Chapter 11 Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach

Chapter 11Chapter 11

Sustaining Terrestrial Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: The Biodiversity: The

Ecosystem ApproachEcosystem Approach

If trout survives in pH 7-9, what H ion If trout survives in pH 7-9, what H ion does this represent?does this represent?

1 X 101 X 10-7-7 to 1 X 10 to 1 X 10-9-9

Core Case Study: Core Case Study: Reintroducing Wolves to YellowstoneReintroducing Wolves to Yellowstone

Endangered SpeciesEndangered Species 1850-1900 two million 1850-1900 two million

wolves were destroyed.wolves were destroyed. Keystone SpeciesKeystone Species

Keeps prey away from open Keeps prey away from open areas near stream banks.areas near stream banks.

Vegetation reestablishes.Vegetation reestablishes. Species diversity expands.Species diversity expands.

Figure 10-1Figure 10-1

Why should we care about biodiversity?Why should we care about biodiversity? Biodiversity helps maintain ecosystem Biodiversity helps maintain ecosystem

function and ecosystem servicesfunction and ecosystem services Biodiversity enhances food securityBiodiversity enhances food security Diverse organisms provide drugs and Diverse organisms provide drugs and

medicinesmedicines Biodiversity generates economic benefits Biodiversity generates economic benefits

through tourism and recreationthrough tourism and recreation

Why Should We Care About Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?Biodiversity?

Use ValueUse Value: For the : For the usefulness in terms usefulness in terms of economic and of economic and ecological services, ecological services, instrumental value instrumental value Nonuse ValueNonuse Value: : existence, aesthetics, existence, aesthetics, intrinsic or existence intrinsic or existence value, bequest for value, bequest for future generations.future generations.


What is conservation biology? What is conservation biology?

The scientific discipline devoted to The scientific discipline devoted to understanding the factors, forces, and understanding the factors, forces, and processes that influence the loss, protection, processes that influence the loss, protection, and restoration of biological diversity within and restoration of biological diversity within and among ecosystems and among ecosystems

What are hot spots?What are hot spots?

The most endangered and species rich The most endangered and species rich ecosystems. ecosystems.

MANAGING AND SUSTAINING MANAGING AND SUSTAINING FORESTSFORESTS

Forests provide a Forests provide a number of ecological number of ecological and economic services and economic services that researchers have that researchers have attempted to estimate attempted to estimate their total monetary their total monetary value.value.


What are the four principles that biologists and What are the four principles that biologists and environmentalists advocate concerning the environmentalists advocate concerning the management of public lands.management of public lands.

1)1) The primary goal should be protecting The primary goal should be protecting biodiversity and wildlife.biodiversity and wildlife.

2)2) Subsidies/tax breaks should not go to Subsidies/tax breaks should not go to anyone who takes resources from public anyone who takes resources from public lands.lands.

3)3) Fair compensation should come to Fair compensation should come to Americans from use of these lands.Americans from use of these lands.

4)4) Users/ extractors on public land should Users/ extractors on public land should pay for environmental damage they cause.pay for environmental damage they cause.

Has the government followed these Has the government followed these guidelines?guidelines?

In recent years, the government has given In recent years, the government has given more than $1 billion a year in subsidies to more than $1 billion a year in subsidies to privately owned mining, logging, and grazing privately owned mining, logging, and grazing interests using public lands.interests using public lands.

What other laws are special interest groups What other laws are special interest groups fighting for? fighting for?

Types of ForestsTypes of Forests

Old-growth forestOld-growth forest: uncut : uncut or regenerated forest that or regenerated forest that has not been seriously has not been seriously disturbed for several disturbed for several hundred years.hundred years. 22% of world’s forest.22% of world’s forest. Hosts many species with Hosts many species with

specialized niches.specialized niches.


Types of ForestsTypes of Forests

Second-growth forestSecond-growth forest: a stand of trees : a stand of trees resulting from natural secondary succession.resulting from natural secondary succession.

Tree plantationTree plantation: planted stands of a : planted stands of a particular tree species.particular tree species.


The earth’s forests have been reduced 20-The earth’s forests have been reduced 20-50% and this % is still growing TODAY50% and this % is still growing TODAY

If conditions do not change in the next 10-20 If conditions do not change in the next 10-20 years, 40% of the world’s remaining forests years, 40% of the world’s remaining forests will have been logged.will have been logged.

Case Study: Deforestation and the Case Study: Deforestation and the Fuelwood CrisisFuelwood Crisis

Almost half the people in the developing Almost half the people in the developing world face a shortage of fuelwood and world face a shortage of fuelwood and charcoal.charcoal. In Haiti, 98% of country is deforested.In Haiti, 98% of country is deforested. MIT scientist has found a way to make charcoal MIT scientist has found a way to make charcoal

from spent sugarcane.from spent sugarcane.

Harvesting TreesHarvesting Trees

Building roads into previously inaccessible Building roads into previously inaccessible forests paves the way for fragmentation, forests paves the way for fragmentation, destruction, and degradation.destruction, and degradation.



Trees can be harvested Trees can be harvested individually from diverse individually from diverse forests (selective cutting), forests (selective cutting), an entire forest can be cut an entire forest can be cut down (clear cutting), or down (clear cutting), or portions of the forest is portions of the forest is harvested (e.g. strip harvested (e.g. strip cutting).cutting).



Effects of clear-cutting in the Effects of clear-cutting in the state of Washington, U.S.state of Washington, U.S.

Figures 10-10 and 10-11Figures 10-10 and 10-11

Three types of fires affect forest ecosystems Three types of fires affect forest ecosystems

1)1) Surface fires- burn underbrush, burn leaf Surface fires- burn underbrush, burn leaf litter, and most seedlings, but most wildlife litter, and most seedlings, but most wildlife survivesurvive

2)2) Crown fires- extremely hot and leap from Crown fires- extremely hot and leap from treetop to treetoptreetop to treetop

3)3) Ground fires- most common in northern Ground fires- most common in northern peat bogs where they go underground and peat bogs where they go underground and burn decaying matterburn decaying matter

Solutions: Solutions: Controversy Over Fire ManagementControversy Over Fire Management In 2003, U.S. Congress passed the In 2003, U.S. Congress passed the Healthy Healthy

Forest Restoration ActForest Restoration Act:: Allows timber companies to cut medium and Allows timber companies to cut medium and

large trees in 71% of the national forests.large trees in 71% of the national forests. In return, must clear away smaller, more fire-In return, must clear away smaller, more fire-

prone trees and underbrush.prone trees and underbrush. Some forest scientists believe this could increase Some forest scientists believe this could increase

severe fires by removing fire resistant trees and severe fires by removing fire resistant trees and leaving highly flammable slash.leaving highly flammable slash.

The most common use of trees worldwide is asThe most common use of trees worldwide is as

a.a. Pulp in paper productionPulp in paper production

b.b. Lumber for buildingLumber for building

c.c. FuelwoodFuelwood

d.d. Raw material in the manufacture of various Raw material in the manufacture of various syntheticssynthetics

e.e. MedicinesMedicines

Forests remove ___ from and add ___ to the Forests remove ___ from and add ___ to the atmosphere.atmosphere.

a.a. Nitrogen …… oxygenNitrogen …… oxygen

b.b. Oxygen …… nitrogenOxygen …… nitrogen

c.c. Carbon dioxide …… oxygenCarbon dioxide …… oxygen

d.d. Oxygen …… carbon dioxideOxygen …… carbon dioxide

e.e. Carbon dioxide …… sulfur dioxideCarbon dioxide …… sulfur dioxide

Which of the following is a commercially used Which of the following is a commercially used method for harvesting trees and is most method for harvesting trees and is most likely to lead to fragmented landscape with likely to lead to fragmented landscape with serious impacts on biodiversity?serious impacts on biodiversity?

a.a. Selective cuttingSelective cutting

b.b. Clear-cuttingClear-cutting

c.c. Shelter-wood cuttingShelter-wood cutting

d.d. Slash and burn clearingSlash and burn clearing

e.e. GleaningGleaning

Which of the following is the best illustration of Which of the following is the best illustration of the tragedy of the commons?the tragedy of the commons?

a.a. Depletion of fishing stocks in the North Depletion of fishing stocks in the North AtlanticAtlantic

b.b. Collective farming of white grapes in Collective farming of white grapes in communities in Francecommunities in France

c.c. Using National Forests for wood production Using National Forests for wood production and harvestingand harvesting

d.d. Allocation of all nuclear wastes to one site Allocation of all nuclear wastes to one site in Nevadain Nevada

e.e. Agreements among western ranchers to Agreements among western ranchers to jointly manage common grazing landjointly manage common grazing land

The largest area of old-growth forest in the The largest area of old-growth forest in the U.S. is located inU.S. is located in

a.a. CaliforniaCalifornia

b.b. MontanaMontana

c.c. AlaskaAlaska

d.d. MichiganMichigan

e.e. North CarolinaNorth Carolina

If an area was originally forested and then If an area was originally forested and then underwent urban development, which of the underwent urban development, which of the following shows the most likely effect on various following shows the most likely effect on various parts of the water cycle in the area?parts of the water cycle in the area?

Evaporation & Evaporation & TranspirationTranspiration

RunoffRunoff Groundwater Groundwater RechargeRecharge

AA

BB

CC

DD

EE

A field is abandoned and an invasive plant that can A field is abandoned and an invasive plant that can live in nutrient-poor soil moves into the field. If the live in nutrient-poor soil moves into the field. If the land is later cleared of this invasive species and it land is later cleared of this invasive species and it is discovered that the soil has an abundance of is discovered that the soil has an abundance of nitrogen compounds, what conclusion can best be nitrogen compounds, what conclusion can best be made?made?

a.a. The plants used up all of the phosphorus and The plants used up all of the phosphorus and potassium and left nitrogen behindpotassium and left nitrogen behind

b.b. Primary succession always produces an Primary succession always produces an abundance of nitrogenabundance of nitrogen

c.c. Bacteria in soil and root nodules converted free Bacteria in soil and root nodules converted free nitrogen into nitrogen compoundsnitrogen into nitrogen compounds

d.d. The plants were able to produce nitrogen in their The plants were able to produce nitrogen in their leavesleaves

e.e. More rock was weathered and broke down to More rock was weathered and broke down to release nitrogen compounds release nitrogen compounds

APES students will evaluate the rules APES students will evaluate the rules associated with various federal land associated with various federal land designations and the current strategies being designations and the current strategies being used to protect important ecosystems in used to protect important ecosystems in order to defend a proposal for the usage of a order to defend a proposal for the usage of a parcel of land. parcel of land.

CASE STUDY: TROPICAL CASE STUDY: TROPICAL DEFORESTATIONDEFORESTATION

At least half of the At least half of the world’s terrestrial world’s terrestrial plant and animal plant and animal species live in species live in tropical rain forests.tropical rain forests.

Large areas of Large areas of tropical forest are tropical forest are burned to make way burned to make way for cattle ranches for cattle ranches and crops.and crops.


Why Should We Care about the Loss Why Should We Care about the Loss of Tropical Forests?of Tropical Forests?

About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests.forests. Figure 10-18Figure 10-18

What can be done to reduce deforestation?What can be done to reduce deforestation?

1)1) Help settlers learn methods to practice Help settlers learn methods to practice small-scale sustainable agriculturesmall-scale sustainable agriculture

2)2) Harvest sustainable fruits and nut from the Harvest sustainable fruits and nut from the rainforestrainforest

3)3) Use dept-for-nature swapsUse dept-for-nature swaps

4)4) Develop an international system for Develop an international system for certifying tropical timber is produced by certifying tropical timber is produced by sustainable methodssustainable methods

5)5) Governments and individuals can reforestGovernments and individuals can reforest

Kenya’s Green Belt Movement:Kenya’s Green Belt Movement:Individuals MatterIndividuals Matter

Wangari Maathai Wangari Maathai founded the Green Belt founded the Green Belt Movement.Movement.

The main goal is to The main goal is to organize poor women to organize poor women to plant (for fuelwood) and plant (for fuelwood) and protect millions of trees.protect millions of trees.

In 2004, awarded Nobel In 2004, awarded Nobel peace prize.peace prize.

Figure 10-10AFigure 10-10A

MANAGING AND MANAGING AND SUSTAINING SUSTAINING

GRASSLANDSGRASSLANDS

Almost half of the world’s livestock graze on Almost half of the world’s livestock graze on natural grasslands (rangelands) and managed natural grasslands (rangelands) and managed grasslands (pastures).grasslands (pastures).

We can sustain rangeland productivity by We can sustain rangeland productivity by controlling the number and distribution of livestock controlling the number and distribution of livestock and by restoring degraded rangeland.and by restoring degraded rangeland.

MANAGING AND SUSTAINING MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDSGRASSLANDS

Example of restored area along the San Example of restored area along the San Pedro River in Arizona after 10 years of Pedro River in Arizona after 10 years of banning grazing and off-road vehicles.banning grazing and off-road vehicles.


NATIONAL PARKSNATIONAL PARKS Worldwide ~ 1,100 national parks, Worldwide ~ 1,100 national parks,

but most are threatened by human but most are threatened by human activities.activities. Local people invade park for Local people invade park for

wood, cropland, and other wood, cropland, and other natural resources.natural resources.

Loggers, miners, and wildlife Loggers, miners, and wildlife poachers also deplete natural poachers also deplete natural resources.resources.

Many are too small to sustain Many are too small to sustain large-animal species.large-animal species.

Many suffer from invasive Many suffer from invasive species.species.

NATURE RESERVESNATURE RESERVES Ecologists call for protecting more land to help Ecologists call for protecting more land to help

sustain biodiversity, but opposition existssustain biodiversity, but opposition exists

Reserves protect Reserves protect biodiversity and can be biodiversity and can be connected by corridors.connected by corridors.

Costa Rica has 8 Costa Rica has 8 megareserves designed to megareserves designed to sustain 80% if its sustain 80% if its biodiversity.biodiversity.

34 hotspots identified by ecologists as important and 34 hotspots identified by ecologists as important and endangered centers of biodiversity.endangered centers of biodiversity.


NATURE RESERVESNATURE RESERVES

Wilderness is land legally set aside in a large Wilderness is land legally set aside in a large enough area to prevent or minimize harm enough area to prevent or minimize harm from human activities.from human activities.

Only a small percentage of the land area of Only a small percentage of the land area of the United States has been protected as the United States has been protected as wilderness.wilderness.

ECOLOGICAL RESTORATIONECOLOGICAL RESTORATION

RestorationRestoration: trying to return to a condition as : trying to return to a condition as similar as possible to original state.similar as possible to original state.

RehabilitationRehabilitation: attempting to turn a : attempting to turn a degraded ecosystem back to being degraded ecosystem back to being functional.functional.

ReplacementReplacement: replacing a degraded : replacing a degraded ecosystem with another type of ecosystem.ecosystem with another type of ecosystem.

Creating artificial ecosystemsCreating artificial ecosystems: such as : such as artificial wetlands for flood reduction and artificial wetlands for flood reduction and sewage treatment.sewage treatment.

Most commercial logging today takes place inMost commercial logging today takes place in

a.a. EuropeEurope

b.b. Canada, Russia, and BrazilCanada, Russia, and Brazil

c.c. The U.S.The U.S.

d.d. Australia and IndonesiaAustralia and Indonesia

e.e. Mexico and Indonesia Mexico and Indonesia

Wilderness areas _____Wilderness areas _____

a.a. Allow hunting as long as proper permits are Allow hunting as long as proper permits are acquiredacquired

b.b. Are off-limits to development of any kindAre off-limits to development of any kind

c.c. Were set-up under the George W. Bush Were set-up under the George W. Bush administrationadministration

d.d. Were set-up under the wise-use movement Were set-up under the wise-use movement of the 1980s of the 1980s

e.e. Include Yellowstone in WyomingInclude Yellowstone in Wyoming

Second-growth forests ____.Second-growth forests ____.a.a. Are those forests in the National Parks that Are those forests in the National Parks that

are protected from logging.are protected from logging.b.b. Include much of the rainforests in Costa Include much of the rainforests in Costa

Rica.Rica.c.c. In North America are mostly in British In North America are mostly in British

Columbia and AlaskaColumbia and Alaskad.d. Are forests that establish themselves after Are forests that establish themselves after

virgin timber has been removed from an virgin timber has been removed from an area.area.

e.e. Are less abundant on Earth today than they Are less abundant on Earth today than they were 500 years ago.were 500 years ago.

The Healthy Forests Restoration Act ____ The Healthy Forests Restoration Act ____ national forest land.national forest land.

a.a. Was passed in 1976 with the intent to Was passed in 1976 with the intent to ensure multiple use and sustainable yield ofensure multiple use and sustainable yield of

b.b. Restricts the use of snowmobiles onRestricts the use of snowmobiles onc.c. Offers subsidies to timber companies if they Offers subsidies to timber companies if they

replant areas inreplant areas ind.d. Was passed to set up the formation of land Was passed to set up the formation of land

trusts ontrusts one.e. Directs timber companies to remove small Directs timber companies to remove small

trees, underbrush, and dead trees to reduce trees, underbrush, and dead trees to reduce fires infires in

Which of the following gave the president Which of the following gave the president authority to declare selected public lands as authority to declare selected public lands as national monuments?national monuments?

a.a. The Homesteaders ActThe Homesteaders Act

b.b. The Swampland ActThe Swampland Act

c.c. The Wilderness ActThe Wilderness Act

d.d. The Antiquities ActThe Antiquities Act

e.e. The National Parks ActThe National Parks Act

In certain biomes a wetter-than-normal winter In certain biomes a wetter-than-normal winter often leads to greater severity of fires the often leads to greater severity of fires the following summer. This seeming paradox following summer. This seeming paradox occurs because increased rain leads to occurs because increased rain leads to

a.a. Higher pollination rates of annual flowersHigher pollination rates of annual flowers

b.b. Greater accumulation of chaparral biomassGreater accumulation of chaparral biomass

c.c. Greater recreational use of parklandsGreater recreational use of parklands

d.d. Greater erosion and damage of access Greater erosion and damage of access roadsroads

e.e. Decreased summer rainfall Decreased summer rainfall

Which of the following is the most dangerous Which of the following is the most dangerous type of fire?type of fire?

a.a. SurfaceSurface

b.b. CrownCrown

c.c. PrescribedPrescribed

d.d. GroundGround

e.e. CoolCool

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Chapter 11 Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach