

also concerned with a narrow focus of feminist

nursing research:

Feminist research not only studies women and

women’s experience within the social context, but

it also seeks to help women deal with the issues

that are revealed as part of the process. Both the

knowledge gained and the research process itself

may serve as vehicles for creating social change

that enhances lives of women.

A feminist perspective in nursing research can chal-lenge the medical dominance over health care consu-

mers and create a consciousness raising that is

necessary to plan and implement change (Drevdahl

1999, Speedy 1991). Feminism provides a framework

by which differences such as gender and culture may

be incorporated into the design of nursing research.

Jackson (1997) contends that feminism is an openly

political and transformative process; hence feminist

principles can be used in research where the aim is

to catalyse changes in nursing practice.

Case study on the use of feminist research principlesThe purpose of this section is to demonstrate how

feminist principles (shown in italics) can guide

nursing research. We illustrate using a research

study that aimed to promote the capacity of adult

women survivors of child sexual abuse (CSA) who

had become addicted to alcohol and/or drugs andsubsequently become homeless (van Loon & Kralik

2005a, 2005b and 2005c). Through the research pro-

cess that spanned 2 years, women participants gen-

erated personal resources that enabled them to

move into a healthier and more life-affirming future.

The intention was to develop a programme that

facilitated change through action and to disseminate

that programme in the form of resources that were

sustainable and transferable to similar service

settings. The resources increase understanding of the

issues impacting women survivors of CSA, and those

with alcohol, drug and gambling misuse problems asthey transition their past and move toward self-man-

agement. The resources aim to promote personal

capacity for this community group and service pro-

vider capacity to provide more appropriate responses

to the needs that these women have identified.

Feminist research considers how the social

position of the knower affects what and how they

understand. A person’s social location is culturally

endorsed by such attributes as gender , race, ethnicity,

family relationships, social status, roles and positions.

These attributes are shaped into a social identity that

affords the person power and status. This identity is

subject to sociocultural norms which prescribe the

responsibilities, qualities, behaviours, feelings and

life-skills which the society believes are proper for

that role. The women in this study on child sexual

abuse experienced significant social dislocation, as

this woman explains:

My Mum used to say to me, ‘You’ve always been

weird. You’re strange.’ The strangeness came

from seeing the dislike in her face and reacting

to it. I developed another identity. I did it to save

myself from being hurt. I’ve had severe beatings

and stood up and said, ‘Yeah, come on, go again!’

Even though it was killing me inside. I was hurting

so much and crying within. It’s the face you put on

to pretend it doesn’t matter, so you can survive

emotionally. I think inside all of us there’s a little

grain of hope that wants to keep trying to save


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the relationship all the time. There’s a little spark

that keeps waiting and hoping to find a connec-

tion. (van Loon & Kralik 2005c, p. 38)

The groups included women from culturally diverse

backgrounds: Indigenous Australians; women from

fragmented families – homeless due to violence;

and women struggling with addictions. These

women were positioned by society as problematic

and less worthy citizens. The women recognised

their ‘difference’, being fully aware that they did

not fit the status and roles of ‘normal’ members of

our community. They had always felt different, as

this woman illustrates:

I was very quiet. I did a lot of reading, it was myescape. I didn’t get along with other kids, because I

was very shy. I was often sick. No one was allowed

to come to my place, not that I would have invited

them anyway. I never went to anyone’s house either.

I didn’t trust anyone becauseit wasn’t safe to do that.

I was tormented at schoolbecause I was different . . . I

got used to it . . . I was everyone’s scapegoat at home

and at school. I was just different so I learnt to shut

up so I was noticed less. I stopped speaking because

that meant less trouble for me. (van Loon & Kralik

2005c, p. 39).

Most had accepted a position of ‘less than’ and

always ‘wanting’. They affirmed the norms that

went with labels such as ‘homeless’ and ‘addict’,

viewing themselves as incapable of changing their

circumstances. They had been typecast and margin-

alised by mainstream society as a group who were

wasting valuable resources. This common under-

standing and its concomitant oppressive fate had to

be challenged if it was to be overcome, then change

may be possible (van Loon et al 2004).

The research partnership was a South Austra-

lian community nursing organisation and an organ-

isation that facilitates emergency and transitionalsupported accommodation, plus a range of service

providers to women with complex health and social

needs. The main stakeholder groups (women and

services) were bought together in discrete groups

between 2003 and 2005 using a participatory action

research process. We documented the process and

articulated the outcomes, so that both would be

transferable to other settings.The need to work with women to develop capacity

was important. Over 93% of the women coming

through the supported accommodation had experi-

enced the trauma of childsexual abuse and as a result,

some had used drugs, alcohol and gambling to man-

age their emotional and physical suffering (van Loon

& Kralik 2005a). Thus it was essential that the

research method employed built capacity while

providing a degree of liberation from this oppressive

state. Feminist inquiries seek to understand oppres-

sion in social groups, and via this understanding,

transform that situation. The commitment to femi-nism was one motivation for this research; thus

research and action could not be separated. The

unashamed goal of emancipatory inquiries is social

change that surfaces oppressive processes so they can

be overcome (Freire 1970). Both the research process

and the research outcomes must meet this objective.

Thus participatory action research was deemed the

most appropriate method to meet these goals.

This research took a feminist standpoint by

representing the experience of child sexual abuse

from the perspective of the women CSA survivors,

giving epistemic privilege and authority to their

voices. Thus the subject matter generated remained

in the participants’ control . The language used was

theirs so we could accurately describe and represent

the truth of their experience. We sought to under-

stand their current social location, role, and the sub-

jective identity resulting from labels such as

‘homeless’, ‘unemployed’, ‘abused’, ‘addict’ etc. It

was important to privilege the women’s voices if we

were to gain a reliable understanding of what was

required to help these women transition their strug-

gles and their oppressed social position. The goal

was to understand the realities of experiences con-

structed by this particular group of women, withthe emphasis being on the context in which their

lives were lived. In this way, the research was

grounded in the actual experiences of the women

and was therefore able to raise the consciousness of

the women who participated. Their understanding


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was illuminated through the processes of reflecting on

and describing their lives, as this participant notes:

I have been here for six months and in that time I

kind of believe the hardened shell I had around me

about talking about these things has cracked a bit.

It was really hard to speak about my life at first,

but since the shell cracked, it has been a real

release of a lot of pain and pressure within me.

(van Loon & Kralik 2005c, p. 8).

These women were disadvantaged, experiencing fun-

damental disruption in their lives that drove them to

misusealcohol,addictive substances and/or gambling.

If we only heard from the service providers’standpoint

we would not understand the strengths and humanpotential present in these women. We would gain a

superficial understanding of their experience. Privile-

ging the standpoint of the women represents their

understandings as socially contingent and allows the

women to consider actions they can take to overcome

their situation. We took the perspective that every

woman was the expert of her experience and she knew

what she needed to facilitate her healing. We believed

and accepted that each woman’s story was true and

sought to validate her experiences, empowering her to

work with the strengths in her story.

Our research used a participatory perspectivewhere we aimed to help women reflect on past experi-

ences and current issues in their lives, making

connections between past and present in their life

story. Finally, each woman was invited to action

change that might move her toward her preferred

future. We did not engineer discussion to a prefixed

agenda, although we did seek clarification on

discussion to unpack issues as they surfaced. This

was done to facilitate understanding. We did not

psycho-pathologise the women’s addiction/s, or any

other behaviour they may have used to cope with their

life situations. Instead we viewed these as responses

that enabled survival at that time. Through dialogue,

perspectives shift, as these women note:

I don’t think the reasons for using have disappeared;

they will always be there; but the way I have storied

those within my head has changed. I think what I

used to treat with contempt, rebellion and anger

haschanged into something else. I have become more

patient and compassionate with myself and others.(Van Loon & Kralik 2005c, p. 18)

I couldn’t get emotionally close to anybody. It

was like my body would just switch off and I’d just

be there, but you know I might as well have been

doing something else. Now it’s starting to feel like

my body’s coming back to me and all my emotions

and everything’s coming together in a more man-

ageable way. (van Loon & Kralik 2005c, p. 31)

As a group, we discussed issues raised by the

women and these were fed back in written form

after each meeting for reflection and considered action. We listened for what was being said and

what was not being said. We paid particular atten-

tion to power constructions, gendered understand-

ings, choices – or lack thereof, and the practices

and structures sustaining reactions and choices.

We looked carefully for barriers and enablers that

impacted upon each woman’s capacity to act. This

was their story so we tried to faithfully represent

their issues to the service providers for their action.

This service provider speaks about how that pro-

cess can initiate changes to practice:

I have noticed improvement in my own approachto working with young people. I am changing the

way I do assessments (actually considering CSA

questions as part of assessment) since I have been

partaking in this group. This is due to my height-

ened awareness. (van Loon & Kralik 2005c, p. 58)

Feminist research says participants are the owners

of their story and as such material must be critiqued

and validated by the participants. This occurred at

every stage of this research process up to publica-

tion. It did add workload and expense to the project,

which is a challenge in today’s competitive funding

environment. As researchers we did author and col-late the work, but the women owned the final prod-

uct with great pride as their work. They could look

back on the process and see how they had shifted

to a position of more personal power, as this woman

notes:


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What makes up you makes up me, but in different

degrees. Everyone has strengths and weaknesses.

With the new knowledge I gain, I can build anew sense of who I am – a new beginning each

day – always changing, always becoming. I am

more than the sum of what happened to me as a

child. Much, much more! I am only just beginning

to see the real me, and I think I like what I see!

(van Loon & Kralik 2005c, p. 86)

ConclusionFeminist research acknowledges that most women

face some form of oppression and exploitation.

Women experience their oppression, struggles and

strengths in various ways because of their diverse

realities and their identities as women. Within thiscontext of diversity, feminist research celebrates

the practical and informs the theoretical. Under-

standing and knowledge gained from feminist

research approaches are more than theory or

description; they are based on women making

sense of their own lives and facilitating collective

action to change their social situation.

EXERCISES

Consider the following questions:

1. Where can feminist theory be identified or located in nursing?2. What is ‘theory’?3. What is the subject or focus of ‘feminist theory’ – women? What women?4. What are the goal(s) or role(s) of feminist theory and feminist research?

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